THE  MIKA^ 


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BOOK    952.0875    c.  1 
GRIFFIS    #   MIKADOS   EMPIRE 


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Deliveiauce  of  the  iloly  baiuL  NicLireu  from  the  Execuliouyr  of  RojO.—lFage  105. 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE 


BY 


WILLIAM   ELLIOT   GKIFFIS,  A.M. 

FORMERLY  OP  THE  IMPERIAL  UNIVERSITY  OF  TOKIO,  JAPAN 


Book  L— HISTORY  OF  JAPAN 
FROM  660  B.C.  TO  1872  A.D. 
Book  II.  —  PERSONAL  EXPERI- 
ENCES, OBSERVATIONS,  AND 
STUDIES    IN    JAPAN,   1870-1874 


EIGHTH  EDITION 

WITH  SUPPLEMENTARY  CHAPTERS 

INCLUDING  THE  LATE  WAR  WITH  CHINA 


NEW   YORK 

HARPER    k    BROTHER^    FRANKLIN    SQUARE 

1895 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1876,  by 

HARPER   &  BROTHERS, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Wasliington. 

Copyright,  1883,  1886,  1890,  1894,  and  1895,  by 
Harper  &  Brothers. 

All  rights  reserved. 


TO 


JAPANESE    LOVERS    OF    KNOWLEDGE    IN    EVERY    AGE  : 

THE    DEAD, 
M-HO    FIRST    KINDLED    THE    SACRED    FIRE,   WHO    PASSED    ON    THE    TORCH; 

THE     MARTYRS, 

WHO    SUFFERED    DEATH     FOR    THEIR     LOYALTY,    PATRIOTISM,   DEVOTION     TO     NATIONAL 

UNITY,   RESTORATION,   AND    REGENERATION; 

THE    STUDENTS, 
WHO,  IN  NOBLE  THIRST  FOR  TRUTH,  FOUND  HONORED  GRAVES  IN  ALIEN  SOIL  ; 

THE    LIVING, 
WITH  WHOM   RESTS   THE  FUTURE  OF  THEIR   BEAUTIFUL   LAND, 

THIS   SKETCH 

OF   THEIR  COUNTRY  AND   PEOPLE,  MADE    IN  THE  INTEREST  OF  TRUTH,  AND 

SET     DOWN     WITHOUT     EXTENUATION     OR     MALICE,    IS, 

WITH    FRATERNAL    REGARD, 

DEDICATED 

BY    THEIR    COMRADE    AND    FRIEND, 

THE  AUTHOR. 


PREFACE 


Japan,  once  in  the  far-off  Orient,  is  now  our  nearest  Western  neigh- 
bor. Her  people  walk  our  streets ;  her  youth  sit,  peers  and  rivals  of 
our  students,  in  the  class-room ;  her  art  adorns  our  homes,  and  has 
opened  to  us  a  new  Gate  Beautiful.  The  wise  men  from  the  West 
are,  at  this  writing,  opening  their  treasures  of  tea,  silk,  gold-lacquer, 
bronzes,  and  porcelain  at  the  first  centennial  of  our  nation's  birth. 

We  hail  the  brightness  of  the  rising  of  this  first  among  Asiatic  na- 
tions to  enter  modern  life,  to  win  and  hold  a  place  among  the  fore- 
most peoples  of  the  earth.  It  is  time  that  a  writer  treated  Japan  as 
something  else  than  an  Oriental  puzzle,  a  nation  of  recluses,  a  land  of 
fabulous  wealth,  of  universal  licentiousness  or  of  Edenic  purity,  the 
fastness  of  a  treacherous  and  fickle  crew,  a  Paradise  of  guileless  chil- 
dren, a  Utopia  of  artists  and  poets.  It  is  time  to  drop  the  license  of 
exaggeration,  and,  with  the  light  of  common  day,  yet  with  sympathy 
and  without  prejudice,  seek  to  know  what  Dai  Nippon  is  and  has  been. 

It  has  been  well  said  by  a  literary  critic  and  reader  of  all  the  books 
on  the  subject  that  to  write  a  good  history  of  Japan  is  difficult,  not  so 
much  from  lack  of  materials,  but  from  the  differences  in  psychology. 
This  I  realize.  My  endeavor,  during  eight  years'  living  contact  with 
these  people,  has  been,  from  their  language,  books,  life,  and  customs,  to 
determine  their  mental  parallax,  and  find  out  how  they  think  and  feel. 

I  have  not  made  this  book  in  libraries  at  home,  but  largely  on  the 
soil  of  the  mikado's  empire.  I  have  slight  obligation  to  acknowledge 
to  foreign  writers,  except  to  those  working  scholars  in  Japan  who 
have  written  during  the  last  decade  with  knowledge  of  the  language. 
To  them  I  owe  much ;  first  and  most  of  all  to  Mr.  Ernest  Satow,  who, 
in  the  special  department  of  historical  research,  stands  leader.  To 
Messrs.  W.  Dixon,  Aston,  Mitford,  Hepburn,  Brown,  Blakiston,  Von 
Brandt,  and  Parkes,  I  am  also  indebted.    I  am  under  many  obligations 


8  PREFACE. 

to  the  editor  of  The  Japan  Mail.  This  scholarly  paper,  published  in 
Yokohama,  is  a  most  valuable  mirror  of  contemporaneous  Japanese 
history,  and  a  rich  store-house  of  facts,  especially  the  papers  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  of  Japan.  The  Japan  Herald  and  The  Japan  Gazette 
have  also  been  of  great  service  to  me,  for  which  I  here  thank  the 
proprietors.  The  constant  embarrassment  in  treating  many  subjects 
has  been  from  wealth  of  material.  I  have  been  obliged  to  leave  out 
several  chapters  on  important  subjects,  and  to  treat  others  with  mere 
passing  allusions. 

In  the  early  summer  of  1868,  two  Higo  students,  Ise  and  Numaga- 
wa,  arrived  in  the  United  States.  They  were  followed  by  retainers  of 
the  daimios  of  Satsuma  and  Echizen,  and  other  feudal  princes.  I  was 
surprised  and  delighted  to  find  these  earnest  youth  equals  of  Ameri- 
can students  in  good-breeding,  courtesy,  and  mental  acumen.  Some 
of  them  remained  under  my  instruction  two  years,  others  for  a  short- 
er time.  Among  my  friends  or  pupils  in  New  Brunswick,  New  Jer- 
sey, are  Mr.  Yoshida  Kiyonari,  H.  I.  J.  M.  Minister  Plenipotentiary  at 
Washington  ;  Mr.  Takagi  Samro,  H.  I.  J.  M.  Vice-consul  at  San  Fran- 
cisco ;  Mr.  Tomita  Tetsunosuke,  H.  I.  J.  M.  Consul  at  New  York ;  Mr. 
Hatakeyama  Yoshinari,  President  of  the  Imperial  University  of  Ja- 
pan ;  Captain  Matsumura  Junzo,  of  the  Japanese  navy.  Among  oth- 
ers were  the  two  sons  of  Iwakura  Tomomi,  Junior  Prime  Minister  of 
Japan ;  and  two  young  nobles  of  the  Shimadzu  family  of  Satsuma. 
I  also  met  Prince  Adzuma,  nephew  of  the  mikado,  and  many  of  the 
prominent  men,  ex-daimios,  Tokugawa  retainers,  soldiers  in  the  war  of 
1868,  and  representatives  of  every  department  of  service  under  the  old 
shogunate  and  new  National  Government.  Six  ^vhite  marble  shafts  in 
the  cemetery  at  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  mark  the  resting-place 
of  Kusukabe  Taro,  of  Fukui,  and  his  fellow-countrymen,  whose  devo- 
tion to  study  cost  them  their  lives.  I  was  invited  by  the  Prince  of 
Echizen,  while  Regent  of  the  University,  through  the  American  super- 
intendent, Rev.  G.  F.  Verbeck,  to  go  out  to  organize  a  scientific  school 
on  the  American  principle  in  Fukui,  Echizen,  and  give  instruction  in 
the  physical  sciences.  I  arrived  in  Japan,  December  29th,  1870,  and 
remained  until  July  25th,  1874.  During  all  my  residence  I  enjoyed  the 
society  of  cultivated  scholars,  artists,  priests,  antiquaries,  and  students, 
both  in  the  provincial  and  national  capitals.  From  the  living  I  bore 
letters  of  introduction  to  the  prominent  men  in  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment, and  thus  were  given  to  me  opportunities  for  research  and  obser- 
vation not  often  afforded  to  foreigners.     My  facilities  for  regular  and 


PREFACE.  9 

extended  travel  were  limited  only  by  my  duties.  Nothing  Japanese 
was  foreign  to  me,  from  palace  to  beggar's  hut.  I  lived  in  Dai  Nip- 
pon during  four  of  the  most  pregnant  years  of  the  nation's  history. 
Nearly  one  year  was  spent  alone  in  a  daimio's  capital  far  in  the  in- 
terior, away  from  Western  influence,  when  feudalism  was  in  its  full 
bloom,  and  the  old  life  in  vogue.  In  the  national  capital,  in  the  time 
well  called  "  the  flowering  of  the  nation,"  as  one  of  the  instructors  in 
the  Imperial  University,  having  picked  students  from  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  I  was  a  witness  of  the  marvelous  development,  reforms,  dan- 
gers, pageants,  and  changes  of  the  epochal  years  18V2,  1873,  and 
1874.  With  pride  I  may  say  truly  that  I  have  felt  the  pulse  and 
heart  of  New  Japan. 

I  have  studied  economy  in  the  matter  of  Japanese  names  and  titles, 
risking  the  charge  of  monotony  for  the  sake  of  clearness.  The  schol- 
ar will,  I  trust,  pardon  me  for  apparent  anachronisms  and  omissions. 
For  lack  of  space  or  literary  skill,  I  have  had,  in  some  cases,  to  con- 
dense with  a  brevity  painful  to  a  lover  of  fairness  and  candor.  The 
title  justifies  the  emphasis  of  one  idea  that  pervades  the  book. 

In  the  department  of  illustrations,  I  claim  no  originality,  except  in 
their  selection.  Many  are  from  photographs  taken  for  me  by  natives 
in  Japan.  Those  of  my  artist  -  friend,  Ozawa,  were  nearly  all  made 
from  life  at  my  suggestion.  I  have  borrowed  many  fine  sketches 
from  native  books,  through  Aime  Humbert,  whose  marvelously  beau- 
tiful and  painstaking  work,  "Japon  lUustre,"  is  a  mine  of  illustra- 
tion. Few  artists  have  excelled  in  spirit  and  truth  Mr.  A.  Wirgman, 
the  artist  of  The  London  Illustrated  News,  a  painter  of  real  genius, 
whose  works  in  oil  now  adorn  many  home  parlors  of  ex-residents  in 
Japan,  and  whose  gems,  fine  gold,  and  dross  fill  the  sprightly  pages  of 
The  Japan  Punch.  Many  of  his  sketches  adorn  Sir  Rutherford  Al- 
cock's  book  on  the  vicissitudes  of  diplomatists, commonly  called  "The 
Capital  of  the  Tycoon,"  or  "  Three  Years  in  Japan."  I  am  indebted 
both  to  this  gentleman  and  to  Mr.  Laurence  Oliphant,  who  wrote  the 
charming  volume,  "  Lord  Elgin's  Mission  to  China  and  Japan,"  for 
many  illustrations,  chiefly  from  native  sketches.  Through  the  liberal- 
ity of  my  publishers,  I  am  permitted  to  use  these  from  their  stores  of 
plates.  I  believe  I  have  in  no  case  reproduced  old  cuts  without  new 
or  correct  information  that  will  assist  the  general  reader  or  those  who 
wish  to  study  the  various  styles  of  the  native  artists,  five  of  which  are 
herein  presented.  Hokusai,  the  Dickens,  and  Kano,  the  Audubon 
of  Japanese  art,  are  well  represented.     The  photographs  of  the  living 


10  PBEFACE. 

and  of  the  renowned  dead,  from  temples,  statues,  or  old  pictures,  from 
the  collections  of  daimios  and  nobles,  are  chiefly  by  Uchida,  a  native 
photographer  of  rare  ability,  skill,  and  enthusiasm,  who  unfortunately 
died  in  1875.  Four  vignettes  are  copied  from  the  steel-plate  engrav- 
ings on  the  greenbacks  printed  in  New  York  for  the  Ono  National 
Banking  Company  of  Tokio,  by  the  Continental  Bank-note  Company 
of  New  York. 

I  gratefully  acknowledge  the  assistance  derived  from  native  schol- 
ars in  Fukui  and  Tokio,  especially  Messrs.  Iwabuchi,  Takakashi,  and 
Ideura,  my  readers  and  helpers.  To  the  members  of  the  Mei  Roku 
Sha,  who  have  honored  me  with  membership  in  their  honorable  body, 
I  return  my  best  thanks.  This  club  of  authors  and  reformers  includes 
such  men  as  Fukuzawa,  Arinori  Mori,  Nakamura  Masanawo,  Kato  Hi- 
royuki,  Nishi  Shin,  the  Mitsukuri  brothers,  Shiuhei  and  Rinsho,  Uchi- 
da Masawo,  Hatakeyama  Yoshinari,  and  others,  all  names  of  fame  and 
honor,  and  earnest  workers  in  the  regeneration  of  their  country.  To 
my  former  students  now  in  New  York,  who  have  kindly  assisted  me 
in  proof-reading,  and  last  and  first  of  all  to  Mr.  Tosui  Imadate,  my 
friend  and  constant  companion  during  the  last  six  years,  I  return  my 
thanks  and  obligations.  I  omit  in  this  place  the  names  of  high  offi- 
cers in  the  Japanese  Government,  because  the  responsibility  for  any 
opinion  advanced  in  this  work  rests  on  no  native  of  Japan.  That  is 
all  my  own.  To  my  sister,  the  companion,  during  two  years,  of  sev- 
eral of  my  journeys  and  visits  in  the  homes  of  the  island  empire,  I 
owe  many  an  idea  and  inspiration  to  research.  To  the  publishers  of 
the  North  American  Revieio,  Appletons'  Journal,  and  The  Independent 
my  thanks  are  due  for  permission  to  print  pai't  of  certain  chapters 
first  published  in  these  periodicals. 

I  trust  the  tone  of  the  work  will  not  seem  dogmatic.  I  submit 
with  modesty  what  I  have  written  on  the  Ainos.  I  am  inclined  to 
believe  that  India  is  their  original  home ;  that  the  basic  stock  of  the 
Japanese  people  is  Aino  ;  and  that  in  this  fact  lies  the  root  of  the 
marvelous  difference  in  the  psychology  of  the  Japanese  and  their 
neighbors,  the  Chinese. 

"  Can  a  nation  be  born  at  once  ?"  "  With  God  all  things  are  pos- 
sible." 

W.  E.  G. 

New  York,  May  lOth,  1876. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


A  NEW  issue  of  this  work  having  been  called  for  in  a  little  over 
four  months  from  the  date  of  its  publication,  the  author  has  endeav- 
ored to  render  the  second  edition  more  worthy  than  the  first.  This 
has  been  done  by  the  addition  of  valuable  matter  in  the  appendix 
and  foot-notes,  and  the  recasting  of  a  few  pages,  on  which  oViginal 
has  been  substituted  for  compiled  matter. 

Critics  have  complained  that  in  Book  I.  the  line  between  the  myth- 
ical, or  legendary,  and  the  historic  period  has  not  been  clearly  drawn. 
A  writer  in  The  Japan  Mail  of  November  25th,  1876,  says : 

"After  an  introductory  chapter  on  the  physical  features  of  the  country,  the 
author  plunges  into  the  dense  mists  of  the  historic  and  the  prehistoric  ages, 
where  he  completely  loses  his  way  for  about  a  millennium  and  a  half,  until  he  at 
length  strikes  into  the  true  path,  under  the  guidance  of  the  Nihon  Guai  ShV 

Did  the  critic  read  Chapter  III.  ?  The  author,  before  essaying  the 
task,  knew  only  too  well  the  difficulties  of  the  work  before  him.  He 
made  no  attempt  to  do  the  work  of  a  Niebuhr  for  Japan.  His  object 
was  not  to  give  an  infallible  record  of  absolute  facts,  nor  has  he  pre- 
tended to  do  so.  He  merely  sketched  in  outline  a  picture  of  what 
thirty-three  millions  of  Japanese  believe  to  be  their  ancient  history. 
He  relied  on  the  intelligence  of  his  readers,  and  even  on  that  of  the 
critics  (who  should  not  skip  Chapter  IH.),  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
the  narratives  of  the  Kojiki  and  the  Nihongi — the  oldest  extant  books 
in  the  Japanese  language,  and  on  which  all  other  accounts  of  the  an- 
cient period  are  based.  He  was  not  even  afraid  that  any  school-boy 
who  had  been  graduated  beyond  his  fairy  tales  would  think  the  drag- 
on-bom Jimmu  a  character  of  equal  historic  reality  with  that  of  Caesar 
or  Charlemagne. 

On  the  o^er  hand,  the  author  believes  that  history  begins  before 
writing,  and  that  he  who  would  brand  the  whole  of  Japanese  tradi- 


10*  PREFACE  TO   THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

tion  before  the  sixth  century  a.d.  as  "  all  but  valueless "  must  dem- 
onstrate, and  not  merely  affirm.  The  author  preferred  to  introduce 
Jingu  and  Yamato  Dake  to  Occidental  readers,  and  let  them  take  their 
chances  before  the  light  of  research.  Will  this  century  see  the  scholar 
and  historian  capable  of  reeling  oflE  the  thread  of  pure  history,  clear 
and  without  fracture,  from  the  cocoon  of  Japanese  myth,  legend,  and 
language  ?  The  author,  even  with  his  profound  reverence  for  Anglo- 
Japanese  scholarship,  hopes  for,  yet  doubts  it. 

In  one  point  the  author  has  been  misapprehended.  He  nowhere 
attempts  to  explain  whence  came  the  dominant  (Yamato)  tribe  or 
tribes  to  Japan.  He  believes  the  Japanese  people  are  a  mixed  race,  as 
stated  on  page  86  ;  but  where  the  original  seats  of  that  conquering 
people  may  have  been  on  whom  the  light  of  written,  undoubted  his- 
tory dawns  in  the  seventh  century,  he  has  not  stated.  That  these 
were  in  Mantchuria  is  probable,  since  their  mythology  is  in  some 
points  but  a  transfiguration  of  Mantchu  life.  The  writer  left  the  ques- 
tion an  open  one.  He  is  glad  to  add,  without  comment,  the  words 
of  the  Mail  critic,  who  is,  if  he  mistakes  not,  one  of  the  most  accom- 
plished linguists  in  Japan,  and  the  author  of  standard  grammars  of 
the  written  and  spoken  language  of  Japan : 

"As  regards  the  position  of  the  Japanese  language,  it  gives  no  dubious  re- 
sponse. Japanese  has  all  the  structural  and  syntactical  peculiarities  common  to 
the  Alatyan  or  Ural-Altaic  group;  and  the  evidence  of  the  physiognomical  tests 
points  unmistakably  to  the  same  origin  for  the  people.  The  short,  i"0und  skull, 
the  oblique  eyes,  the  prominent  cheek-hones,  the  dark-brown  hair,  and  tlie  scant 
beard,  all  proclaim  the  Mantchus  and  Coreans  as  their  nearest  congeners.  In 
fact,  it  is  no  longer  rash  to  assert  as  certain  that  the  Japanese  are  a  Tungusic 
race,  and  their  own  traditions  and  the  whole  course  of  their  history  are  incom- 
patible with  any  other  conclusion  than  that  Corea  is  the  route  by  which  the  im- 
migrant tribes  made  their  passage  into  Kiushiu  from  their  ancestral  Mautchu- 
riau  seats." 

The  brevity  of  the  chapter  on  the  Ashikaga  period,  which  has  been 
complained  of,  arose,  not  from  any  lack  of  materials,  but  because  the 
writer  believed  that  this  epoch  deserved  a  special  historian.  Another 
reason  that  explains  many  omissions,  notably,  that  of  any  detailed  ref- 
erence to  Japanese  art,  is,  that  this  volume  is  not  an  encyclopedia. 

The  author  returns  his  hearty  thanks  to  his  Japanese  friends,  and 
to  the  critics  whose  scrutiny  has  enabled  him  in  any  way  to  improve 
the  work.  W.  E.  G. 

New  York,  January  10th,  1877. 


CONTENTS. 


BOOK  I. 

HISTORY  OF  JAPAN  FROM  660  B.C.  TO  1872  A.D. 

OHAPTBE  .  PAGH 

I.  The  Background 17 

II.  The  Aborigines 26 

III.  Materials  of  History 36 

IV.  Japanese  Mtthology 43 

V.  The  Twilight  of  Fable 54 

VI.  SujiN,  the  Civilizer 60 

VII.  Tamato-Dake,  the  Conqueror  of  the  Kuanto 68 

VIII.  The  Introduction  of  Continental  Civilization 75 

IX.  Life  in  Ancient  Japan 86 

X.  The  Ancient  Religion 96 

XI.  The  Throne  and  the  Noble  Families 101 

XII.  The  Beginning  of  Military  Domination 115 

XIII.  Yoritomo  and  the  Minamoto  Family 124 

XIV.  Creation  of  the  Dual  System  of  Government 140 

XV.  The  Glory  and  the  Fall  of  the  Hojo  Family 146 

XVI.  Buddhism  in  Japan 158  ■ 

XVII.  The  Invasion  of  the  Mongol  Tartars 176 

XVIII.  The  Temporary  Mikadoate 182 

XIX.  The  War  of  the  Chrysanthemums 187 

XX.  The  Ashikaga  Period 193 

XXI.  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages 197 

XXII.  The  Growth  and  Customs  of  Feudalism 214 

XXIII.  NOBUNAGA,   THE   PERSECUTOR   OF   THE   BUDDHISTS 229 

XXIV.  HiDEYOSHi's  Enterprises. — The  Invasion  of  Corea 236 

XXV.  Christianity  and  Foreigners 247 

XXV^I.  Iyeyasu,  the  Founder  of  Yedo 264 

XXVII.  The  Perfection  of  Duarchy  and  Feudalism 270 

XXVIII.  The  Recent  Revolutions  in  Japan 291 


BOOK  II. 

PERSONAL  EXPERIENCES,  OBSERVATIONS,  AND  STUDIES  IN 
JAPAN,  1870-1875. 

I.  First  Glimpses  of  Japan 327 

II.  A  Ride  on  the  Tokaido 353 


12  CONTENTS. 

OUAPTEB  PAGE 

III.  In  Tokio,  the  Eastern  Capital 363 

IV.  Sights  and  Sounds  in  a  Pagan  Temple 378 

V.  Studies  in  the  Capital 391 

VI.  Among  the  Men  of  New  Japan 399 

VII.  In  the  Heart  of  Japan 405 

VIII.  Reception  by  the  Daimio.— My  Students 426 

IX.  Life  in  a  Japanese  House 435 

X.  Children's  Games  and  Sports 452 

XI.  Household  Customs  and  Superstitions 466 

XII.  The  Mythical  Zoology  of  Japan 477 

XIII.  Folk-lore  and  Fireside  Stories 491 

XIV.  Japanese  Proverbs 504 

XV.  The  Last  Year  of  Feudalism 512 

XVI.  A  Tramp  Through  Japan 541 

XVII.  The  Position  of  Woman 551 

XVIII.  New  Japan 502 


Supplementary  Chapter  :   I.  Japan  in  1883 579 

"  "  II.  Japan  in  1886 597 

»  "         III.  Japan  in  1890 605 

»'  "         IV.  Japan  IN  1894 617 

"  "  V.  The  War  with  China 629 


NOTES   AND    APPENDICES. 

Associated   Ideas  in  Art  and  Poetry 645 

The  Testament  of  Iyeyasu 647 

Notation  of  Time 650 

Foreign  Trade  of  Japan 652 

Legendary  Art  at  the  Centennial  Exposition 652 

Tea  Crop 656 

The  Ceramic  Art  of  Japan 656 

Climate  and  Meteorology 659 


INDEX 


661 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


llap  of  Dai  Nippon  (the  Empire  of  Japan) faces  page  17 

1.  Nicliiren  and  the  Hojo  Executioner.     (Humbert,  from  a  temple  painting) Frontispiece. 

2.  High  and  Low  Type  of  Face.     (Hokusai  school) 30 

3.  An  Aino  Chief  from  Yezo.     (Photograph  by  Uchida) 32 

4.  His  Imperial  Majesty,  Mutsuhito.     (Photograph  by  Uchida) 37 

5.  Passage  in  the  Inland  Sea.     (Alcock) 57 

6.  Mikado's  Method  of  Travel  in  very  Ancient  Times.     (Native  drawing) 62 

7.  Imperial  or  Government  Seal.     (Native  drawing) 66 

8.  Imperial  Crest,  or  Mikado's  Seal.    (Native  drawing) 67 

9.  Japan,  as  known  to  the  Ancient  Mikados.     (From  the  series  of  historical  maps  in  the 

"  Nihon  Riyaku  Shi ") 69 

10.  Junk  in  the  Bay  of  Yedo.     (Native  drawing) 71 

11.  Her  Imperial  Majesty  Haruko.     (Photograph  by  Uchida) 81 

12.  Shinto  Wayside  Shrine.     (Alcock) 89 

13.  The  Peasant  of  To-day.     (Hokusai) 91 

14.  A  Court  Noble  in  Ancient  Japan.     (Native  drawing) 93 

1.5.  The  Jlikado  on  his  Throne.     (Native  drawing) 102 

16.  A  Samurai  in  Winter  Traveling-dress.     (Alcock) 106 

17.  A  Japanese  Farmer.     (Hokusai) 107 

18.  View  in  the  Inland  Sea.     (Alcock) 118 

19.  View  near  Hiogo.     (Alcock) 120 

20.  Tametorao  defying  the  Taira  Men.     (Bank-note  vignette) 121 

21.  The  Mountains  and  Lake  of  Hakone.    (Alcock) 129 

22.  War-junk  of  the  Twelfth  Century.     (Bank-note  vignette) 136 

23.  Kojima  writing  on  the  Cherrj'-tree.     (Bank-note  vignette) 153 

24.  Nitta  Yoshisada  casting  the  Sword  into  the  Sea.     (Bank-note  vignette) 155 

25.  Kobo  Daishi.     (Photogi-aph  from  a  temple  statue) 162 

26.  The  Mother's  Memorial.    (Nankoku  Ozawa) 16T 

27.  Belfry  of  a  Buddhist  Temple.     (Alcock,  from  a  photograph) 171 

28.  Repulse  of  the  Mongol  Tartars.     (Native  painter) 1T9 

29.  Ashikaga  Takauji.     (Photograph  from  a  temple  statue) 185 

30.  Temple-bell  from  Kioto.     (Humbert) 200 

31.  Chasing  Floral  Designs  on  Copper.     (Humbert) 203 

32.  Picnic  Booth.     (Humbert) 205 

33.  Court  Lady  in  Kioto.     (Humbert) 209 

34.  Kusunoki  Masatsura.      (Native  drawing) 220 

35.  The  Challenge.     (Hokusai) 223 

36.  Archer  on  Castle  Rampart.     (Humbert) 226 

37.  Symbols  of  the  Carpenjer's  Guild.     (Humbert) 227 

38.  View  of  the  Castle  of  Ozaka.     (Alcock) 234 

39.  Nobunaga's  Victims  :  Priest  and  Monk.     (Alcock) 235 

40.  A  Familiar  Country  Scene.     (Hokusai  school) 236 

41.  Camp  of  Hideyoshi,  before  Fukui.     (Humbert) 2.39 

42.  Image  of  Deified  Hero.     (Native  drawing) 241 

43.  Ear  Monument  in  Kioto.     (Photograph) 245 

44.  "  The  Tarpeian  Rock  of  Japan."     (Oliphant) 258 

45.  Hollander  on  Deshima.     (Alcock) , 260 

46.  Crest  of  the  Tokugawa  Family.     (Native  drawing) 271 


14  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

47.  The  Four  Classes  of  Society.     (Nankoku  Ozawa) Page  281 

48.  Fire-lookouts  in  Yedo.     (Native  drawing.     "  Brocade  "  style) 286 

49.  Matsudaira  Yoshinaga,  ex-Daimio  of  Echizen.     (Photograph) 308 

50.  Keiki,  the  last  Shogun  of  Japan.     (Photograph) 314 

51.  Push-cart  in  Yokohama.     (Hokusai) 333 

52.  The  Jin-riki-sha,  or  "  Pull-man  Car  "  of  Japan.     (Photograph) 335 

53.  Young  Girl  carrying  her  Baby  Brother.     (Alcock) 354 

54.  Coolie  waiting  for  a  Job.     (Alcock) 355 

55.  Coopers  Hooping  a  Vat.     (PupU  of  Hokusai) 357 

56.  Crossing  the  Rokugo  River.     (Hokusai) 360 

57.  Nitsuki,  or  Ivory  Button.     (Oliphant) 365 

68.  Pattern  Designer.     (Hokusai) _. 365 

59.  "  Nihon  Bashi "  in  Tokio.    The  Kosatsu.     (Nankoku  Ozawa) 367 

60.  View  of  Fuji,  from  Suruga  Dai.     (Reduced  "  brocade  "  picture) 374 

61.  Artist  at  Work.     (Hokusai) 379 

62.  Pagoda  Spire,  or  Kiu-do.     ("  Brocade  "  picture) 381 

63.  A  Flower  Fair  at  Night  in  Tokio.     (Nankoku  Ozawa) 385 

64.  Sakurada  Avenue  and  Kasumiya  Street.     ("  Brocade  "  picture) 395 

65.  Travelers  in  a  Snow-storm.     Fuji  San.     (Native  drawing) 404 

66.  Buddhist  Pilgrims.     (Alcock) 407 

67.  The  Samisen.     (Oliphant) 408 

68.  Bringing  Water  to  wash  Travelers'  Feet.     (Hokusai) 416 

69.  A  Norimono.     (Alcock) 417 

70.  Village  in  Echizen.     (Native  drawing) 421 

71.  Fac-simile  of  Kiusatsii.     Issue  of  1869 425 

72.  On  the  Tow-path.     (Hokusai) 426 

73.  A  Little  Daimio.     (Photograph  by  XJchida) 429 

74.  Servant  before  his  Master.     (Alcock) 430 

75.  Student  burning  Midnight  Oil.     (Photograph) 432 

76.  The  Studious  Gate-keeper.     (Native  drawing) 436 

77.  The  Wedding  Party.     (Alcock,  from  native  painting) 438 

78.  Boys  playing  on  Bamboo  Bars.     (Hokusai) 441 

79.  The  Grip  of  Victory.     (Hokusai) 442 

80.  Gonji  m  a  Brown  Study.     (Alcock) 445 

81.  Night  Scene  on  the  River  Flats.     (Hokusai) 447 

82.  Father  and  Children.     (Humbert) 450 

83.  Children's  Games  and  Sports.     (Humbert) 453 

84.  Boys'  Games.      (Humbert) 458 

85.  Boys'  Games.     (Humbert) 459 

86.  The  Feast  of  Dolls.     (Nankoku  Ozawa) 461 

87.  Children's  Sports.     (Humbert) 464 

88.  The  Jealous  Avenger.     (Nankoku  Ozawa) 475 

89.  The  Rain  Dragon.     (Kano) 479 

90.  Futen,  the  Wind-imp.     (Native  drawing) 483 

91.  Raiden,  the  Thunder-drummer.    (Native  drawing) 484 

92.  Tengu  going  on  a  Picnic.     (Hokusai) 487 

93.  Grandmother  telling  Stories.     (Nankoku  Ozawa) 489 

94.  Pipe,  Pipe-case,  and  Tobacco-pouch.     (Oliphant) 500 

95.  WhaX  follows  a  Meal  on  Horse-flesh.     (Alcock) 517 

96.  Kioto  Fan-makers.     (Humbert) 519 

97.  Seven-stroke  Sketch  of  Wild  Horse.    (Hokusai) 522 

98.  Whispering  behind  the  Screen.     (Hokusai  school) 524 

99.  Samurai,  in  Kami-shimo  Dress.     (Alcock) 525 

100.  The  Siesta.     (Hokusai) 528 

101.  The  Game  of  Dakiu,  or  "  Polo."     (Alcock,  from  native  drawng) 530 

102.  Rope-dikes,  or  "  Snake-baskets."     (Alcock) 531 

103.  My  House  in  Fukui.     (From  a  photograph) 532 

104.  Wild  Goose  in  Flight.     (Native  drawing) 537 

105.  How  we  rode  to  Odani.     (Alcock) 544 

106.  Japanese  Naval  Officer.     (Photograph) 564 

107.  Japanese  Steam  Corvette  Tsiikuba  Kan.     (Photograph) 564 

108.  Court  Scene.    Old  Style.    (Humbert) 569 


BOOK   I. 

HISTORY  OF  JAPAN  FROM  6G0  B.C.  TO  1872  A.D. 


THE  ORTHOGRAPHY  AND  PRONUNCIATION  OF  JAPANESE 

WORDS. 

It  is  impossible  to  represent  Japanese  words  exactly  by  any  foreign  alpha- 
bet ;  but  a  knowledge  of  the  sounds  heard  in  Japan,  and  by  using  letters  which 
have  each  one  invariable  value,  will  enable  a  foreigner  to  reproduce  Japanese 
names  with  tolerable  accuracy.  When  the  native  authors  and  grammarians  do 
not  agree,  absolute  unanimity  among  foreign  scholars  is  not  to  be  expected  ;  but 
palpable  absurdities,  impossible  combinations  of  letters,  and  mistakes  arising  out 
of  pure  ignorance  of  the  language  may  be  avoided.  The  system  given  below,  and 
used  throughout  this  work,  is,  at  least,  rational,  and  is  based  on  the  structure  and 
laws  of  combination  in  the  language  itself.  This  system  is  substantially  (the  dif- 
ferences aiming  to  secure  greater  simplicity)  that  of  Hepburn's  Japanese-English 
and  English-Japanese,  and  of  Satow's  English-Japanese  dictionary;  the  Roman- 
ized version  of  the  Scriptures,  published  by  the  American  Bible  Society;  of  the 
"American  Cyclopedia;"  the  revised  editions  of  Worcester's,  and  Webster's,  dic- 
tionary ;  in  Brown's,  Aston's,  Satow's,  Brinckley's,  and  Hepburn's  grammar  and 
works  on  the  Japanese  language;  Monteith's,  Mitchell's,  Cornell's,  Warren's, 
and  Harper's  (American),  and  the  Student's  (English)  geography  and  atlas ; 
Mitford's  "  Tales  of  Old  Japan ;"  Adams's  "  History  of  Japan ;"  the  official  docu- 
ments of  the  Japanese  Government,  Department  of  Education,  schools,  and  col- 
leges ;  the  British  and  American  Legations  and  Consulates ;  the  Anglo-Japanese 
press,  and  almost  all  scholars  and  writers  who  make  accuracy  a  matter  of  con- 
cern. 

The  standard  language  (not  the  local  dialect)  of  Tokio  —  now  the  literary  as 
well  as  the  political  capital  of  the  nation — is  taken  as  the  basis,  and  the  words 
are  then  transliterated  from  the  katagana  spelling,  as  given  by  the  best  native 
scholars.    The  vowels  are  sounded  as  follows  : 

a  has  the  sound  of  a  in  father,  arm ; 
ai  has  the  sound  of  ai  in  aisle,  or  i  in  bite ; 
i  has  the  sound  of  i  in  pique,  machine  ; 
M  has  the  sound  of  u  in  rule,  or  oo  in  boot ; 


■ua  has  the  sound  of  ua  in  quarantine ; 
c  has  the  smiud  of  c  in  prey,  they ; 
ei  has  the  sound  of  ay  in  saying  ; 
0  has  the  sound  of  o  in  bore,  so. 


Long  vowels  are  marked  thus,  o,  u ;  short  vowels,  ii,  i. 

The  combination  uai  is  sounded  as  wai;  iu  as  yu;  E  or  e,  as  e  in  preij ;  but  e, 
as  in  men ;  g  is  always  hard,  and  s  surd,  as  in  sit,  sap. 

C  before  a  vowel,  g  as  in  gin.  gem;  I,  q,  s  sonant;  x,  and  the  digraphs  ph  and 
th,  are  not  used. 

The  map  facing  page  17  is  reduced,  and  the  names  transliterated  from  the 
large  copper-plate  map  of  the  empire  compiled  and  published  by  the  Japanese 
War  Department  iu  1873.    The  numerals  refer  to  the  provinces  on  page  001. 


Long.Xast     145  irom  QreenwlcTi.      144 


Dai  Nippon  (tlie  Empire  of  Japan). 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


I 

THE  BACKGROUND. 


It  is  manifest  that  to  understand  a  people  and  their  national  life, 
the  physical  conditions  under  which  they  live  must  be  known.  To 
enjoy  the  picture,  we  must  study  the  background. 

Dai  Nippon,  as  the  natives  call  their  beautiful  land,  occupies  a  sig- 
nificant position  on  the  globe.  Lying  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  the 
temperate  zone,  it  bends  like  a  crescent  off  the  continent  of  Asia. 
In  the  extreme  north,  at  the  island  of  Saghalin,  the  distance  from 
the  main-land  of  Asia  is  so  slight  that  the  straits  may  be  crossed  eas- 
ily in  a  canoe.  From  Kiushiu,  with  the  island  of  Tsushima  lying  be- 
tween, the  distance  from  Corea  is  but  one  day's  sail  in  a  junk.  For 
4000  miles  eastward  from  the  main  island  stretches  the  Pacific,  shored 
in  by  the  continent  of  America.  From  Yezo  to  Kamtchatka,  the  Ku- 
riles  stretch  like  the  ruins  of  a  causeway,  prolonged  by  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  to  Alaska.  The  configuration  of  the  land  is  that  resulting 
from  the  combined  effects  of  volcanic  action  and  the  incessant  mo- 
tion of  the  corroding  waves.  The  area  of  the  empire  is  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  our  Middle  and  New  England  States.  Of  the  150,000 
square  miles  of  surface,  two-thirds  consist  of  mountain  land.  The 
island  of  Saghalin  (ceded  to  Russia  in  May,  1875)  is  one  mountain 
chain  ;  that  of  Yezo  one  mountain  mass.  On  the  main  island,*  a 
solid  backbone  of  mountainous   elevations  runs   continuously  from 


*  Dai  Nippon,  or  Nihon,  means  Great  Japan,  and  is  the  name  of  the  entire  em- 
pire, not  of  the  main  island.  The  foreign  writers  on  Japan  have  almost  unani- 
mously blundered  in  calling  the  largest  island  "  Niphon."  Hondo  is  the  name 
given  to  the  main  island  in  the  Military  Geography  of  Japan  (Heiyo  Nippon  Chiri 
Toshi,  Tokio,  1872)  published  by  the  War  Department,  and  which  is  used  in  this 
work  throughout. 


18  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Rikuoku  to  Shinano,  whence  it  branches  off  into  subordinate  chains 
that  are  prolonged  irregularly  to  Nagato  and  into  Kiushiu  and  Shiko- 
ku.  Speaking  generally,  the  heights  of  the  mountains  gradually  in- 
crease from  the  extremities  to  the  centre.  In  Saghalin,  they  are  low ; 
in  Yezo,  they  are  higher :  increasing  gradually  on  the  north  of  the 
main  island,  they  culminate  in  the  centre  in  the  lofty  ranges  of  Shi- 
nano, and  the  peaks  of  Nantaizan,  Yatsugadake,  Hakuzan  (nine  thou- 
sand feet  high),  and  Fuji,  whose  summit  is  over  twelve  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea.  Thence  toward  the  south  they  gradually  decrease  in 
heio"ht.  There  are  few  high  mountains  along  the  sea-coast.  The 
land  slopes  up  gradually  into  hills,  thence  into  lesser  peaks,  and  final- 
ly into  lofty  ranges. 

As  Fuji,  with  his  tall  satellites,  sweeps  up  from  the  land,  so  Japan 
itself  rises  up,  peak-like,  from  the  sea.  From  the  shores  the  land 
plunges  abruptly  down  into  deep  water.  Japan  is  but  an  emerged 
crest  of  a  submarine  mountain — perhaps  the  edge  of  hard  rock  left 
by  the  submergence  of  the  earth-crust  which  now  floors  the  Sea  of 
Japan  and  the  Gulf  of  Tartary.  There  seems  little  reason  to  doubt 
that  Saghalin,  Yezo,  Hondo,  and  Kiushiu  were  in  geologic  ages  united 
together,  forming  one  island.  Surrounded  on  all  sides  by  swift  and 
variable  currents,  the  islands  everywhere  on  the  sea -borders  exhibit 
the  effect  of  their  action.  At  most  points  the  continual  detritus  is 
such  as  to  seriously  encroach  on  the  land  area,  and  the  belief  holds 
among  certain  native  sea -coast  dwellers,  strengthened  by  the  tradi- 
tional tales  of  past  ravages,  that  in  process  of  time  the  entire  country, 
devoured  by  successive  gnawings  of  the  ocean,  will  finally  sink  into 
its  insatiable  maw. 

The  geological  formations  of  the  country — the  natural  foundations 
— are  not  as  yet  accurately  determined.  Enough,  however,  is  known 
to  give  us  a  fair  outline  of  fact,  which  future  research  and  a  thorough 
survey  must  fill  up.*     Of  the  soil,  more  is  known. 


*  Baron  Richtliofen,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Geological  Society  of  Berlin, 
June  4th,  1873,  thus  generalizes  the  geology  of  Japan:  The  west  and  east  por- 
tion of  the  aggregate  body  of  the  Japanese  islands  is  in  every  way  the  direct  con- 
tinuation of  the  mountain  system  which  occupies  the  south-eastern  portion  of 
China,  the  axial  chain  df  which  extends  from  tlie  frontier  of  Annam  to  the  island 
of  Chusan,  in  the  direction  of  W.  30=  S.,  E.  30°  N.  It  is  accompanied  on  either 
side  by  a  number  of  parallel  chains.  The  prolongation  of  this  group  of  linear 
chains  passes  through  the  island  of  Kiushiu  to  the  great  bend  of  Japan  (Suruga 
and  Shinano).  Through  Kiushiu  and  the  southern  part  of  the  main  island,  the 
structure  of  the  hills  and  the  rocks  of  which  they  are  made  up  (chiefly  Silurian 


THE  BACKGROUND.  19 

Even  in  a  natural  state,  without  artificial  fertilization,  most  of  the 
tillable  land  produces  good  crops  of  grain  or  vegetables.     On  myriads 

and  Devonian  strata,  accompanied  by  granite)  and  the  lines  of  strike  are  the 
6ame  as  those  observed  in  South-eastern  Cliina.  This  system  is  intersected  at 
either  end  by  another,  which  runs  S.S.  W.,  N.N.E.  On  the  west  it  commences  in 
Kiushiu,  and  extends  southward  in  the  direction  of  tlie  Liu  Kiu  Islands,  while  on 
the  east  it  constitutes  the  northern  branch  of  the  main  island,  and,  with  a  slight 
deviation  in  its  course,  continues  through  the  islands  of  Yezo  and  Saghalin.  A 
third  system,  which  properly  does  not  belong  to  Japan,  is  indicated  by  the  S.W. 
and  N.E.  line  of  the  Kuriles. 

The  above  outline  throws  light  on  the  distribution  of  volcanoes.  The  first 
system,  where  it  occupies  the  breadth  of  the  country  for  itself  alone,  is  as  free 
from  volcanoes,  or  an}'  accumulation  of  volcanic  rocks,  as  it  is  in  South-eastern 
China.  The  second  system  is  accompanied  by  volcanoes.  But  the  greatest  ac- 
cumulation of  volcanic  rocks,  as  well  as  of  the  extinct  volcanoes,  is  found  in  the 
places  of  interference,  or  those  regions  where  the  lines  of  the  two  systems  cross 
each  other,  and,  besides,  in  that  region  where  the  third  system  branches  off  from 
the  second.  To  the  same  three  regions  the  volcanoes  which  have  been  active  in 
historic  times  have  been  confined. 

In  the  geological  structure  of  Kiushiu,  the  longer  axis  is  from  N.  to  S.,  but  in- 
tersected by  several  solid  bars  made  up  of  very  ancient  rocks,  and  following  the 
strike  of  W.  30°  S.,  E.  30°  N.  They  form  high  mountain  barriers,  the  most  cen- 
tral of  which,  south  of  the  provinces  of  Higo  and  Bungo,  rises  to  over  seven 
thousand  feet,  and  is  extremely  wild  and  rugged.  In  Satsuma,  the  various  fam- 
ilies of  volcanic  rocks  have  arrived  at  the  surface  in  exactly  the  same  order  of 
succession  as  in  the  case  of  Hungary,  Mexico,  and  many  other  volcanic  regions, 
viz.,  first,  propylite,  or  trachytic  greenstone;  second,  andesite;  third,  trachyte 
and  rhyolite ;  fourth,  the  basaltic  rocks.  The  third  group  was  not  visited  by 
him.  Thomas  Antisell,  M.D.,  and  Professor  Benjamin  J.  Lyman,  M.E.,  and  Hen- 
ry S.  Munroe,  M.E.,  American  geologists  in  Yezo,  have  also  elucidated  this  inter- 
esting problem.  From  the  first  I  quote.  The  mountain  systems  of  Yezo  and 
farther  north  are  similar  to  those  in  the  northern  part  of  the  main  island.  There 
are  in  Yezo  two  distinct  systems  of  mountains.  One,  coming  down  directly  from 
the  north,  is  a  continuation  of  the  chain  in  Karafto  (Saghalin),  which,  after  pass- 
ing down  south  along  the  west  shore  of  Yezo,  is  found  in  Rihuoku,  Ugo,  Uzen, 
and  farther  south.  The  second  enters  Yezo  from  the  Kuriles  Islands  and  Kamt- 
chatka,  running  N.  20-25°  E.  and  S.  20-25°  W.,  and  crossing  in  places  the  first  sys- 
tem. It  is  from  the  existence  and  crossing  of  these  chains  that  Yezo  derives  its 
triangular  form.  The  two  systems  possess  very  different  mineral  contents  for 
their  axes.  The  first  has  an  essentially  granitic  and  feldspathic  axis,  produced, 
perhaps,  by  shrinkage,  and  is  slow  of  decomposition  of  its  minerals  forming 
the  soils.  The  second  has  an  axis,  plutonic  or  volcanic,  yielding  basalts,  traps, 
and  diorites,  decomposing  readily,  producing  deep  and  rich  soils.  Hence  the 
different  kinds  of  vegetation  on  the  two  chains.  Where  the  two  chains  cross, 
also,  there  is  found  a  form  of  country  closed  up  in  the  north  and  east  by  hills,  the 
valleys  opening  to  the  south  and  west.  This  volcanic  chain  is  secondary  in  the 
main  island  of  Japan ;  but  in  Yezo  and  in  Kiushiu  it  attains  great  prominence. 

Professor  Benjamin  S.  Lyman,  an  American  geologist,  has  also  made  valuable 
surveys  and  explorations  in  Yezo,  the  results  of  which  are  given  in  the  "Reports 
of  Horace  Capron  and  his  Foreign  Assistants,"  Tckio,  1875. 


20  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

of  rice-fields,  which  have  yielded  richly  for  ages,  the  fertilitv  is  easily 
maintained  by  irrigation  and  the  ordinary  application  of  manure,  the  na- 
tives being  proficient  in  both  these  branches  of  practical  husbandry. 

The  rivers  on  such  narrow  islands,  where  steep  mountains  and 
sharply  excavated  valleys  predominate,  are  of  necessity  mainly  useless 
for  navigation.  Ordinarily  they  are  little  more  than  brooks  that  flow 
lazily  in  narrow  and  shallow  channels  to  the  sea.  After  a  storm,  in 
rainy  weather,  or  in  winter,  they  become  swollen  torrents,  often  miles 
wide,  sweeping  resistlessly  over  large  tracts  of  land  which  they  keep 
perpetually  desolate — wildernesses  of  stones  and  gravel,  where  fruitful 
fields  ought  to  be.  The  area  of  land  kept  permanently  waste  in  Ja- 
pan on  this  account  is  enormous.  The  traveler,  who  to-day  crosses  a 
clear  brook  on  a  plank,  may  to-morrow  be  terrified  at  a  roaring  flood 
of  muddy  water  in  which  neither  man,  beast,  nor  boat  can  live  a  mo- 
ment. There  are,  however,  some  large  plains,  and  in  those  we  must 
look  to  find  the  navigable  rivers.  In  the  mountains  of  Shinano  and 
Kodzuke  are  found  the  sources  of  most  of  the  streams  useful  for  nav- 
igation on  the  main  island.  On  the  plains  of  the  Kuanto  (from  Suru- 
ga  to  Iwaki),  Oshiu  (Rikuchiu  and  Rikuzen),  Mino,  and  Echigo,  are  a 
few  rivers  on  which  one  may  travel  in  boats  hundreds  of  miles.  One 
may  go  by  water  from  Tokio  to  Niigata  by  making  a  few  portages,  and 
from  Ozaka  to  the  end  of  Lake  Biwa  by  natural  water.  In  the  north- 
ern part  of  Hondo  are  several  long  rivers,  notably  the  Kitagami  and 
Sakata.  In  Yezo  is  the  Ishikari.  In  Shikoku  are  several  fine  streams, 
which  are  large  for  the  size  of  the  islands.  Kiushiu  has  but  one  or 
two  of  any  importance.  Almost  every  one  of  these  rivers  abounds  in 
fish,  affording,  with  the  surrounding  ocean,  an  inexhaustible  and  easily 
attainable  supply  of  food  of  the  best  quality.  Before  their  history 
began,  the  aboriginal  islanders  made  this  brain-nourishing  food  their 
chief  diet,  and  through  the  recorded  centuries  to  the  quick-witted  Jap- 
anese proper  it  has  been  the  daily  meat. 

In  the  geologic  ages  volcanic  action  must  have  been  extremely  vio- 
lent, as  in  historic  time  it  has  been  almost  continual.  Hundreds,  at 
least,  of  mountains,  now  quiet,  were  once  blazing  furnaces.  The  ever- 
greenery  that  decks  them  to-day  reminds  one  of  the  ivy  that  mantles 
the  ruins,  or  the  fiowers  that  overgrow  the  neglected  cannon  on  the  bat- 
tle-field. Even  within  the  memory  of  men  pow  living  have  the  most 
awful  and  deadly  exhibitions  of  volcanic  desolation  been  witnessed. 
The  annals  of  Japan  are  replete  with  the  records  of  these  flame-and- 
lava-vomiting  mountains,  and  the  most  harrowing  tales  of  human  life 


THE  BACKOROUND.  21 

destroyed  and  human  industry  overwhelmed  are  truthfully  portrayed 
by  the  pencil  of  the  artist  and  the  pen  of  the  historian  in  the  native 
literature.  Even  now  the  Japanese  count  over  twenty  active  and  hun- 
dreds of  dormant  volcanoes.  As  late  as  1874,  the  volcano  of  Taromai, 
in  Yezo,  whose  crater  had  long  since  congealed,  leaving  only  a  few 
puffing  solfataras,  exploded,  blowing  its  rocky  cap  far  up  into  the  air, 
and  scattering  a  rain  of  ashes  as  far  as  the  sea-shore,  many  miles  dis- 
tant. Even  the  nearly  perfect  cone  of  Shiribeshi,  in  Yezo,  is  but  one 
of  many  of  nature's  colossal  ruins.  Asama  yama,  never  quiet,  puffs 
off  continual  jets  of  steam,  and  at  this  moment  of  writing  is  groan- 
ing and  quaking,  to  the  terror  of  the  people  around  it.  Even  the 
superb  Fuji,  that  sits  in  lordly  repose  and  looks  down  over  the  lesser 
peaks  in  thirteen  provinces,  owes  its  matchless  form  to  volcanic  ac- 
tion, being  clothed  by  a  garment  of  lava  on  a  throne  of  granite.  Ha- 
kuzan,  on  the  west  coast,  wdiich  uprears  its  form  above  the  clouds, 
nine  thousand  feet  from  the  sea-level,  and  holds  a  lakelet  of  purest 
water  in  its  bosom,  once  in  fire  and  smoke  belched  out  rocks  and  ul- 
cered its  crater  jaws  with  floods  of  white  and  black  lava.  Not  a  few 
of  these  smoking  furnaces  by  day  are  burning  lamps  by  night  to  the 
mariner.  Besides  the  masses  and  fields  of  scoria  one  everywhere 
meets,  other  evidences  of  the  fierce  unrest  of  the  past  are  noticed. 
Beds  of  sulphur  abound.  Satsuma,  Liu  Kiu,  and  Yezo  are  noted  for 
the  large  amount  they  easily  produce.  From  the  sides  of  Hakuzan 
huge  crystals  of  sulphur  are  dug.  Solfataras  exist  in  active  operation 
in  many  places.  Sulphur-springs  may  be  found  in  almost  every  prov- 
ince. Hot-springs  abound,  many  of  them  highly  impregnated  with 
mineral  salts,  and  famous  for  their  ge3'ser-like  rhythm  of  ebb  and  flow. 
In  Shinano  and  Echigo  the  people  cook  their  food,  and  the  farmer 
may  work  in  his  fields  by  night,  lighted  by  the  inflammable  gas  which 
issues  from  the  ground,  and  is  led  through  bamboo  tubes. 

Connected  with  volcanic  are  the  seismic  phenomena.  The  records 
of  Japan  from  the  earliest  time  make  frequent  mention  of  these  devas- 
tating and  terrifying  visitations  of  subterranean  disorder.  Not  only 
have  villages,  towns,  and  cities  been  shaken  down  or  ingulfed,  but  in 
many  neighborhoods  tradition  tells  of  mountains  that  have  disap- 
peared utterly,  or  been  leveled  to  earth.  The  local  histories,  so  nu- 
merous in  Japan,  relate  many  such  instances,  and  numerous  gullies 
and  depressions  produced  by  the  opening  and  partial  closure  of  the 
earth-lips  are  pointed  out.  One,  in  the  province  of  Echizen,  is  over  a 
mile  long,  and  resembles  a  great  trench. 


22  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

In  addition  to  a  good  soil,  Japan  has  been  generously  endowed  by 
the  Creator  with  mineral  riches.  Most  of  the  useful  varieties  of  stone 
are  found  throughout  the  empire.  Granite  and  the  harder  rocks, 
through  various  degrees  of  softness,  down  to  the  easily  carved  or 
chipped  sandstones  and  secondary  formations  useful  for  fortifications, 
buildings,  tombs,  walks,  or  walls,  exist  in  almost  every  province. 

Almost  all  the  useful  metals  long  known  to  man  are  found  in  this 
island  empire.  Gold  and  silver  in  workable  quantities  are  found  in 
many  places.  The  island  of  Sado  is  a  mass  of  gold-bearing  quartz.' 
Copper  is  very  abundant,  and  of  the  purest  kind.  Lead,  tin,  antimo- 
ny, and  manganese  abound.  Of  zinc  and  mercury  there  is  but  little. 
Iron  is  chiefly  in  the  form  of  magnetic  oxide.  It  occurs  in  the  dilu- 
vium of  rivers  and  along  the  sea-coast,  lying  in  beds,  often  of  great 
thickness.  The  first  quality  of  iron  may  be  extracted  from  it.  Iron- 
stone and  many  other  varieties  of  ore  are  also  found.  Petroleum 
issues  from  the  ground  in  Echigo,  Suruga,  Echizen,  Yezo,  and  in  Sag- 
halin ;  the  ocean  at  some  portions  on  the  coast  of  the  latter  is  said 
to  be  smeared  with  a  floating  scum  of  oil  for  miles. 

The  botanical  wealth  of  Japan  is  very  great.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  vegetable  species  have  doubtless  been  introduced  by  human 
agency  into  Japan  from  the  Asiatic  continent,  but  the  indigenous 
plants  and  those  imported  by  natural  means  are  very  numerous. 

The  timber  of  the  main  island,  Kiushiu,  and  Shikoku  is  superb  in 
appearance  and  growth,  of  great  variety,  beauty,  and  adaptability  to 
the  uses  of  man.  Yezo  is  one  vast  boom  and  lumber  yard.  Thirty- 
six  varieties  of  useful  timber-trees,  including  true  oak,  are  found  there. 
The  Kuriles  also  afford  rich  supplies,  and  are  capable  of  becoming  to 
the  empire  proper  what  forest-clad  Norway  is  to  England.  Yamato, 
on  the  main-land,  is  also  famous  for  its  forests,  ranging  from  tallest 
evergreen  trees  of  great  size,  fineness  of  grain,  and  strength  of  fibre,  to 
the  soft  and  easily  whittled  pines ;  but  the  incessant  demands  for  fir- 
ing and  carpentry  make  devastating  inroads  on  the  growing  timber. 
Split  wood  for  cooking,  and  charcoal  for  warmth,  necessitate  the  sys- 
tem of  forestry  long  in  vogue  in  some  parts  of  the  empire  requiring  a 
tree  to  be  planted  for  every  one  cut  down ;  and  nurseries  of  young 
forest  trees  are  regularly  set  out,  though  the  custom  is  not  universal. 
Most  of  the  trees  and  many  of  the  plants  are  evergreen,  thus  keeping 
the  islands  clothed  in  perpetual  verdure,  and  reducing  the  visual  dif- 
ference between  winter  and  summer,  in  the  southern  half  of  Hondo,  at 
least,  to  a  nearly  tropical  minimum. 


THE  BACKGROUND.  23 

The  various  varieties  of  bamboo,  graceful  in  appearance,  and  by  its 
strength,  symmetry,  hollowness,  and  regularity  of  cleavage,  adapted 
to  an  almost  endless  variety  of  uses,  are  almost  omnipresent,  from  the 
scrub  undergrowth  in  Yezo  to  that  cultivated  in  luxuriant  groves  in 
Satsuma  so  as  to  be  almost  colossal  in  proportion.  There  is,  how- 
ever, as  compared  with  our  own  country,  a  deficiency  of  fruit-trees 
and  edible  vegetables.  The  first  use  of  most  of  the  bread  grains 
and  plants  is  historic.  In  very  ancient  times  it  is  nearly  certain 
that  the  soil  produced  very  little  that  could  be  used  for  food,  except 
roots,  nuts,  and  berries.  This  is  shown  both  by  tradition  and  history, 
and  also  by  the  fact  that  the  names  of  vegetables  in  Japan  are  mostly 
foreign. 

The  geographical  position  of  the  Japanese  chain  would  lead  us  to 
expect  a  flora  American,  Asiatic,  and  semi-tropical  in  its  character. 
The  rapid  variations  of  temperature,  heavy  and  continuous  rains,  suc- 
ceeded by  scorching  heats  and  the  glare  of  an  almost  tropical  sun,  are 
accompanied  and  tempered  by  strong  and  constant  winds.  Hence  we 
find  semi-tropical  vegetable  forms  in  close  contact  with  Northern  tem- 
perate types.  In  general  the  predominant  nature  of  the  Japan  flora 
is  shrubby  rather  than  herbaceous.* 

The  geographical  position  of  Japan  hardly  explains  the  marked  re- 
semblance of  its  flora  to  that  of  Atlantic  America,f  on  the  one  hand, 
and  that  of  the  Himalaya  region,  on  the  other.     Such,  however,  is  the 


*  In  the  "Enumeratio  Plantarum,"  which  treats  of  all  the  known  exogens  and 
conifers  in  Japan,  1699  species  are  enumerated,  distributed  in  643  genera,  which 
axe  collocated  in  123  orders.  In  other  words,  an  imperfect  botanical  survey  of 
the  Nippon  chain  of  islands  shows  that  in  it  are  represented  nearly  half  the  nat- 
ural orders,  ten  per  cent,  of  the  genera,  and  nearly  three  per  cent,  of  the  species 
of  dicotyledons  known  to  exist  on  the  surface  of  the  globe.  Future  research 
must  largely  increase  the  number  of  species. 

t  Very  large  and  splendidly  illustrated  works  on  botany  exist  in  the  Japanese 
language.  The  native  botanists  classify  according  to  the  Linnaean  system.  In 
their  "Enumeratio  Plantarum"  (Paris,  1874),  Drs.  A.  Franchet  and  L.  Savatier 
have  given  a  resume  of  all  the  known  dicotyledonous  plants  in  Japan.  It  is  a  work 
of  great  research  and  conscientious  accuracy.  I  have  seen  excellent  and  volumi- 
nous native  works,  richly  illustrated,  on  ichthyology,  conchology,  zoology,  en- 
tomology, reptilology,  and  mineralogy.  Some  of  these  works  are  in  ninety  vol- 
umes each.  Ten  thousand  dollars  were  spent  by  a  wealthy  scholar  in  Mino  in 
the  publication  of  one  of  them.  They  would  not  satisfy  the  requirements  of  the 
exact  science  of  this  decade,  but  they  constitute  an  invaluable  thesaurus  to  the 
botanical  investigator.  I  am  indebted  for  most  of  the  information  concerning 
the  Japanese  flora  to  a  paper  in  the  Japan  Mail  of  September  25th,  1875,  from 
the  pen  of  a  competent  reviewer  of  Dr.  Savatier's  great  work. 


24  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

fact :  the  Japanese  flora  resembles  that  of  Eastern  North  America 
more  than  that  of  Western  North  America  or  Europe.* 

The  fauna  of  the  island  is  a  very  meagre  one,  and  it  is  also  quite 
probable  that  the  larger  domestic  animals  have  been  imported.  Of 
wild  beasts,  the  bear,  deer,  wolf,  badger,  fox,  and  monkey,  and  the 
smaller  ground  animals,  are  most  probably  indigenous.  So  far  as 
studied,  however,  the  types  approach  those  of  the  remote  American 
rather  than  those  of  the  near  Asiatic  continent. 

It  is  most  probable,  and  nearly  certain,  that  prehistoric  Japan  did 
not  possess  the  cow,  horse,  sheep,  or  goat.  Even  in  modern  Japan, 
the  poverty  of  the  fauna  strikes  the  traveler  with  surprise.  The  birds 
are  mostly  those  of  prey.  Eagles  and  hawks  are  abundant.  The 
crows,  with  none  to  molest  their  ancient  multitudinous  reign,  are  now, 
as  always  in  the  past,  innumerable.  The  twittering  of  a  noticeably 
small  number  of  the  smaller  birds  is  occasionally  heard ;  but  bird-song 
seems  to  have  been  omitted  from  the  catalogue  of  natural  glories  of 
this  island  empire.  Two  birds,  the  stork  and  heron,  now,  as  ancient- 
ly, tread  the  fields  in  stately  beauty,  or  strike  admiration  in  the  be- 
holder as  they  sail  in  perfect  grace  in  mid-air.  The  wild  ducks  and 
geese  in  flocks  have,  from  time  immemorial,  summered  in  Yezo  and 
wintered  in  Hondo. 

The  domestic  fowls  consist  almost  entirely  of  ducks  and  chickens. 
The  others  have,  doubtless,  been  imported.  Of  sea-birds  there  are  le- 
gions on  the  uninhabited  coasts,  and  from  the  rocks  the  fishermen 
gather  harvests  of  eggs. 

Surrounding  their  land  is  the  great  reservoir  of  food,  the  ocean. 
The  seas  of  Japan  are  probably  unexcelled  in  the  world  for  the  mul- 
titude and  variety  of  the  choicest  species  of  edible  fish.  The  many 
bays  and  gulfs  indenting  the  islands  have  been  for  ages  the  happy 
hunting-grounds  of  the  fisherman.     The  rivers  are  well  stocked  with 

*  The  results  of  Dr.  Asa  Gray's  investigations  of  the  herbarium  brought  to  the 

United  States  by  the  Perry  expedition  are  summed  up  as  follows : 
48  per  cent,  had  corresponding  European  representatives, 
3T    "     "       "  "  Western  North  American  representatives, 

61    "     "       "  "  Eiistern  North  American  representatives ; 

while 

27  per  cent,  were  identical  with  European  species, 
20    "     "        "  "  "    Western  North  American  species, 

23    "      "         "  "  "    Eastern  North  American  species. 

"Dr.  Gray's  report  was  drawn  up  in  1858,  when  Japanese  botany  was  little 

known,  and  considerable  alteration  might  be  made  in  his  figures ;  but  there  can 

be  little  doubt  that  the  general  result  would  be  the  same." 


THE  BACKGROUND.  25 

many  varieties  of  fresh-water  fish.  In  Yezo  the  finest  sahnon  exist  in 
inexhaustible  supply,  while  almost  every  species  of  edible  shell-fish, 
mollusca  and  Crustacea,  enlivens  the  shores  of  the  islands,  or  fertilizes 
the  soil  with  its  catacombs.  So  abundant  is  fish  that  fish-manure  is 
an  article  of  standard  manufacture,  sale,  and  use.  The  variety  and 
luxuriance  of  edible  sea-weed  are  remarkable. 

The  aspects  of  nature  in  Japan,  as  in  most  volcanic  countries,  com- 
prise a  variety  of  savage  hideousness,  appalling  destructiveness,  and 
almost  heavenly  beauty.  From  the  mountains  burst  volcanic  erup- 
tions ;  from  the  land  come  tremblings ;  from  the  ocean  rises  the 
tidal  wave ;  over  it  blows  the  cyclone.  Floods  of  rain  in  summer 
and  autumn  give  rise  to  inundations  and  land-slides.  During  three 
months  of  the  year  the  inevitable,  dreaded  typhoon  may  be  expected, 
as  the  invisible  agent  of  hideous  ruin.  Along  the  coast  the  winds 
and  currents  are  very  variable.  Sunken  and  emerging  rocks  line  the 
shore.  All  these  make  the  dark  side  of  nature  to  cloud  the  imagina- 
tion of  man,  and  to  create  the  nightmare  of  superstition.  But  Nat- 
ure's glory  outshines  her  temporary  gloom,  and  in  presence  of  her 
cheering  smiles  the  past  terrors  are  soon  forgotten.  The  pomp  of 
vegetation,  the  splendor  of  the  landscape,  and  the  heavenly  gentleness 
of  air  and  climate  come  to  soothe  and  make  vivacious  the  spirits  of 
man.  The  seasons  come  and  go  with  well-nigh  perfect  regularity; 
the  climate  at  times  reaches  the  perfection  of  that  in  a  temperate  zone 
— not  too  sultry  in  summer,  nor  raw  in  winter.  A  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  rarely  see  ice  over  an  inch  thick,  or  snow  more  than  twen- 
ty-four hours  old.  The  average  lowest  point  in  cold  weather  is  prob- 
ably 20°  Fahrenheit.* 

The  surrounding  ocean  and  the  variable  winds  temper  the  climate 
in  summer ;  the  Kuro  Shiwo,  the  Gulf  Stream  of  the  Pacific,  modifies 
the  cold  of  winter.  A  sky  such  as  ever  arches  over  the  Mediterra- 
nean bends  above  Japan,  the  ocean  walls  her  in,  and  ever  green  and  fer- 
tile land  is  hers.  With  healthful  air,  fertile  soil,  temperate  climate,  a 
land  of  mountains  and  valleys,  with  a  coast -line  indented  with  bays 
and  harbors,  food  in  plenty,  a  country  resplendent  with  natural  beau- 
ty, but  liable  at  any  moment  to  awful  desolation  and  hideous  ruin, 
what  influences  had  Nature  in  forming  the  physique  and  character  of 
the  people  who  inhabit  Japan  ? 


*  For  statistics  relating  to  nearly  all  the  subjects  treated  of  in  this  chapter,  see 
appendices  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 


26  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


IL 

THE  ABORIGINES* 

In  seeking  the  origin  of  the  Japanese  people,  we  must  take  into 
consideration  the  geographical  position  of  their  island  chain,  with  ref- 
erence to  its  proximity  to  the  main-land,  and  its  situation  in  the  ocean 
currents.  Japanese  traditions  and  history  may  have  much  to  tell  us 
concerning  the  present  people  of  Japan — whether  they  are  exclusively 
an  indigenous  race,  or  the  composite  of  several  ethnic  stocks.  From 
a  study,  however  imperfect,  of  the  language,  physiognomy,  and  bodily 
characteristics,  survivals  of  ancient  culture,  historic  geology,  and  the 
relics  of  man's  struggle  with  nature  in  the  early  ages,  and  of  the  act- 
ual varieties  of  mankind  now  included  within  the  mikado's  domin- 
ions,! we  may  learn  much  of  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Japanese. 

The  horns  of  the  crescent  -  shaped  chain  of  Dai  Nippon  approach 
the  Asiatic  continent  at  the  southern  end  of  Corea  and  at  Siberia. 
Nearly  the  whole  of  Saghalin  is  within  easy  reach  of  the  continent 
by  canoe.  At  the  point  called  Norato,  a  little  north  of  the  fifty-sec- 
ond parallel,  the  opposite  shore,  but  five  miles  distant,  is  easily  seen. 
The  water  is  here  so  shallow  that  junks  can  not  cross  it  at  low  tide. 
After  long  prevalent  favorable  winds,  the  ground  is  left  dry,  and  the 


*  I  use  the  term  "aborigines"  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  being  by  no  means 
absolutely  sure  that  those  I  so  designate  were  the  first  people  in  situ.  It  has 
been  conjectured  and  held  by  some  native  scholars  that  there  was  in  Japan  a  pre- 
Aino  civilization ;  though  of  this  there  is  scarcely  a  shadow  of  proof,  as  there  is 
proof  for  an  ancient  Malay  civilization  higher  than  the  present  condition  of  the 
Malays.  By  the  term  "aborigines"  I  mean  the  people  found  on  the  soil  at  the 
dawn  of  history. 

t  In  compiling  this  chapter  I  have  used,  in  addition  to  my  own  material  and 
that  derived  from  Japanese  books,  students,  and  residents  in  Yezo,  the  careful 
notes  of  the  English  travelers,  Captains  Bridgeford  and  Blakiston,  and  Mr.  Ernest 
Satow,  and  the  reports  and  verbal  accounts  of  the  American  engineers  and  geolo- 
gists in  the  service  of  the  Kai  Takii  Shi  (Department  for  the  Development  of 
Yezo),  organized  in  1869  by  the  Imperial  Government  of  Japan.  Of  these  latter, 
I  am  especially  indebted  to  Professors  B.  S.  Lyman,  Henry  S.  Munroe,  and  Thomas 
Antisell,  M.D. 


THE  ABORIGINES.  27 

natives  can  walk  dry-shod  into  Asia.  During  three  or  four  months 
in  the  year  it  is  frozen  over,  so  that,  with  dog-teams  or  on  foot,  com- 
munication is  often  a  matter  of  a  single  hour.  In  Japanese  atlases, 
on  the  map  of  Karafto,  a  sand-bank  covered  by  very  shallow  water 
is  figured  as  occupying  the  spaco  between  the  island  and  the  conti- 
nent. A  people  even  without  canoes  might  make  this  place  a  gate 
of  entrance  into  Saghalin.  The  people  thus  entering  Japan  from  the 
north  would  have  the  attraction  of  richer  supplies  of  food  and  more 
genial  climate  to  tempt  them  southward.  As  matter  of  fact,  com- 
munication is  continually  taking  place  between  the  Asiatic  main-land 
and  Saghalin, 

Japan  occupies  a  striking  position  in  the  ocean  currents  which  flow 
up  from  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Malay  peninsula.  That  branch  of 
the  great  equatorial  current  of  the  Pacific,  called  the  Kuro  Shiwo,  or 
Black  Stream,  on  account  of  its  color,  flows  up  in  a  westerly  direction 
past  Luzon,  Formosa,  and  the  Liu  Kiu  Islands,  striking  the  south  point 
of  Kiushiu,  and  sometimes,  in  summer,  sending  a  branch  up  the  Sea  of 
Japan.  With  great  velocity  it  scours  the  east  coast  of  Kiushiu,  the 
south  of  Shikokti ;  thence,  wdth  diminished  rapidity,  enveloping  both 
the  group  of  islands  south  of  the  Bay  of  Yedo  and  Oshima ;  and,  at 
a  point  a  little  north  of  the  latitude  of  Tokio,  it  leaves  the  coast  of  Ja- 
pan, and  flows  north-east  toward  the  shores  of  America.  With  the 
variable  winds,  cyclones,  and  sudden  and  violent  storms  continually 
arising,  for  which  the  coasts  of  Eastern  Asia  are  notorious,  it  is  easUy 
seen  that  the  drifting  northward  from  the  Malay  Archipelago  of  boats 
and  men,  and  sowing  of  the  shores  of  Kiushiu,  Shikokii,  and  the  west- 
ern shores  of  Hondo  with  people  from  the  south  and  west,  must  have 
been  a  regular  and  continuous  process.  This  is  shown  to  be  the  fact 
in  Japanese  history,  in  both  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  is  taking 
place  nearly  every  year  of  the  present  century. 

It  seems  most  probable  that  the  savages  descended  from  the  north, 
tempted  south  by  richer  fisheries  and  a  wanner  climate,  or  urged  on 
by  successive  immigrations  from  the  continent.  There  is  abundant 
evidence  from  Japanese  history  of  the  habitation  of  the  main  island 
by  the  Ainos,  the  savages  whose  descendants  now  occupy  Yezo.  Shi- 
koku  and  Kiushiu  were  evidently  peopled  by  mixed  races,  sprung  of 
the  waifs  from  the  various  shores  of  Southern  Asia.  When  the  con- 
querors landed  in  Kiushiu,  or,  in  sacred  Japanese  phrase,  "  when  our 
divine  ancestors  descended  from  heaven  to  the  earth,"  they  found  the 
land  peopled  by  savages,  under  tribal  organizations,  living  in  villages, 


28  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

each  governed  by  a  head-man.  Conquering  first  the  aborigines  of 
Kiushiu  and  Shikoku,  they  advanced  into  the  main  island,  fought  and 
tranquilized  the  Ainos,  then  called  Ebisti,  or  barbarians,  and  fixed  their 
capital  not  far  from  Kioto.  The  Ainos  were  not  subjugated  in  a 
day,  however,  and  continual  military  operations  were  necessary  to  keep 
them  quiet.  Only  after  centuries  of  fighting  were  they  thoroughly 
subdued  and  tranquilized.  The  traveler  to-day  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  main  island  may  see  the  barrows  of  the  Ainos'  bones  slain  by 
Japanese  armies  more  than  a  millennium  ago.  One  of  these  mounds^ 
near  Morioka,  in  Rikuchiu,  very  large,  and  named  "  Yezo  mori "  (Aino 
mound),  is  especially  famous,  containing  the  bones  of  the  aborigines 
slaughtered,  heaps  upon  heaps,  by  the  Japanese  shogun  (general),  Ta- 
mura,  who  was  noted  for  being  six  feet  high,  and  for  his  many  bloody 
victories  over  the  Ebisti. 

For  centuries  more,  the  distinction  between  conquerors  and  con- 
quered, as  between  Saxon  and  Norman  in  England,  was  kept  up ;  but 
at  length  the  fusion  of  races  was  complete,  and  the  homogeneous  Jap- 
anese people  is  the  result.  The  remnants  of  Ainos  in  Yezo,  shut  oil 
by  the  straits  of  Tsugaru  from  Hondo,  have  preserved  the  aboriginal 
blood  in  purity. 

The  traditional  origin  of  the  Ainos,  said  to  be  given  by  them- 
selves, though  I  suspect  the  story  to  be  an  invention  of  the  conquer- 
ors, or  of  the  Japanese,  is  as  follows :  A  certain  prince,  named 
Kamui,  in  one  of  the  kingdoms  in  Asia,  had  three  daughters.  One 
of  them  having  become  the  object  of  the  incestuous  passion  of  her 
father,  by  which  her  body  became  covered  with  hair,  quit  his  palacG 
in  the  middle  of  the  night,  and  fled  to  the  sea-shore.  There  she  foand 
a  deserted  canoe,  on  board  which  was  only  a  large  dog.  The  yoaug 
girl  resolutely  embarked  with  her  only  companion  to  journey  to  some 
place  in  the  East,  After  many  months  of  travel,  the  young  princess 
reached  an  uninhabited  place  in  the  mountains,  and  there  gave  birth 
to  two  children,  a  boy  and  a  girl.  These  were  the  ancestors  of  the 
Aino  race.  Their  offspring  in  turn  married,  some  among  each  other, 
others  with  the  bears  of  the  mountains.  The  fruits  of  this  latter  un- 
ion were  men  of  extraordinary  valor,  and  nimble  hunters,  who,  after 
a  long  life  spent  in  the  vicinity  of  their  birth,  departed  to  the  far 
north,  where  they  still  live  on  the  high  and  inaccessible  table-lands 
above  the  mountains  ;  and,  being  immortal,  they  direct,  by  their  mag- 
ical influences,  the  actions  and  the  destiny  of  men,  that  is,  the  Ainos. 

The  term  "Aino  "  is  a  comparatively  modern  epithet,  applied  by  the 


THE  ABORIGINES.  29 

Japanese.  Its  derivation,  as  given  by  several  eminent  native  scholars 
whom  I  have  consulted,  is  from  inu,  a  dog.  Others  assert  that  it  is 
an  abbreviation  of  ai  no  ko,  "  offspring  of  the  middle ;"  that  is,  a 
breed  between  man  and  beast.  Or,  if  the  Japanese  were  believers  in 
a  theory  called  of  late  years  the  "  Darwinian,"  an  idea  by  no  means 
unknown  in  their  speculations,  the  Ainos  would  constitute  the  "  miss- 
ing link,"  or  "  intermediate  "  between  man  and  the  brutes.  In  the 
ancient  Japanese  literature,  and  until  probably  the  twelfth  century, 
the  Ainos  were  called  Ebisu,  or  savages. 

The  proofs  from  language  of  the  Aino  ancestry  of  the  Japanese  are 
very  strong.  So  far  as  studied,  the  Aino  tongue  and  the  Altai  dia- 
lects are  said  to  be  very  similar.  The  Aino  and  Japanese  languages 
differ  no  more  than  certain  Chinese  dialects  do  from  each  other. 
Ainos  and  Japanese  have  little  difficulty  in  learning  to  speak  the  lan- 
guage of  each  other.  The  most  ancient  specimens  of  the  Japanese 
tongue  are  found  to  show  as  great  a  likenesss  to  the  Aino  as  to  mod- 
ern Japanese. 

Further  proofs  of  the  general  habitation  of  Hondo  by  the  Ainos 
appear  in  the  geographical  names  which  linger  upon  the  mountains 
and  rivers.  These  names,  musical  in  sound,  and  possessing,  in  their 
significance,  a  rude  grandeur,  have  embalmed  the  life  of  a  past  race, 
as  the  sweet  names  of  "Juniata"  and  "Altamaha,"  or  the  sonorous 
onomatopes  of  "  Niagara,"  "  Katahdin,"  and  "  Tuscarora "  echo  the 
ancient  glories  of  the  well-nigh  extinct  aborigines  of  America,  who  in- 
deed may  be  brethren  of  the  Ainos.  These  names  abounding  in  the 
north,  especially  in  the  provinces  north  of  the  thirty-eighth  parallel, 
are  rare  in  the  south,  and  in  most  cases  have  lost  their  exact  ancient 
pronunciation  by  being  for  centuries  spoken  by  Japanese  tongues. 

The  evidences  of  an  aboriginal  race  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  rel- 
ics of  the  Stone  Age  in  Japan.  Flint,  arrow  and  spear  heads,  ham- 
mers, chisels,  scrapers,  kitchen  refuse,  and  various  other  trophies,  are 
frequently  excavated,  or  may  be  found  in  the  museum  or  in  homes  of 
private  persons.  Though  covered  with  the  soil  for  centuries,  they 
seem  as  though  freshly  brought  from  an  Aino  hut  in  Yezo.  In  scores 
of  striking  instances,  the  very  peculiar  ideas,  customs,  and  superstitions, 
of  both  Japanese  and  Aino,  are  the  same,  or  but  slightly  modified. 

Amidst  many  variations,  two  distinctly  marked  types  of  features 
are  found  among  the  Japanese  people.  Among  the  upper  classes,  the 
fine,  long,  oval  face,  with  prominent,  well-chiseled  features,  deep-sunk- 
en eye-sockets,  oblique  eyes,  long,  drooping  eyelids,  elevated  and  arch- 

3 


30  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ed  eyebrows,  high  and  narrow  forehead,  rounded  nose,  bud-like  mouth, 
pointed  chin,  small  hands  and  feet,  contrast  strikingly  with  the  round, 
flattened  face,  less  oblique  eyes  almost  level  with  the  face,  and  straight 
noses,  expanded  and  upturned  at  the  roots.  The  former  type  prevails 
among  the  higher  classes — the  nobility  and  gentry ;  the  latter,  among 
the  agricultural  and  laboring  classes.  The  one  is  the  Aino,  or  north- 
ern type ;  the  other,  the  southern,  or  Yamato  type.     In  the  accom- 


The  High  and  the  Low  Type  of  the  Japanese  Face— Aristocratic  and  Plebeian.    (Lady 
and  Maid-servant.) 

panying  cut  this  difference  is  fairly  shown  in  the  strongly  contrasting 
types  of  the  Japanese  lady  and  her  servant,  or  child's  nurse.  The 
modern  Ainos  are  found  inhabiting  the  islands  of  Yezo,  Saghalin,  the 
Kuriles,  and  a  few  of  the  outlying  islands.  They  number  less  than 
twenty  thousand  in  all. 

As  the  Aino  of  to-day  is  and  lives,  so  Japanese  art  and  traditions 
depict  him  in  the  dawn  of  history :  of  low  stature,  thick  -  set,  full- 
bearded,  bushy  hair  of  a  true  black,  eyes  set  at  nearly  right  angles 
with  the  nose,  which  is  short  and  thick,  and  chipped  at  the  end,  mus- 
cular in  frame  and  limbs,  with  big  hands  and  feet.  His  language,  re- 
ligion, dress,  and  general  manner  of  life  are  the  same  as  of  old.  He 
has  no  alphabet,  no  writing,  no  numbers  above  a  thousand.  His  rice, 
tobacco,  and  pipe,  cotton  garments,  and  worship  of  Yoshitsune,  are  of 
course  later  innovations — steps  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  Since  the 
Restoration  of  1868,  a  number  of  Ainos  of  both  sexes  have  been  liv- 


THE  ABORIGINES.  31 

ing  in  Tokio,  under  instruction  of  the  Kai  Taku  Shi  (Department  for 
the  Colonization  of  Yezo).  I  have  had  frequent  opportunities  of  study- 
ing their  physical  characteristics,  language,  and  manners. 

Their  dwellings  in  Yezo  are  made  of  poles  covered  over  with  thick 
straw  mats,  with  thatched  roofs,  the  windows  and  doors  being  holes 
'  covered  with  the  same  material.  The  earth  beaten  down  hard  forms 
the  floor,  on  which  a  few  coarse  mattings  or  rough  boards  are  laid. 
Many  of  the  huts  are  divided  into  two  apartments,  separated  by  a 
mud  and  wattle  partition.  The  fire-place,  with  its  pot-hooks,  occupies 
the  centre.  There  being  no  chimney,  the  interior  walls  become  thick- 
ly varnished  with  creosote,  densely  packed  with  flakes  of  carbon,  or 
festooned  with  masses  of  soot.  They  are  adorned  with  the  imple- 
ments of  the  chase,  and  the  skulls  of  animals  taken  in  hunting. 
Scarcely  any  furniture  except  cooking-pots  is  visible.  The  empyreu- 
matical  odor  and  the  stench  of  fish  do  not  conspire  to  make  the  visit 
to  an  Aino  hut  very  pleasant. 

Raised  benches  along  two  walls  of  the  hut  afford  a  sleeping  or 
lounging  place,  doubtless  the  original  of  the  tokononia  of  the  modern 
Japanese  houses.  They  sit,  like  the  Japanese,  on  their  heels.  Their 
food  is  mainly  fish  and  sea-weed,  with  rice,  beans,  sweet-potatoes,  mil- 
let, and  barley,  which,  in  Southern  Yezo,  they  cultivate  in  small  plots. 
They  obtain  rice,  tobacco,  sake,  or  rice-beer,  an  exhilarating  beverage 
which  they  crave  as  the  Indians  do  "  fire-water,"  and  cotton  clothing 
from  their  masters,  the  Japanese.  The  women  weave  a  coarse,  strong, 
and  durable  cloth,  ornamented  in  various  colors,  and  ropes  from  the 
barks  of  trees.  They  make  excellent  dug-out  canoes  from  elm-trees. 
Their  dress  consists  of  an  under,  and  an  upper  garment  having  tight 
sleeves  and  reaching  to  the  knees,  very  much  like  that  of  the  Japanese. 
The  woman's  dress  is  longer,  and  the  sleeves  wider.  They  wear,  also, 
straw  leggings  and  straw  shoes.  Their  hair,  which  is  astonishingly 
thick,  is  clipped  short  in  front,  and  falls  in  masses  down  the  back  and 
sides  to  the  shoulders.  It  is  of  a  true  black,  whereas  the  hair  of  the 
Japanese,  when  freed  from  unguents,  is  of  a  dark  or  reddish  brown, 
and  I  have  seen  distinctly  red  hair  among  the  latter.  The  beard  and 
mustaches  of  the  Ainos  are  allowed  to  attain  their  fullest  develop- 
ment, the  former  often  reaching  the  length  of  twelve  or  fourteen  inch- 
es. Hence,  Ainos  take  kindly  to  the  "  hairy  foreigners,"  Englishmen 
and  Americans,  whose  bearded  faces  the  normal  Japanese  despise,  while 
to  a  Japanese  child,  as  I  found  out  in  Fukui,  a  man  with  mustaches  ap- 
pears to  be  only  a  dragon  without  wings  or  tail.     Some,  not  all,  of  the 


32 


THE  MIKADO'S  E3IPIRE. 


older  men,  but  very  few  of  the  younger,  have  their  bodies  and  limbs 
covered  with  thick  black  hair,  about  an  inch  long.  The  term  "  hairy 
Kuriles,"  applied  to  them  as  a  characteristic  hairy  race,  is  a  mythical 
expression  of  book-makers,  as  the  excessively  hirsute  covering  supposed 
to  be  universal  among  the  Ainos  is  not  to  be  found  by  the  investi- 
gator on  the  ground.  Their 
skin  is  brown,  their  eyes  are 
horizontal,  and  their  noses 
low,  with  the  lobes  well 
rounded  out.  The  women 
are  of  proportionate  stature 
to  the  men,  but,  unlike  them, 
are  very  ugly,  I  never  met 
with  a  handsome  Aino  fe- 
male, though  I  have  seen 
many  of  the  Yezo  women. 
Their  mouths  seem  like  those 
of  ogres,  and  to  stretch  from 
ear  to  ear.  This  arises  from 
the  fact  that  they  tattoo  a 

An  Aino  Chief  from  Yezo.      (From  a  photograph    wide  band  of  dirty  blue,  like 
talien  iu  TOkio,  1S72.)  .,  i      j>  ^i  •      ^  -r«  -i 

the  woad  or  the  ancient  Brit- 
ons, around  their  lips,  to  the  extent  of  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and 
still  longer  at  the  tapering  extremities.  The  tattooing  is  so  com- 
pletely done,  that  many  persons  mistake  it  for  a  daub  of  blue  paint, 
like  the  artificial  exaggeration  of  a  circus  clown's  mouth.  They  in- 
crease their  hideousness  by  joining  their  eyebrows  over  the  nose  by  a 
fresh  band  of  tattooing.  This  practice  is  resorted  to  in  the  case  of 
married  w^omen  and  females  who  are  of  age,  just  as  that  of  blacken- 
ing the  teeth  and  shaving  the  eyebrows  is  among  the  Japanese. 

They  are  said  to  be  faithful  wives  and  laborious  helpmates,  their 
moral  qualities  compensating  for  their  lack  of  physical  charms.  The 
women  assist  in  hunting  and  fishing,  often  possessing  equal  skill  with 
the  men.  They  carry  their  babies  pickapack,  as  the  Japanese  moth- 
ers, except  that  the  strap  passing  under  the  child  is  put  round  the 
mother's  forehead.     Polygamy  is  permitted. 

Their  weapons  are  of  the  rudest  form.  The  three-pronged  spear  is 
used  for  the  salmon.  The  single  -  bladed  lance  is  for  the  bear,  their 
most  terrible  enemy,  which  they  regard  with  superstitious  reverence. 
Their  bows  are  simply  peeled  boughs,  three  feet  long.     The  arrows 


fHE  ABORIGINES.  33 

are  one  foot  shorter,  and,  like  those  used  by  the  tribes  on  the  coast  of 
Siberia  and  in  Formosa,  have  no  feather  on  the  shaft.  Their  pipes  are 
of  the  same  form  as  those  so  common  in  Japan  and  China ;  and  one 
obtained  from  an  Aino  came  from  Santan,  a  place  in  Amurland. 

The  Ainos  possess  dogs,  which  they, use  in  hunting,  understand  the 
use  of  charcoal  and  candles,  make  excellent  baskets  and  wicker-work 
of  many  kinds;  and  some  of  their  fine  bark -cloth  and  ornamented 
weapons  for  their  chiefs  show  a  skill  and  taste  that  compare  very  fa- 
vorably with  those  exhibited  by  the  North  American  Indians.  Their 
oars,  having  handlesj  fixed  crosswise,  or  sculls  made  in  two  pieces,  are 
almost  exactly  like  those  of  the  Japanese.  Their  river-canoes  are  dug 
out  of  a  log,  usually  elm.  Two  men  Avill  fashion  one  in  five  days. 
For  the  sea-coast,  they  use  a  frame  of  wood,  lacing  on  the  sides  with 
bark  fibre.     They  are  skillful  canoe-men,  using  either  pole  or  paddle. 

The  language  of  the  Aino  is  rude  and  poor,  but  much  like  the  Jap- 
anese. It  resembles  it  so  closely,  allowing  for  the  fact  that  it  is  utter- 
ly unpolished  and  undeveloped,  that  it  seems  highly  probable  it  is  the 
original  of  the  present  Japanese  tongue.  They  have  no  written  char- 
acter, no  writing  of  any  sort,  no  literature.  A  further  study  may  pos- 
sibly reveal  valuable  traditions  held  among  them,  which  at  present 
they  are  not  known  by  me  to  have. 

In  character  and  morals,  the  Ainos  are  stupid,  good-natured,  brave, 
honest,  faithful,  peaceful,  and  gentle.  The  American  and  English  trav- 
elers in  Yezo  agree  in  ascribing  to  them  these  qualities.  Their  meth- 
od of  salutation  is  to  raise  the  hands,  with  the  palms  upward,  and 
stroke  the  beard.  They  understand  the  rudiments  of  politeness,  as 
several  of  their  verbal  expressions  and  gestures  indicate. 

Their  religion  consists  in  the  worship  of  kami,  or  spirits.  They  do 
not  appear  to  have  any  special  minister  of  religion  or  sacred  struct- 
ure.*    They  have  festivals  commemorative  of  certain  events  in  the 

*  Some  visitors  to  the  Aino  villages  in  Yezo  declare  that  they  have  noticed 
there  the  presence  of  tlie  pliallic  shrines  and  symbols.  It  might  be  interesting 
if  this  assertion,  and  the  worship  of  these  symbols  by  the  Ainos,  were  clearly 
proved.  It  would  help  to  settle  definitely  the  question  of  the  origin  in  Japan  of 
this  oldest  form  of  fetich  worship,  the  evidences  of  which  are  found  all  over  the 
Nippon  island-chain,  including  Yezo.  I  have  noticed  the  prevalence  of  these 
shrines  and  symbols  especially  in  Eastern  and  Northern  Japan,  having  counted 
as  many  as  a  dozen,  and  these  by  the  roadside,  in  a  trip  to  Nil\ko.  The  barren 
of  both  sexes  worship  them,  or  ofier  them  ex  voto.  In  Sagami,  Kadzusa,  and  even 
in  Tokio  itself,  they  were  visible  as  late  as  1874,  cut  in  stone  and  wood.  Former- 
ly the  toy-shops,  porcelain-shops,  and  itinerant  venders  of  many  wares  were  well 
supplied  with  them,  made  of  various  materials;  they  were  to  be  seen  in  the  cor- 


34  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

past,  and  they  worship  the  spirit  of  Yoshitsune,  a  Japanese  hero,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  among  them  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
who  taught  them  some  of  the  arts  of  Japanese  civilization. 

The  outward  symbols  of  their  religion  are  sticks  of  wood  two  or 
three  feet  long,  which  they  whittle  all  around  toward  the  end  into 
shavings,  until  the  smooth  wand  contains  a  mass  of  pendent  curls,  as 
seen  in  the  engraving,  page  32.  They  insert  several  of  these  in  the 
ground  at  certain  places,  which  they  hold  sacred.  The  Ainos  also 
deify  mountains,  the  sea,  which  furnishes  their  daily  food,  bears,  the 
forests,  and  other  natural  objects,  which  they  believe  to  possess  intel- 
ligence. These  wands  with  the  curled  shavings  are  set  up  in  every 
place  of  supposed  danger  or  evil  omen.  The  traveler  in  Yezo  sees 
them  on  precipices,  gorges  of  mountains,  dangerous  passes,  and  river 
banks. 

When  descending  the  rapids  of  a  river  in  Yezo,  he  will  notice  that 
his  Aino  boatmen  from  time  to  time  will  throw  one  of  these  wands 
into  the  river  at  every  dangerous  point  or  turning.  The  Ainos  pray 
raising  their  hands  above  their  heads.  The  Buddhist  bonzes  have  in 
vain  attempted  to  convert  them  to  Buddhism.  They  have  rude  songs, 
which  they  chant  to  their  kami,  or  gods,  and  to  the  deified  sea,  forest, 
mountains,  and  bears,  especially  at  the  close  of  the  hunting  and  fish- 
ing season,  in  all  affairs  of  great  importance,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
year.     The  following  is  given  as  a  specimen  : 

"To  the  sea  which  nourishes  us,  to  the  forest  that  protects  us,  we 
present  our  grateful  thanks.  You  are  two  mothers  that  nourish  the 
same  child ;  do  not  be  angi'y  if  we  leave  one  to  go  to  the  other." 

*'  The  Ainos  will  always  be  the  pride  of  the  forest  and  the  sea." 

The  inquirer  into  the  origin  of  the  Japanese  must  regret  that  as 
yet  we  know  comparatively  little  of  the  Ainos  and  their  language. 
Any  opinion  hazarded  on  the  subject  may  be  pronounced  rash.  Yet, 
after  a  study  of  all  the  obtainable  facts,  I  believe  they  unmistakably 


nucopia-banners  at  New-year's,  paraded  in  the  festivals,  and  at  unexpected  times 
and  places  disturbed  the  foreign  spectator.  It  was  like  a  glimpse  of  life  in  the 
antediluvian  world,  or  of  ancient  India,  whence  doubtless  they  came,  to  see  evi- 
dences of  this  once  widely  prevalent  form  of  early  religion.  Buddhist  priests 
whom  I  have  consulted  affirm,  with  some  warmth,  that  they  arose  in  the  "  wick- 
ed time  of  Ashikaga,"  though  the  majority  of  natives,  learned  and  unlearned,  say 
they  are  the  relics  of  the  ancient  people,  or  aborigines.  In  1873  the  mikado's 
Government  prohibited  the  sale  or  exposure  of  these  emblems  in  any  form  or 
shape,  together  with  the  more  artistic  obscenities,  pictures,  books,  carvings,  and 
photographs,  sent  out  from  the  studios  of  Paris  and  London. 


THE  ABORIGINES.  36 

point  to  the  Ainos  as  the  primal  ancestors  of  the  Japanese ;  that  the 
mass  of  the  Japanese  people  of  to-day  are  substantially  of  Aino  stock. 
An  infusion  of  foreign  blood,  the  long  effects  of  the  daily  hot  baths 
and  the  warm  climate  of  Southern  Japan,  of  Chinese  civilization,  of 
agricultural  instead  of  the  hunter's  method  of  life,  have  wrought  the 
change  between  the  Aino  and  the  Japanese. 

It  seems  equally  certain  that  almost  all  that  the  Japanese  possess 
which  is  not  of  Chinese,  Corean,  or  Tartar  origin  has  descended  from 
the  Aino,  or  has  been  developed  or  improved  from  an  Aino  model 
The  Ainos  of  Yezo  hold  politically  the  same  relation  to  the  Japanese 
as  the  North  American  Indians  do  to  the  white  people  of  the  United 
States ;  but  ethnically  they  are,  with  probability  bordering  very  closely 
on  certainty,  as  the  Saxons  to  the  English.* 

*  I  need  scarcely,  except  to  relieve,  by  borrowed  humor,  the  dull  weighing  of 
facts,  and  the  construction  of  an  opinion  void  of  all  dogmatism,  notice  the  as- 
sertion elaborated  at  length  by  some  Americans,  Scotchmen,  and  others  too, 
for  aught  I  know,  that  the  Ainos  are  the  "  ten  lost  tribes  of  Israel,"  or  that 
they  are  the  descendants  of  the  sailors  and  gold-hunters  sent  out  by  King  Solo- 
mon to  gain  spoil  for  his  temple  at  Jerusalem.  Really,  this  search  after  the 
"  lost  tribes  " — or  have  they  consolidated  into  the  Wandering  Jew  ? — is  becoming 
absurd.  They  are  the  most  discovered  people  known.  They  have  been  found  in 
America,  Britain,  Persia,  India,  China,  Japan,  and  in  Yezo.  I  know  of  but  one 
haystack  left  to  find  this  needle  in,  and  that  is  Corea.  It  will  undoubtedly  be 
found  there.  It  has  been  kindly  provided  that  there  are  more  worlds  for  these 
Alexanders  to  conquer.  It  is  now  quite  necessary  for  the  archoeological  respect- 
ability of  a  people  that  they  be  the  "  lost  tribes."  To  the  inventory  of  wonders 
in  Japan  some  would  add  that  of  her  containing  "  the  dispersed  among  the  Gen- 
tiles," notwithstanding  that  the  same  claim  has  been  made  for  a  dozen  other 
nations. 

The  Aino  Arrow-poison. — Dr.  Stuart  Eldredge,  who  has  studied  the  properties 
of  the  Aino  arrow-poison,  states  that  it  is  made  by  macerating  and  pounding  the 
roots  of  one  or  more  of  the  virulent  species  of  aconite,  mixing  the  mass  into  a 
paste,  with  (perhaps)  inert  ingredients,  and  burying  it  in  the  ground  for  some 
time.  The  stiif,  dark,  reddish-brown  paste  is  then  mixed  with  animal  fat,  and 
about  ten  grains'  weight  of  the  paste  is  applied  to  the  bamboo  arrow-tips  which 
are  used  to  set  the  bear-traps.  The  wounded  animals  are  found  dead  near  the 
trap,  and  their  flesh  is  eaten  with  impunity,  though  the  hunter  cuts  off  the  parts 
immediately  near  the  wound.  The  Ainos  know  of  no  antidote  for  the  poison. 
(See  "Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  1876.") 


36  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


III. 

MATERIALS  OF  HISTORY. 

Before  attempting  a  brief  sketch  of  Japanese  history,  it  may  be 
interesting  to  the  reader  to  know  something  of  the  sources  of  such 
history,  and  the  character  and  amount  of  the  materials.  A  dynasty 
of  rulers  who  ostentatiously  boast  of  twenty-five  centuries  of  unbroken 
succession  should  have  solid  foundation  of  fact  for  their  boast.  The 
august  representatives  of  the  mikado  Mutsuhito,*  the  one  hundred 
and  twenty-third  of  the  imperial  Hue  of  Dai  Nippon,  who,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  President  and  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the 
sovereigns  of  Europe,  claimed  the  immemorial  antiquity  of  the  Jap- 
anese imperial  rule,  should  have  credentials  to  satisfy  the  foreigner 
and  silence  the  skeptic. 

In  this  enlightened  age,  when  all  authority  is  challenged,  and  a  cent- 
ury after  the  moss  of  oblivion  has  covered  the  historic  grave  of  the 
doctrine  of  divine  right,  the  Japanese  still  cling  to  the  divinity  of 
the  mikado,  not  only  making  it  the  dogma  of  religion  and  the  engine 
of  government,  but  accrediting  their  envoys  as  representatives  of,  and 
asking  of  foreign  diplomatists  that  they  address  his  imperial  Japanese 
majesty  as  the  King  of  Heaven  (Tenno).  A  nation  that  has  passed 
through  the  successive  stages  of  aboriginal  migration,  tribal  govern- 
ment, conquest  by  invaders,  pure  monarchy,  feudalism,  anarchy,  and 
modern  consolidated  empire,  should  have  secreted  the  material  for 
much  interesting  history.  In  the  many  lulls  of  peace,  scholars  would 
arise,  and  opportunities  would  offer,  to  record  the  history  Avhich  pre- 
vious generations  had  made.     The  foreign  historian  who  will  bring  the 

*  Mutsuhito  ("meek  man"),  the  present  emperor,  is  the  second  son  of  the 
mikado  Komei  (1847-1867),  whom  he  succeeded,  and  the  Empress  Fujiwara 
Asako.  He  was  born  November  3d,  1850.  He  succeeded  his  fatlier  February 
3d,  1867 ;  was  crowned  on  the  28th  day  of  the  Eiglith  month,  1868 ;  and  was  mar- 
ried on  the  28th  of  the  Twclth  month,  1868,  to  Haruko,  daughter  of  Ichijo  Tadaka, 
a  noble  of  the  second  degree  of  the  first  rank.  She  was  born  on  the  17th  of  the 
Fourtli  month,  1850.  The  dowager-empress  Asako,  mother  of  the  emperor,  is 
of  the  house  of  Kujo,  and  was  born  on  the  14th  day  of  the  Twelfth  month,  1833. 


His  Imperial  Japanese  Majesty,  Mutsuhito,  Emperor  of  Japan,  and  the  123d  Mikado 

of  the  Line. 


MATEBIALS  OF  HISTORY.  39 

necessary  qualifications  to  the  task  of  composing  a  complete  history 
of  Japan,  i.  e.,  knowledge  of  the  languages  and  literature  of  Japan,  Chi- 
na, Corea,  and  the  dialects  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  Siberia,  and  the 
other  islands  of  the  North  Pacific,  historical  insight,  sympathy,  and 
judicial  acumen,  has  before  him  a  virgin  field. 

The  body  of  native  Japanese  historical  writings  is  rich  and  solid. 
It  is  the  largest  and  most  important  division  of  their  voluminous  liter- 
ature. It  treats  very  fully  the  period  between  the  rise  of  the  noble 
families  from  about  the  ninth  century  until  the  present  time.  The 
real  history  of  the  period  prior  to  the  eighth  century  of  the  Christian 
era  is  very  meagre.  It  is  nearly  certain  that  the  Japanese  possessed 
no  writing  until  the  sixth  century  a.d.  Their  oldest  extant  composi- 
tion is  the  Kojihi,  or  "  Book  of  Ancient  Traditions."  It  may  be  called 
the  Bible  of  the  Japanese.  It  comprises  three  volumes,  composed 
A.D.  711,  V 12.  It  is  said  to  have  been  preceded  by  two  suniiar  works, 
written  respectively  in  a.d.  620  and  a.d.  681 ;  but  neither  of  these 
has  been  preserved.  The  first  volume  treats  of  the  creation  of  the 
heavens  and  earth ;  the  gods  and  goddesses,  called  kami ;  and  the 
events  of  the  holy  age,  or  mythological  period.  The  second  and  third 
give  the  history  of  the  mikados*  from  the  year  1  (660  B.C.)  to  the 
1288th  of  the  Japanese  era.  It  was  first  printed  during  a.d.  1624- 
1642.  The  JVihoiiffi,  completed  a.d.  720,  also  contains  the  Japanese 
cosmogony,  records  of  the  mythological  period,  and  brings  down  the 
annals  of  the  mikado  to  a.d.  699.  These  are  the  oldest  books  in 
the  language.  Numerous  and  very  valuable  commentaries  upon  them 
have  been  written.     They  contain  so  much  that  is  fabulous,  mythical, 

*  "  The  terra  'mikado'  is  in  jjeneral  adhered  to  throughout  this  work.  Other 
titles  found  in  the  native  literature,  and  now  or  formerly  in  common  use,  are,  Ten- 
shi  (Son  of  Heaven);  Tenno,  or  Ten  0  (Heaven-king);  Kotei  (Sovereign  Ruler  of 
Nations);  Kinri  (The  Forbidden  Interior);  Dairi  (Imperial  Palace) ;  Chotei  (Hall 
of  Audience);  O-o,  or  Dai  O  (Great  King);  O  Uji  (The  Great  Family);  Gosho 
(Palace).  In  using  these  titles,  the  common  people  add  sama,  a  respectful  term, 
after  them.  Several  of  them,  as  is  evident,  were  used  originally  to  denote  places. 
It  was  quite  commou  for  the  people  in  later  time  to  speak  of  the  mikado  as  Mia- 
ko  sama,  or  Uj^e  sama  (Superior  Lord),  in  distinction  from  the  shogun,  whom  they 
designated  as  Yedo  sama.  The  Chinese  characters  employed  to  express  the  term 
'mikado'  mean  Honorable  Gate,  an  idea  akin  to  the  Turkish  Sublime  Porte.  Sa- 
tow,  however,  derives  it  from  mi,  great,  august,  awful ;  and  to  {do  in  composi- 
tion), place ;  the  notion  being  that  the  mikado  is  too  far  above  ordinary  mortals 
to  be  spoken  of  directly.  Hence  the  Gate  of  the  Palace  is  used  as  a  figure  for 
him.  So,  also,  Ren-ka  (Base  of  the  Chariot,  or  Below  the  Palanquin) ;  and  Hei- 
ka  (Foot  of  the  Throne,  or  of  the  Steps  leading  to  the  Dais),  are  used  to  denote 
the  imperial  person.     A  term  anciently  used  was  Nin  O  (King  of  Men)." 


40  THE  MIKADO'S  EJ^fPIBE. 

or  exaggerated,  that  their  statements,  especially  in  respect  of  dates, 
can  not  be  accepted  as  true  history.  According  to  the  Kojiki, 
Jinmu  Tenno  was  the  first  emperor;  yet  it  is  extremely  doubtful 
whether  he  was  a  historical  personage.  The  best  foreign  scholars  and 
Clitics  regard  him  as  a  mythical  character.  The  accounts  of  the  first 
mikados  are  very  meagre.  The  accession  to  the  throne,  marriage  and 
death  of  the  sovereign,  with  notices  of  occasional  rebellions  put  down, 
tours  made,  and  worship  celebrated,  are  recorded,  and  interesting 
glimpses  of  the  progress  of  civilization  obtained. 

A  number  of  works,  containing  what  is  evidently  good  history, 
illustrate  the  period  between  the  eighth  and  eleventh  centuries.  A 
still  richer  collection  of  both  original  works  and  modern  compilations 
treat  of  the  mediaeval  period  from  the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth  cent- 
ury— the  age  of  intestine  strife  and  feudal  war.  The  light  which 
the  stately  prose  of  history  casts  upon  the  past  is  further  heightened 
by  the  many  poems,  popular  romances,  founded  on  historic  fact,  and 
the  classic  compositions  called  monogatari,  all  of  which  help  to  make 
the  perspective  of  by -gone  centuries  melt  out  into  living  pictures. 
That  portion  of  the  history  which  treats  of  the  introduction,  progress, 
and  expulsion  of  Christianity  in  Japan  has  most  interest  to  ourselves. 
Concerning  it  there  is  much  deficiency  of  material,  and  that  not  of  a 
kind  to  satisfy  Occidental  tastes.  The  profound  peace  which  followed 
the  victories  of  lyeyasti,  and  which  lasted  from  1600-1868  —  the 
scholastic  era  of  Japan  —  gave  the  peaceful  leisure  necessary  for  the 
study  of  ancient  history,  and  the  creation  of  a  large  library  of  histor- 
ical literature,  of  which  the  magnificent  works  called  the  Dai  Nihon 
Shi  ("History  of  Great  Japan"),  and  Nihon  Guai  Shi  ("Japanese 
Outer,  or  Military  History  "),  are  the  best  examples. 

Under  the  Tokugawa  shoguns  (1603-1868)  liberty  to  explore,  chron- 
icle, and  analyze  the  past  in  history  was  given  ;  but  the  seal  of  silence, 
the  ban  of  censorship,  and  the  mandate  forbidding  all  publication  were 
put  upon  the  production  of  contemporary  history.  Hence,  the  peace- 
ful period,  1600  to  1853,  is  less  known  than  others  in  earlier  times. 
Several  good  native  annalists  have  treated  of  the  post-Perry  period 
(1853-1872),  and  the  events  leading  to  the  Restoration. 

In  the  department  of  unwritten  history,  such  as  unearthed  relics, 
coins,  weapons,  museums,  memorial  stones,  tablets,  temple  records,  etc., 
there  is  much  valuable  material.  Scarcely  a  year  passes  but  some 
rich  trover  is  announced  to  delight  the  numerous  native  archaeologists. 

The  Japanese  are  intensely  proud  of  their  history,  and  take  great 


MATERIALS  OF  HISTORY.  41 

care  in  making  and  preserving  records.  Memorial  -  stones,  keeping 
green  the  memory  of  some  noted  scholar,  ruler,  or  benefactor,  are 
among  the  most  striking  sights  on  the  highways,  or  in  the  towns,  vil- 
lages, or  temple-yards,  betokening  the  desire  to  defy  the  ravages  of 
oblivion  and  resist  the  inevitable  tooth  of  Time. 

Almost  every  large  city  has  its  published  history ;  towns  and  villages 
have  their  annals  written  and  preserved  by  local  antiquarians ;  family 
records  are  faithfully  copied  from  generation  to  generation ;  diaries, 
notes  of  journeys  or  events,  dates  of  the  erections  of  buildings,  the 
names  of  the  officiating  priests,  and  many  of  the  subscribing  worship- 
ers, are  religiously  kept  in  most  of  the  large  Buddhist  temples  and 
monasteries.  The  bonzes  (Jap.  bozu)  delight  to  write  of  the  lives  of 
their  saintly  predecessors  and  the  mundane  affairs  of  their  patrons. 
Almost  every  pro\4nce  has  its  encyclopedic  history,  and  every  high- 
road its  itineraries  and  guide-books,  in  which  famous  places  and  events 
are  noted.  Almost  every  neighborhood  boasts  its  Old  Mortality,  or 
local  antiquary,  whose  delight  and  occupation  are  to  know  the  past. 
In  the  large  cities  professional  story-tellers  and  readers  gain  a  lucrative 
livelihood  by  narrating  both  the  classic  history  and  the  legendary  lore. 
The  theatre,  which  in  Japan  draws  its  subjects  for  representation  al- 
most exclusively  from  the  actual  life,  past  or  present,  of  the  Japanese 
people,  is  often  the  most  faithful  mirror  of  actual  history.  Few  peo- 
ple seem  to  be  more  thoroughly  informed  as  to  their  own  history : 
parents  delight  to  instruct  their  children  in  their  national  lore;  and 
there  are  hundreds  of  cliild's  histories  of  Japan. 

Besides  the  sober  volumes  of  history,  the  number  of  books  purport- 
ing to  contain  truth,  but  which  are  worthless  for  purposes  of  historical 
investigation,  is  legion.  In  addition  to  the  motives,  equally  operative 
in  other  countries  for  the  corruption  or  distortion  of  historical  narra- 
tive, was  the  perpetual  desire  of  the  Buddhist  monks,  who  were  in 
many  cases  the  writers,  to  glorify  their  patrons  and  helpers,  and  to 
damn  their  enemies.  Hence  their  works  are  of  little  value.  So 
plentiful  are  these  garbled  productions,  that  the  buyer  of  books  always 
asked  iov  jitsu-rohu,  or  "  true  records,"  in  order  to  avoid  the  '"'' zu-zan^'' 
or  "  editions  of  Zu,"  so  called  from  Zu,  a  noted  Chinese  forger  of 
history. 

In  the  chapters  on  the  history  of  Japan,  I  shall  occasionally  quote 
from  the  text  of  some  of  the  standard  histories  in  literal  translation. 
I  shall  feel  only  too  happy  if  I  can  imitate  the  terse,  vigorous,  and 
luminous  style  of  the  Japanese  annalists.     The  vividness  and  pictorial 


42  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

detail  of  the  classic  historians  fascinate  the  reader  who  can  analyze 
the  closely  massed  syntax.  Many  of  the  pages  of  the  Nihon  Guai 
Shi,  especially,  are  models  of  compression  and  elegance,  and  glow 
with  the  chastened  eloquence  that  springs  from  clear  discernment  and 
conviction  of  truth,  gained  after  patient  sifting  of  facts,  and  groping 
through  difficulties  that  lead  to  discovery.  Many  of  its  sentences  are 
epigrams.  To  the  student  of  Japanese  it  is  a  narrative  of  intensest 
interest. 

The  Kojiki  and  Nihongi,  which  give  the  only  records  of  very  an- 
cient Japan,  and  on  which  all  other  works  treating  of  this  period  are 
based,  can  not  be  accepted  as  sober  history.  Hence,  in  outlining  the 
events  prior  to  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  I  head  the 
chapters,  not  as  the  "Dawn  of  History,"  but  the  "Twilight  of  Fable." 
From  these  books,  and  the  collections  of  ancient  myths  {Koshi  Seibun), 
as  well  as  the  critical  commentaries  and  explanations  of  the  Japanese 
rationalists,  which,  by  the  assistance  of  native  scholars,  I  have  been 
able  to  consult,  the  two  following  chapters  have  been  compiled.* 

*  In  the  following  cliiapters,  I  use  throughout  the  modern  names  of  places  and 
provinces,  to  avoid  confusion.  The  ancient  name  of  Kiushiu  was  Tsukushi, 
which  was  also  applied  to  the  then  united  provinces  of  Chikuzen  and  Chikugo. 
Buzen  and  Bungo  were  anciently  one  province,  called  Toyo.  Higo  and  Hizen 
are  modern  divisions  of  Hi  no  kuui  ("The  Land  of  Fire").  Tamba,  corrupted 
from  Taniwa,  and  Tango  ("Back  of  Taniwa")  were  formerly  one.  Kadzusa  and 
Shimosa,  contracted  from  Kami-tsu-fusa  and  Shimo-tsu-fusa  {kami,  upper ;  shimo, 
lower;  tew,  ancient  form  of  no;  fusa,  a  proper  name,  tassel),  were  once  united. 
Kodzuke  and  Shimotsuk6,  formed  like  the  preceding,  were  "  Upper  "  and  "  Low- 
er" Kd  All  the  region  north  of  Echizen,  known  and  unknown,  including  Echi- 
zen,  Etchiu,  Echigo,  Kaga,  Noto,  Uzen,  and  Ugo,  was  included  under  the  name 
Koshi  no  kuni.  Later  synonyms  for  Kiushiu  are  Saikoku  (Western  Provinces), 
or  Chinzei  in  books.  Chiugoku  (Central  Provinces)  is  applied  to  the  region  from 
Tamba  to  Nagato.  Kamigata  is  a  vague  term  for  the  country  around  and  toward 
Kioto. 

The  Language. — The  apparatus  for  the  study  of  the  Japanese  language  and  the 
critical  examination  of  its  texts  is  now,  thanks  to  Anglo- Japanese  scholars,  both 
excellent  and  easily  accessible.  The  following  are  such  :  Grammars — W.  G.  As- 
ton's  "Grammar  of  the  Spoken  Language"  (Nagasaki,  1869),  and  "Grammar  of  the 
Written  Language  of  Japan,  with  a  short  Chrestomathy ;"  London,  1872  :  second 
edition,  1877.  E.  Satow's  "  Kuaiwa  Hen,  25  Exercises  in  the  Yedo  Colloquial,  for 
the  Use  of  Students,  with  Notes,"  4  vols. ;  Yokohama,  1873.  J.  J.  Hoffman,  "A 
Japanese  Grammar  ;"  Leiden,  1868:  second  edition,  1876.  S.R.Brown,  "Collo- 
quial Japanese ;"  Shanghae,  1863.  "  Prendergast's  Mastery  System,  adapted  to 
the  Study  of  Japanese  or  English ;"  Yokohama,  1875.  Dictionaries— J.  C.  Hep- 
burn, "Japanese-English  and  English-Japanese;"  Shanghae,  1867:  second  edi- 
tion, with  grammatical  introduction;  Shanghae,  1872:  pocket  edition.  New  York, 
1873.  Satow  and  Ishibashi,  "English- Japanese  Dictionary  of  the  Spoken  Lan- 
guage ;"  London,  1876.  See  also  valuable  papers  by  Messrs.  Satow,  Aston,  Dallas, 
Edkins,  and  Chamberlain,  in  the  "Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan." 


JAPANESE  MYTHOLOGY.  43 


IV. 

JAPANESE  MYTHOLOGY. 

In  the  beginning  all  things  were  in  chaos.  Heaven  and  earth  were 
not  separated.  The  world  floated  in  the  cosmic  mass,  like  a  fish  in 
water,  or  the  yolk  in  an  egg.  The  ethereal  matter  sublimed  and 
formed  the  heav^ens,  the  residuum  became  the  present  earth,  from  the 
warm  mold  of  which  a  germ  sprouted  and  became  a  self-animate  be- 
ing, called  Kuni-toko-tachi  no  mikoto.*  Two  other  beings  of  like  gen- 
esis appeared.  After  them  came  four  pairs  of  beings  {kami).  These 
were  all  single  {hitori-gami,  male,  sexless,  or  self-begotten). 

*  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  Japanese  scheme  of  creation  starts  without 
a  Creator,  or  any  First  Cause ;  and  that  the  idea  of  space  apart  from  matter  is 
foreign  to  the  Japanese  philosophical  system.  Mikoto  (masc),  mikami  (fem.), 
mean  "  augustness."     It  is  not  the  same  term  as  mikado.     No  is  the  particle  of. 

The  opening  sentcince  of  the  Kojiki  is  as  follows:  At  the  time  of  the  beginning 
of  heaven  and  earth  there  existed  three  hashira-gami  (pillar  or  chief  kami,  or 
gods).  The  name  of  one  kami  was  Ame-no-naka-nushi-no-kami  (Lord  of  the  Mid- 
dle of  Heaven);  next,  Taka-mi-musubi-no-kami  (High  Ineflfable  Procreator);  next, 
Kami-musxibi-iio-kami  (Ineffable  Procreator).  These  three,  existing  single,  hid 
their  bodies  (died,  or  passed  away,  or  became  pure  spirit  [?]).  Next,  when  the 
young  land  floated  like  oil  moving  about,  there  came  into  existence,  sprouting 
upward  like  the  ashi  (rush)  shoot,  a  kami  named  Umaji-asMkabi-kikoji-no-kami 
(Delightful  Rush  -  sprout) ;  next,  Ame-iio-toko-tacM-no-kami.  These  two  chief 
kami,  existing  single,  hid  their  bodies.  Next,  came  into  existence  these  three, 
Kiini-7io-toko-tachi-no-mikoto,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Nihongi  opens  as  follows :  Of  old,  when  heaven  and  earth  were  not  yet 
separated,  and  the  in  (male,  active,  or  positive  principle)  and  the  yo  (female,  pass- 
ive, or  negative  principle)  were  not  yet  separated,  chaos,  enveloping  all  things, 
like  a  fowl's  egg,  contained  within  it  a  germ.  The  clear  and  ethereal  substance 
expanding,  became  heaven ;  the  heavy  and  thick  substance  agglutinating,  became 
earth.  The  ethereal  union  of  matter  was  easy,  but  the  thickened  substance  hard- 
ened with  difficulty.  Therefore,  heaven  existed  first;  the  earth  was  fixed  after- 
ward. Subsequently  deity  (kariii)  was  born  (umaru).  Now,  it  is  said  that,  "in 
the  beginning  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  soil  floated  about  like  a  fish  floating  on 
the  top  of  the  water,"  etc. 

Evidently  in  the  Kojiki  we  have  the  purely  Japanese  theory  of  creation,  and  in 
the  Nihongi  the  same  account,  with  Chinese  philosophical  ideas  and  terms  added. 
In  both,  matter  appears  before  mind,  and  the  deities  have  no  existence  before 
matter. 


44  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Proceeding  now  to  the  work  of  creation,  the  kami  separated  the 
primordial  substance  into  the  five  elements — wood,  fire,  metal,  earth, 
and  water — and  ordained  to  each  its  properties  and  combination.  As 
yet,  the  division  into  sexes  had  not  taken  place.  In  [Chinese]  philo- 
sophical language,  the  male  (yo)  and  female  {in)  principles  that  per- 
vade all  things  had  not  yet  appeared.  The  first  manifestation  of  the 
male  essence  was  Izanagi  ;  of  the  female,  Izanami.  Standing  togeth- 
er on  the  floating  bridge  of  heaven,  the  male  plunged  his  jeweled  fal- 
chion, or  spear,  into  the  unstable  waters  beneath  them,  and  withdraw- 
ing it,  the  trickling  drops  formed  an  island,  upon  which  they  descend- 
ed. The  creative  pair,  or  divine  man  and  woman,  designing  to  make 
this  island  a  pillar  for  a  continent,  separated — the  male  to  the  left,  the 
female  to  the  right — to  make  a  journey  round  the  island.  At  their 
meeting,  the  female  spirit  spoke  first,  "  How  joyful  to  meet  a  lovely 
man  !"  The  male  spirit,  offended  that  the  first  use  of  the  tongae  had 
been  by  a  woman,  required  the  circuit  to  be  repeated.  On  their 
second  meeting,  the  man  cried  out,  "How  joyful  to  meet  a  lovely 
woman  !"  They  were  the  first  couple  ;  and  this  was  the  beginning  of 
the  art  of  love,  and  of  the  human  race.  The  island  (Awaji),  with 
seven  other  large,  and  many  thousand  small  ones,  became  the  Everlast- 
ing Great  Japan.*     At  Izanami's  first  conception,  the  female  essence 

*  The  various  names  of  Japan  which  I  have  found  in  the  native  literature,  or 
have  heard  in  colloquial  use,  are  as  follows :  1.  Nihcni,  or  Nippon,  compounded 
of  the  words  ni,  nkhi,  or  «itot(sun,  day)  and  Ao«(root,  origin,  beginning);  hence 
Sunrise,  Dawn,  or  Dayspring.  Japan  is  the  foreigner's  corruption  of  the  Chinese 
Ji-pun,  or  Ji-puan.  The  name  may  have  been  given  by  the  Chinese  or  Coreans 
to  the  land  lying  east  of  them,  whence  the  sun  rose,  or  by  the  conquerors  com- 
ing from  Manchuria,  by  way  of  Corea,  eastward.  Or,  it  may  have  arisen  anciently 
among  the  natives  of  the  western  provinces  of  Japan.  It  is  found  in  Chinese 
books  from  the  time  of  the  Tang  dynasty  (618-905  a.d.).  2.  Dai  Nihoii  Koku 
(Country  of  Great  Japan).  3.  O  Yashima  no  Euni  (Country  of  the  Eight  Great 
Islands),  created  by  Izanagi  and  Izanami.  4.  Onogorojima  (Island  of  the  Con- 
gealed Drops),  which  fell  from  the  jeweled  falchion  or  spear  of  Izanagi.  5.  Shiki 
Shima  (Outspread  Islands),  a  name  common  in  poetry,  and  referring  to  their  be- 
ing spread  out  like  stepping-stones  in  a  Japanese  garden.  6.  Toyohara  Akitm 
Kuni  (Country  between  Heaven  and  Earth).  7.  Tmjoakitsu  Kuni  (Dragon-fly- 
shaped  Country),  from  the  resemblance  to  this  insect  with  its  wings  outspread. 
8.  Tmjo  Ashiwara  Kuni  (Fertile  Plain  of  Sweet  Flags).  9.  O  Yamaio  no  Kuni 
(Land  of  Great  Peace).  The  same  characters  are  read  Wa  Koku  by  the  Chinese, 
and  sometimes  by  the  Japanese.  10.  Fuso  Koku.  Fuso  is  the  name  of  a  tree 
which  is  fabled  to  petrify ;  hence,  an  emblem  of  national  stability.  11.  On  Koku 
(Honorable  Country).  12.  Shin  Koku  (Land  of  the  Holy  Spirits).  13.  Kami  no 
Kuni  (The  God -land,  or  Land  of  the  Gods).  14.  Rorai  no  Kuni  (Land  of  the 
Elixir  of  Immortality),  an  allusion  to  the  legend  that  a  Chinese  courtier  came  to 


JAPANESE  MTTHOLOOY.  45 

in  being  more  powerful,  a  female  child  was  born,  greatly  to  tbe  cha- 
grin of  the  father,  who  wished  for  male  offspring.  The  child  was 
named  Ama-terasu  o  mikami,  or,  the  Heaven  -  illuminating  Goddess. 
She  shone  beautifully,  and  lighted  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  Her 
father,  therefore,  transferred  her  from  earth  to  heaven,  and  gave  her 
the  ethereal  realm  to  rule  over.  At  this  time  the  earth  was  close  to 
heaven,  and  the  goddess  easily  mounted  the  pillar,  on  which  heaven 
rested,  to  her  kingdom. 

The  second  child  was  also  a  female,  and  was  called  Tsuki  no  kami, 
and  became  the  Goddess  of  the  Moon.  The  third  child,  Hiruko  (leech), 
was  a  male,  but  not  well  formed.  When  three  years  old,  being  still 
unable  to  stand,  his  parents  made  an  ark  of  camphor-wood,  and  set 
him  adrift  at  sea.  He  became  the  first  fisherman,  and  was  the  God  of 
the  Sea  and  of  Storms. 

After  two  girls  and  a  cripple  had  thus  been  born,  the  father  was  de- 
lighted with  the  next  fruit  of  his  spouse,  a  fine  boy,  whom  they  named 
Sosanoo  no  mikoto.  Of  him  they  entertained  the  highest  hopes. 
He  grew  up,  however,  to  be  a  most  mischievous  fellow,  killing  people, 
pulling  up  their  trees,  and  trampling  down  their  fields.  He  grew 
worse  as  he  grew  up.  He  was  made  ruler  over  the  blue  sea ;  but  he 
never  kept  his  kingdom  in  order.  He  let  his  beard  grow  down  over 
his  bosom.  He  cried  constantly ;  and  the  land  became  a  desert,  the 
rivers  and  seas  dried  up,  and  human  beings  died  in  great  numbers. 
His  father,  inquiring  the  reason  of  his  surly  behavior,  was  told  that  he 
wished  to  go  to  his  mother,  who  was  in  the  region  under  the  eai-th. 
He  then  made  his  son  ruler  over  the  kingdom  of  night.  The  august 
scape-grace  still  continued  his  pranks,  unable  to  refrain  from  mischief. 
One  day,  after  his  sister,  the  Sun-goddess,  had  planted  a  field  with  rice, 
he  turned  a  wild  horse  loose,  which  trampled  down  and  spoiled  all  her 
work.  Again,  having  built  a  store-house  for  the  new  rice,  he  defiled  it 
so  that  it  could  not  be  used.  At  another  time,  his  sister  was  sitting 
at  her  loom,  weaving,  Sosanoo,  having  skinned  a  live  horse  by  draw- 
ing its  skin  off  from  the  tail  to  the  head,  flung  the  reeking  hide  over 
the  loom,  and  the  carcass  in  the  room.  The  goddess  was  so  frightened 
that  she  hurt  herself  with  the  shuttle,  and,  in  her  wrath,  retired  to  a 


Japan  in  search  of  the  elixir  of  immortality.  He  brought  a  troop  of  young  men 
and  maidens  with  him.  Dying  in  Japan,  he  was  buried  in  Kii,  and  the  young 
couples,  marrying,  colonized  Japan.  15.  Ko  Koku  (The  Mikado's  Empire),  Land 
ruled  by  a  Theocratic  Dynasty.  16.  Tei  Koku  Nihon  (The  Empire  ruled  by  a 
Theocratic  Dynasty,  or,  Japan,  the  Empire  governed  bv  Divine  Rulers). 

4 


46  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

cave,  closing  the  mouth  with  a  large  rock.  Heaven,  earth,  and  the 
four  quarters  became  enshrouded  in  darkness,  and  the  distinction  be- 
tween day  and  night  ceased.  Some  of  the  turbulent  and  ill-mannered 
gods  took  advantage  of  the  darkness  to  make  a  noise  like  the  buzzing 
of  flies,  and  the  confusion  was  dreadful. 

Then  all  the  gods  (eight  hundred  thousand  in  number)  assembled 
on  the  heavenly  river-plain  of  Yasu,  to  discuss  what  was  to  be  done 
to  appease  the  anger  of  the  great  goddess.  The  wisest  of  the  gods 
was  intrusted  with  the  charge  of  thinking  out  a  stratagem  to  entice 
her  forth.  The  main  part  of  the  plan  was  to  make  an  image  of  the 
self-imprisoned  goddess,  which  was  to  be  more  beautiful  than  herself, 
and  thus  excite  at  once  her  curiosity  and  her  jealousy.  It  was  to  be 
a  round  mirror  like  the  sun. 

A  large  rock  from  near  the  source  of  the  river  was  taken  to  form 
an  anvil.  To  make  the  bellows,  they  took  the  whole  skin  of  a  deer, 
and,  with  iron  from  the  mines  of  heaven,  the  blacksmith-god  made 
two  mirrors,  which  successively  failed  to  please  the  gods,  being  too 
small.     The  third  was  large  and  beautiful,  like  the  sun. 

The  heavenly  artisans  now  prepared  to  make  the  finest  clothes  and 
jewelry,  and  a  splendid  palace  for  the  Sun-goddess,  when  she  should 
come  out.  Two  gods  planted  the  paper-mulberry  and  hemp,  and  pre- 
pared bark  and  fibre ;  while  three  other  gods  wove  them  into  coarse, 
striped,  and  fine  cloth,  to  deck  her  dainty  limbs.  Two  gods,  the  first 
carpenters,  dug  holes  in  the  ground  with  a  spade,  erected  posts,  and 
built  a  palace.  Another  deity,  the  first  jeweler,  made  a  string  of  ma- 
gatama  (curved  jewels),  the  material  for  a  necklace,  hair-pins,  and 
bracelets.  Two  other  gods  held  in  their  hands  the  sacred  wands, 
called  tama-gushi. 

Two  gods  were  then  appointed  to  find  out,  by  divination,  whether 
the  goddess  was  likely  to  appear.  They  caught  a  buck,  tore  out  a 
bone  from  one  of  its  forelegs,  and  set  it  free  again.  The  bone  was 
placed  in  a  fire  of  cherry-bark,  and  the  crack  produced  by  the  heat  in 
the  blade  of  the  bone  was  considered  a  satisfactory  omen. 

A  sakaki-tree  was  then  pulled  up  by  the  roots.  To  the  upper 
branches  was  hung  the  necklace  of  jewels,  to  the  middle  was  attached 
the  mirror,  and  from  the  lower  branches  depended  the  coarse  and  fine 
cloth.  This  was  called  a  gohei.  A  large  number  of  perpetually  crow- 
ing cocks  was  obtained  from  (what  had  been)  the  region  of  perpetual 
day.  These  irrepressible  chanticleers  were  set  before  the  cave,  and  be- 
gan to  crow  lustily  in  concert.     The  God  of  Invincibly  Strong  Hands 


JAPANESE  MYTHOLOGY.  47 

was  placed  in  concealment  near  the  rocky  door,  ready  to  pull  the  god- 
dess out  at  her  first  peering  forth.  A  goddess  with  a  countenance 
of  heavenly  glossiness,  named  Uzume,  was  appointed  manager  of  the 
dance.  She  first  bound  up  her  flowing  sleeves  close  to  her  body,  un- 
der the  armpits,  by  a  creeping  plant,  called  masaki,  and  donned  a  head- 
dress made  of  long  moss.  While  she  blew  a  bamboo  tube,  with  holes 
pierced  in  it  between  the  joints,  the  other  deities  kept  time  to  the  mu- 
sic with  two  flat,  hard  pieces  of  wood,  which  they  clapped  together. 
Another  kami  took  six  bows,  and,  from  the  long  moss  hanging  from 
the  pine-trees  on  the  high  hills,  she  strung  the  bows,  and  made  the 
harp  called  the  koto.  His  son  made  music  on  this  instrument  by 
drawing  across  the  strings  grass  and  rushes,  which  he  held  in  both 
hands.  Bonfires  were  now  lighted  before  the  door  of  the  cavern,  and 
the  orchestra  of  fifes,  drums,  cymbals,  and  harp  began.  The  goddess 
TJzume  now  mounted  the  circular  box,  having  a  baton  of  twigs  of 
bamboo  grass  in  one  hand,  with  a  spear  of  bamboo  twined  with  grass, 
on  which  small  bells  tinkled.  As  she  danced,  the  drum-like  box  pre- 
pared for  her  resounded,  and  she,  becoming  possessed  by  a  spirit  of 
folly,  sung  a  song  in  verses  of  six  syllables  each,  which  some  inter- 
pret as  the  numerals,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  100,  1000,  10,000. 
The  goddess,  as  she  danced,  loosened  her  dress,  exposing  her  nude 
charms.  All  this  was  caused  by  the  spirit  which  possessed  her.  It 
so  excited  the  mirth  of  the  gods  that  they  laughed  so  loudly  that 
heaven  shook.     The  song  and  its  interpretations  are : 

"  Hito,  futa,  raiyo One,  two,  three,  four, 

Itsu,  muyu,  nana Five,  sis,  seven, 

Ya,  liolvo-no,  tari Eight,  nine,  ten, 

Momo,  chi,  yorodzu Hundred,  thousand,  ten  thousand." 

"  Ye  gods,  behold  the  cavern  doors ! 

Majest}'  appears — hurra ! 

Our  hearts  are  quite  satisfied; 

Behold  my  charms." 
or, 

"Gods,  behold  the  door! 

Lo  !  the  majesty  of  the  goddess ! 

Shall  we  not  be  filled  with  rapture  ? 

Are  not  my  charms  excellent?" 

The  Sun-goddess  within,  unable  to  account  for  the  ill-timed  mirth, 
since  heaven  and  earth  were  in  darkness,  rose,  and  approaching  the 
rocky  door,  listened  to  the  honeyed  words  of  one  of  the  gods,  who 
was  praising  her.      Impelled  further  by  curiosity,  she   opened  the 


48  THE  3nK ADO'S  EMPIRE. 

door  slightly,  and  asked  why  TJzume  danced  and  the  gods  laughed? 
Uzume  replied,  "  I  dance  because  there  is  an  honorable  deity  who  sur- 
passes your  glory."  As  she  said  thij,  the  exceedingly  beauteous  god 
Futodama  showed  the  mirror.  The  Sun-goddess  within,  astonished  at 
her  own  loveliness,  which  she  now  first  beheld  in  the  reflection,  step- 
ped out  a  little  further  to  gratify  her  curiosity.  The  God  of  Invinci- 
bly Strong  Hands,  who  stood  concealed,  pulled  the  rock  door  open, 
caught  her  by  the  hand,  and  dragged  her  forth.  The  wisest  of  the 
gods,  who  superintended  the  whole  proceedings,  took  a  rope  of  twist- 
ed rice-straw,  passed  it  behind  her,  and  said,  "  Do  not  go  behind  this." 
They  then  removed  the  Sun -goddess  to  her  new  palace,  and  put  a 
straw  rope  around  it  to  keep  off  evil  gods.  Her  wicked  brother  was 
punished  by  having  each  particular  hair  of  his  head  pulled  out,  and 
his  finger  and  toe  nails  extracted.     He  was  then  banished. 

Izanami's  fifth  child,  the  last  in  whose  conception  the  two  gods 
shared,  was  a  son,  called  the  God  of  Wild  Fire.  In  bringing  him 
forth  the  goddess  suffered  great  pain ;  and  from  the  matter  which  she 
vomited  in  her  agony  sprung  the  God  and  Goddess  of  Metal.  She  aft- 
erward created  the  gods  of  Clay  and  Fresh  Water,  who  were  to  pacify 
the  God  of  Fire  when  inclined  to  be  turbulent.  Izanamihad  enjoined 
her  consort  not  to  look  at  her  during  her  retirement,  but  he  disre- 
garded her  wish.  She  fled  from  him,  and  departed  to  the  nether  re- 
gions. Izanagi,  incensed  at  the  God  of  Fire,  clove  him  in  three  pieces 
with  his  sword.  From  these  fragments  sprung  the  gods  of  Thunder, 
of  Mountains,  and  of  Rain.  He  then  descended  into  the  region  of 
night  to  induce  Izanami  to  come  back  to  the  earth.  There  he  met 
his  consort,  who  would  not  return.  He  found  the  region  to  be  one 
of  perpetual  and  indescribable  foulness,  and,  before  he  left,  he  saw 
the  body  of  his  wife  had  become  a  mass  of  putrefaction.  Escaping 
into  the  upper  world,  he  washed  himself  in  the  sea,  and,  in  the  act  of 
escape  and  purification,  many  gods  were  created.  According  to  one 
version,  Amaterasu  was  produced  out  of  his  left  eye,  and  Sosanoo 
out  of  his  nose.  Those  deities  created  out  of  the  filth  from  which  he 
cleansed  himself  became  the  wicked  gods,  who  now  war  against  the 
good  gods  and  trouble  mankind.  The  God  of  Clay  and  the  Goddess 
of  Fresh  Water  married.  Their  offspring  was  Naka  musubi.  From 
his  head  grew  the  mulberry  and  silk-worm,  and  from  his  navel  sprung 
the  five  cereals,  rice,  wheat,  beans,  millet,  and  sorghum. 

Another  legend,  changing  the  sex  of  Sosanoo,  says  the  Sun-goddess 
spoke  to  Sosanoo  (the  Moon-goddess),  who  reigned  jointly  with  her 


JAPANESE  MYTHOLOGY.  49 

over  the  high  phxin  of  heaven,  and  said,  "  I  have  heard  that  there  is 
a  food-possessing  goddess  in  the  central  country  of  luxuriant  reedy 
moors  (Japan).  Go  and  see."  Descending  from  heaven,  he  came  to 
the  august  abode  of  the  Goddess  of  Food,  and  asked  for  refreshment. 
The  goddess,  creating  various  forms  of  food,  such  as  boiled  rice  from 
the  land,  fish  from  the  sea,  beasts,  with  coarse  and  fine  hair,  from  the 
hills,  set  them  on  a  banqueting-table  before  Sosanoo,  who,  enraged  at 
the  manner  of  the  creation  of  the  food,  killed  her. 

Reporting  the  matter  in  heaven,  Amaterasii  was  angry  at  Sosanoo, 
and  degraded  her  (the  Moon-goddess)  from  joint  rule,  and  condemned 
her  to  appear  only  at  night,  while  she,  the  Sun-goddess,  slept.  Ama- 
terasu  then  sent  a  messenger  the  second  time  to  see  whether  the 
Food-goddess  was  really  dead.  This  was  found  to  be  the  case.  Out 
of  the  dead  body  were  growing,  millet  on  the  forehead ;  silk-worms 
and  a  mulberry-tree  on  the  eyebrows  ;  grass  on  the  eyes ;  on  the  belly, 
rice,  barley,  and  large  and  small  beans.  The  head  finally  changed 
into  a  cow  and  horse.  The  messenger  took  them  all,  and  presented 
them  to  Amaterasii.  The  Sun -goddess  rejoiced,  and  ordained  that 
these  should  be  the  food  of  human  beings,  setting  apart  rice  as  the 
seed  of  the  watery  fields,  and  the  other  cereals  as  the  seed  of  the  dry 
fields.  She  appointed  lords  of  the  villages  of  heaven,  and  began  for 
the  first  time  to  plant  the  rice-seeds.  In  the  autumn  the  drooping 
ears  ripened  in  luxuriant  abundance.  She  planted  the  mulberry-trees 
on  the  fragrant  hills  of  heaven,  and  rearing  silk-worms,  and  chewing 
cocoons  in  her  mouth,  spun  thread.  Thus  began  the  arts  of  agricult- 
ure, silk-worm  rearing,  and  weaving. 

When  Sosanoo  was  in  banishment,  there  was  a  huge  eight-headed 
dragon  that  had  devastated  the  land  and  eaten  up  all  the  fair  virgins. 
Sosanoo  enticed  the  monster  to  partake  of  an  intoxicating  liquor  set 
in  eight  jars,  and  then  slew  him  while  in  stupor.  In  the  tail  of  the 
dragon  he  found  a  sword  of  marvelous  temper,  which  he  presented 
to  Amaterasu.  This  sword,  called  "  Cloud-cluster,"  afterward  became 
one  of  the  three  sacred  emblems  constituting  the  regalia  of  the  Jap- 
anese sovereigns.  In  these  last  days  of  commerce,  Sosanoo's  exploit 
is  pictured  on  the  national  paper  money.  He  is  also  said  to  have  in- 
vented poetry.  Being  as  irregularly  amorous  as  the  Jupiter  of  anoth- 
er mythology,  he  was  the  father  of  many  children  by  various  mothers. 
One  of  the  most  illustrious  of  his  offspring  was  Daikoku,  now  wor- 
shiped in  every  household  as  the  God  of  Fortune.  In  the  later  stages 
of  the  mythology,  heaven  and  earth  are  found  peopled  with  myriads 


50  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

of  kami,  some  of  wliom  have  inhabited  heaven  from  the  beginning, 
while  those  on  the  earth  have  been  ruUng  or  contending  together 
from  an  indefinite  period.  Finally,  before  ushering  in  the  third  or 
final  stage  of  the  mythical  history,  there  are  general  war  and  confu- 
sion among  the  gods  on  earth,  and  Amaterasu  resolves  to  bring  ordet 
out  of  the  troubles,  and  to  subdue  and  develop  the  land  for  herself. 

She  desired  to  make  a  son  of  her  own  a  ruler  over  the  terrestrial 
world.  One  had  been  produced  from  her  necklace,  called  Oshi-ho- 
mi  no  mikoto,  who  married  Tamayori  hime  no  mikoto,  one  of  the 
granddaughters  of  Izanagi  and  Izanami.  Their  offspring  was  Ninigi 
no  mikoto.  After  much  delay,  caused  by  the  dispatch  and  failure  of 
envoys  to  the  gods  of  the  earth,  he  prepared  to  descend  from  heaven 
to  his  realm  on  earth.  The  Sun -goddess  gave  her  grandson  various 
treasures,  chief  of  which  were  the  mirror,  emblem  of  her  own  soul, 
and  now  worshiped  at  Ise,  the  sword  Cloud-cluster,  taken  by  Sosanoo 
from  the  dragon's  tail,  and  a  stone  or  seal.  Concerning  the  mirror 
she  said,  "  Look  upon  this  mirror  as  my  spirit ;  keep  it  in  the  same 
house  and  on  the  same  floor  with  yourself,  and  worship  it  as  if  you 
were  worshiping  my  actual  presence." 

Another  version  of  this  divine  investiture  is  given  in  these  words : 
"  For  centuries  upon  centuries  shall  thy  followers  rule  this  kingdom. 
Herewith  receive  from  me  the  succession  and  the  three  crown  talis- 
mans. Should  you  at  any  future  time  desire  to  see  me,  look  in  this 
mirror.  Govern  this  country  with  the  pure  lustre  that  radiates  from 
its  surface.  Deal  with  thy  subjects  with  the  gentleness  which  the 
smooth  rounding  of  the  stone  typifies.  Combat  the  enemies  of  thy 
kingdom  with  this  sword,  and  slay  them  on  the  edge  of  it." 

Accompanied  by  a  number  of  inferior  gods  of  both  sexes,  he  de- 
scended on  the  floating  bridge  of  heaven,  on  which  the  first  pair  had 
stood  when  separating  the  dry  land  from  the  water,  to  the  mountain 
of  Kirishima,  between  Hiuga  and  Ozumi,  in  Kiushiu.  After  his  de- 
scent, the  sun  and  earth,  which  had  already  receded  from  each  other 
to  a  considerable  distance,  became  further  separated,  and  communica- 
tion by  the  floating  bridge  of  heaven  ceased.  According  to  the  com- 
mentators on  the  sacred  books,  as  Japan  lay  directly  opposite  to  the 
sun  when  it  separated  from  the  earth,  it  is  clear  (to  a  devout  Japanese) 
that  Japan  lies  on  the  summit  of  the  globe.  As  it  was  created  first, 
it  is  especially  the  Land  of  the  Gods,  the  Holy  Land,  the  Country  of 
the  Divine  Spirits.  All  other  countries  were  formed  later  by  the 
spontaneous  consolidation  of  the  foam  and  mud  of  the  sea.     All  for- 


JAPANESE  MYTHOLOGY.  51 

eign  countries  were  of  course  created  by  the  power  of  the  heavenly 
gods,  but  they  were  not  begotten  by  Izanagi  and  Izanami,  nor  did 
they  give  birth  to  the  Sun-goddess,  which  is  the  cause  of  their  in- 
feriority. Japan  is  superior  to  all  the  world  for  the  reasons  given 
above.  The  traditions  current  in  other  countries  as  to  the  origin  of 
the  world  are  of  course  incorrect,  since,  being  so  far  from  the  sources 
of  truth,  they  can  not  be  accurate,  and  must  be  greatly  distorted. 
From  the  fact  of  the  divine  descent  of  the  Japanese  people  proceeds 
their  immeasurable  superiority  to  the  natives  of  other  countries  in 
courage  and  intelligence.  This  opinion,  long  held  by  Japanese  in 
general,  still  lingers  among  the  fanatical  Shinto  scholars,  and  helps  to 
explain  the  intense  hatred  and  contempt  manifested  toward  foreigners 
as  late  as  within  the  last  decade. 

Ninigi  no  mikoto  descended  on  Kirishima  yama,  and  was  received 
with  due  honors  by  one  of  the  kami  of  the  place.  He  had  a  son,  who 
lived  five  hundred  and  eighty  years.  This  son  married  a  sea-monster, 
who  appeared  to  him  in  the  form  of  a  woman,  and  by  her  he  had  a 
son,  who  became  ruler,  and  was  succeeded  by  a  son  born  of  an  aunt. 
Ninigi,  the  heavenly  descendant,  was  thus  the  great-grandfather  of 
Jimmu  Ten  no,  the  first  emperor  of  Japan. 

It  is  not  easy  to  weave  into  a  continuous  and  consistent  whole  the 
various  versions  of  the  Japanese  accounts  of  creation  and  the  acts  of 
the  gods,  or  to  be  always  safe  in  deciding  their  origin,  sex,  or  relations 
to  each  other ;  for  these  spirits  act  like  Milton's,  and  "  as  they  please, 
they  limb  themselves."  These  myths  arising  among  the  primitive 
Japanese  people  of  various  localities,  who  never  attempted  to  formulate 
them,  are  frequently  at  hopeless  variance  with  each  other ;  and  the  in- 
genuity and  ability  of  the  learned  native  commentators  on  the  sacred 
books,  especially  the  Nihongi  and  Kojiki,  are  exercised  to  the  highest 
degree  to  reconcile  them. 

One  author  devotes  twenty  volumes  of  comment  to  two  of  the  text 
of  the  Kojiki  in  these  earnest  efforts,  making  his  works  a  rich  mine 
to  the  student  of  Japanese  antiquities.  Translated  into  English,  in  the 
spirit  of  a  devout  Japanese,  an  exalted  Biblical  or  Miltonic  style  should 
be  used.  Mr.  Aston  thus  renders  a  passage  from  the  Nakatomi  no 
harai,  one  of  the  most  ancient  monuments  of  the  language,  describing 
the  descent  of  the  god  Ninigi  to  the  earth  (Japan) :  "  They  caused 
him  to  thrust  from  him  heaven's  eternal  throne,  to  fling  open  heaven's 
eternal  doors,  to  cleave  with  might  his  way  from  out  heaven's  many- 
piled  clouds,  and  then  to  descend  from  heaven." 


52  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

A  literal,  or  even  free,  translation  into  plain  English  could  not, 
however,  be  made  in  a  book  to  be  read,  unexpurgated,  in  the  family 
circle.  Many  physiological  details,  and  not  a  few  references  probably, 
pure  to  the  native  pure,  would  not  be  suffered  by  the  tastes  or  moral 
codes  in  vogue  among  the  mass  of  readers  in  Europe  or  America. 
Like  the  mythology  of  Greece,  that  of  Japan  is  full  of  beauty,  pathos, 
poetic  fancy,  charming  story,  and  valorous  exploit.  Like  that,  it  forms 
the  soil  of  the  national  art,  whether  expressed  in  bronze,  porcelain, 
colors ;  or  poetry,  song,  picture,  the  dance,  pantomime,  romance,  sym- 
bolism ;  or  the  aesthetics  of  religion. 

In  spite  of  Buddhism,  rationalism,  and  skeptical  philosophy,  it  has 
entered  as  fully  into  the  life  and  art  and  faith  of  the  people  of  Japan 
as  the  mythology  of  the  Aryan  nations  has  entered  into  the  life  and 
art  of  Europe.  Like  that  of  the  nations  classic  to  us,  the  Japanese 
mythology,  when  criticised  in  the  light  of  morals,  and  as  divorced 
from  art,  looked  at  by  one  of  alien  clime,  race,  and  faith,  contains 
much  that  is  hideous,  absurd,  impure,  and  even  revolting.  Judged  as 
the  growth  and  creation  of  the  imagination,  faith,  and  intellect  of  the 
primitive  inhabitants  of  Japan,  influenced  by  natural  surroundings,  it 
is  a  faithful  mirror  of  their  country,  and  condition  and  character, 
before  these  were  greatly  modified  by  outside  religion  or  philoso- 
phy. Judged  as  a  religious  influence  upon  the  descendants  of  the  an- 
cient Nihonese — the  Japanese,  as  we  know  them — it  may  be  fairly 
held  responsible  for  much  of  the  peculiar  moral  traits  of  their  charac- 
ter, both  good  and  evil.  The  Japanese  mythology  is  the  doctrinal  ba- 
sis of  their  ancient  and  indigenous  religion,  called  Kami  no  michi,  or 
Shinto  (way  or  doctrine  of  the  gods,  or,  by  literal  rendering,  theology). 

One  of  the  greatest  pleasures  to  a  student  of  Japanese  art,  antiqui- 
ties, and  the  life  as  seen  in  the  Japan  of  to-day,  is  to  discover  the  sur- 
vivals of  primitive  culture  among  the  natives,  or  to  trace  in  their  cus- 
toms the  fashions  and  ceremonies  current  tens  of  centuries  ago,  whose 
genesis  is  to  be  sought  in  the  age  of  the  gods.  Beneath  the  poetic 
and  mythical  costume  are  many  beautiful  truths. 

One  of  the  many  Japanese  rationalistic  writers  explains  the  hiding 
of  Amaterasii  in  the  cave  as  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  Ebisu,  the  third 
child  of  the  first  pair,  is  now  worshiped  as  the  God  of  Daily  Food, 
fish  being  the  staple  of  Japanese  diet.  He  is  usually  represented  as 
a  jolly  angler,  with  a  red  fish  {tai)  under  one  fat  arm,  and  a  rod  and 
line  under  the  other.  One  need  not  go  far  from  Kioto  to  find  the 
identical  spots  of  common  earth  which  the  fertile  imagination  of 


JAPANESE  MYTHOLOGY.  53 

the  children  of  Nippon  has  transfigured  into  celestial  regions.  Thus, 
the  prototype  of  "  the  dry  bed  of  the  river  Aine  no  yasu  "  is  now  to 
be  seen  in  front  of  the  city  of  Kioto,  where  the  people  still  gather  for 
pleasure  or  public  ceremony.  The  "  land  of  roots,"  to  which  Sosanoo 
was  banished,  is  a  region  evidently  situated  a  few  miles  north-west  of 
Kioto.  The  dancing  of  Suzume  before  the  cavern  is  imitated  in  the 
pantomimic  dance  still  seen  in  every  Japanese  village  and  city  street. 
The  mirror  made  from  iron  in  the  mines  of  heaven  by  the  Blacksmith, 
god  was  the  original  of  the  burnished  disks  before  which  the  Japanese 
beauty  of  to-day,  sitting  for  hours  on  knee  and  heels,  and  nude  to  the 
waist,  heightens  her  charms.  A  mask  of  Suzume,  representing  the 
laughing  face  of  a  fat  girl,  with  narrow  forehead,  having  the  imperial 
spots  of  sable,  and  with  black  hair  in  rifts  on  her  forehead,  cheeks 
puffed  out,  and  dimpled  chin,  adorns  the  walls  of  many  a  modern  Jap- 
anese house,  and  notably  on  certain  festival  days,  and  on  their  many 
occasions  of  mirth.  The  stranger,  ignorant  of  its  symbolic  import, 
could,  without  entering  the  palace,  find  its  prototype  in  five  minutes, 
by  looking  around  him,  from  one  of  the  jolly  fat  girls  at  the  well  or 
the  rice-bucket.  The  magatama  jewels,  curved  and  perforated  pieces 
of  soap-stone  occasionally  dug  up  in  various  parts  of  Japan,  show  the 
work  of  the  finger  of  man,  and  ancient  pictures  depict  the  chiefs  of 
tribes  decked  with  these  adornments.  In  the  preparations  made  to 
attract  forth  the  Sun-goddess,  we  see  the  origin  of  the  arts  of  music  by 
wind  and  stringed  instruments,  dancing,  divination,  adornment,  weav- 
ing, and  carpentry.  To  this  day,  when  the  Japanese  female  is  about 
to  sweep,  draw  water,  or  perform  household  duties,  she  binds  up  her 
sleeves  to  her  armpits,  with  a  string  twisted  over  her  shoulders,  like 
the  sleeve  -  binder  of  the  dancing  goddess.  Before  Shinto  shrines, 
trees  sacred  to  the  kami,  at  New-year's-day  before  gates  and  doors, 
and  often  in  children's  plays,  one  sees  stretched  the  twisted  ropes  of 
rice-straw.  In  the  month  of  August  especially,  but  often  at  the  fairs, 
festivals,  and  on  holidays,  the  wand  of  waving  jewels,  made  by  sus- 
pending colored  paper  and  trinkets  to  a  branch  of  bamboo,  and  some- 
thing like  a  Christmas-tree,  is  a  frequent  sight.  The  gohei  is  still  the 
characteiustic  emblem  seen  on  a  Shinto  shrine.  All  these  relics,  triv- 
ial and  void  of  meaning  to  the  hasty  tourist,  or  the  alien,  whose  only 
motive  for  dwelling  on  the  island  is  purely  sordid,  are,  in  the  eye  of 
the  native,  and  the  intelligent  foreigner,  ancient,  sacred,  and  productive 
of  innocent  joy,  and  to  the  latter,  sources  of  fresh  surprise  and  enjoy- 
ment of  a  people  in  themselves  intensely  interesting. 


64  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


V. 

THE  TWILIGHT  OF  FABLE. 

Between  the  long  night  of  the  unknown  ages  that  preceded  the 
advent  of  the  conquerors,  and  the  morning  of  what  may  be  called  real 
history,  there  lies  the  twilight  of  mythology  and  fabulous  narration. 

The  mythology  of  Nippon,  though  in  essence  Chinese,  is  Japanese 
in  form  and  coloring,  and  bears  the  true  flavor  of  the  soil  from 
whence  it  sprung.  The  patriotic  native  or  the  devout  Shintoist  may 
accept  the  statements  of  the  Kojiki  as  genuine  history ;  but  in  the 
cold,  clear  eye  of  an  alien  they  are  the  inventions  of  men  shaped  to  ex- 
alt the  imperial  family.  They  are  a  living  and  luxurious  growth  of 
fancy  around  the  ruins  of  facts  that  in  the  slow  decay  of  time  have 
lost  the  shape  by  which  recognition  is  possible.  Chinese  history  does 
indeed,  at  certain  points,  corroborate  what  the  Japanese  traditions  de- 
clare, and  thus  gives  us  some  sure  light ;  but  for  a  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  period  antedating  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
the  native  mythology  and  the  fabulous  narrations  of  the  Kojiki  are 
but  as  moonlight. 

Jimmu  Tenno,  the  first  mikado,  was  the  fifth  in  descent  from  the 
Sun-goddess.  His  original  name  was  Kan  Yamato  Iware  Hiko  no 
mikoto.  The  title  Jimmu  Tenno,  meaning  "  spirit  of  war,"  was  post- 
humously applied  to  him  many  centuries  afterward.  When  the  Ko- 
jiki was  compiled,  pure  Japanese  names  only  were  in  use.  Hence,  in 
that  book  we  meet  with  many  very  long  quaint  names  and  titles 
which,  when  written  in  the  Chinese  equivalents,  are  greatly  abbrevi- 
ated. The  introduction  of  the  written  characters  of  China  at  a  later 
period  enabled  the  Japanese  to  express  almost  all  their  own  words, 
whether  names,  objects,  or  abstract  ideas,  in  Chinese  as  well  as  Japa- 
nese. Thus,  in  the  literature  of  Japan  two  languages  exist  side  by 
side,  or  imbedded  in  each  other.  This  applies  to  the  words  only. 
Japanese  syntax,  being  incoercible,  has  preserved  itself  almost  entirely 
unchanged. 

The  Kojiki  states  that  Jimmu  was  fifty  years  old  when  he  set  out 


THE  TWILIGHT  OF  FABLE.  55 

upon  his  conquests.  He  was  accompanied  by  his  brothers  and  a  few 
retainers,  all  of  whom  are  spoken  of  as  kami,  or  gods.  The  coun- 
try of  Japan  was  already  populated  by  an  aboriginal  people  dwelling 
in  villages,  each  under  a  head-man,  and  it  is  interesting  to  notice  how 
the  inventors  of  the  Kojiki  account  for  their  origin.  They  declare, 
and  the  Japanese  popularly  believe,  that  these  aboriginal  savages  were 
the  progeny  of  the  same  gods  (Izanagi  and  Izanami)  from  whom  Jim- 
mu  sprung ;  but  they  were  wicked,  while  Jimmu  was  righteous. 

The  interpretation  doubtless  is,  that  a  band  of  foreign  invaders  land- 
ed in  Hiuga,  in  Kiushiu,  or  they  were  perhaps  colonists,  who  had  oc- 
cupied this  part  of  the  country  for  some  time  previous.  The  territory 
of  Hiuga  could  never  satisfy  a  restless,  warlike  people.  It  is  mount- 
ainous, volcanic,  and  one  of  the  least  productive  parts  of  Japan. 

At  the  foot  of  the  famous  mountain  of  Kirishima,  which  lies  on 
the  boundary  between  Hiuga  and  Ozumi,  is  the  spot  where  Jimmu  re- 
sided, and  whence  he  took  his  departure. 

Izanagi  and  Izanami  first,  and  afterward  Ninigi,  the  fourth  ancestor 
of  Jimmu,  had  descended  from  this  same  height  to  the  earth.  Every 
Japanese  child  who  lives  within  sight  of  this  mountain  gazes  with 
reverent  wonder  upon  its  summit,  far  above  the  sailing  clouds  and 
within  the  blue  sky,  believing  that  here  the  gods  came  down  from 
heaven. 

The  story  of  Jimmu's  march  is  detailed  in  the  Kojiki,  and  the  nu- 
merous popular  books  based  upon  it.  A  great  many  wonderful  creat- 
ures and  men  that  resembled  colossal  spiders  were  encountered  and 
overcome.  Even  wicked  gods  had  to  be  fought  or  circumvented. 
His  path  was  to  Usa,  in  Buzen ;  thence  to  Okada ;  thence  by  ship 
through  the  windings  of  the  Suwo  Nada,  a  part  of  the  Inland  Sea,* 


*  The  "Inland  Sea"  (Seto  Uehi)is  a  name  which  has  been  given  by  foreigners, 
and  adopted  by  the  Japanese,  who  until  modei-n  times  had  no  special  name  for 
it  as  a  whole.  Indeed,  the  whole  system  of  Japanese  geographical  nomenclature 
proves  that  the  generalizations  made  by  foreigners  were  absent  from  their  con- 
ceptions. The  large  bays  have  not  a  name  which  unities  all  their  parts  and  limbs 
into  one  body.  The  long  rivers  possess  each,  not  one  name,  but  many  local  ap- 
pellations along  their  length.  The  main  island  was  nameless,  so  were  Shikoku 
and  Kiushiu  for  many  centuries.  Yezo,  to  the  native,  is  a  region,  not  an  island. 
Even  for  the  same  street  in  a  city  a  single  name,  as  a  rule,  is  not  in  use,  each 
block  receiving  a  name  by  itself.  This  was  quite  a  natural  proceeding  when  the 
universe,  or  "all  beneath  heaven,"  meant  Japan.  The  S^to  Uchi  has  been  in  Jap- 
anese history  what  the  Mediterranean  was  to  the  course  of  empire  in  Europe,  due 
allowance  being  made  for  proportions,  both  physical  and  moral.  It  extends  near« 
ly  east  and  west  two  hundred  and  forty  miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  ten  to 


56  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

landing  in  Aki.  Here  he  built  a  palace,  and  remained  seven  years. 
He  then  went  to  the  region  of  Bizen,  and,  after  dwelling  there  eight 
years,  he  sailed  to  the  East.  The  waves  were  very  rough  and  rapid 
at  the  spot  near  the  present  site  of  Ozata,*  where  he  finally  succeeded 
in  landing,  and  he  gave  the  spot  the  name  JVami  Haya  (swift  waves). 
This  afterward  became,  in  the  colloquial,  and  in  poetry,  Naniwa. 

Hitherto  the  career  of  the  invaders  had  been  one  of  victory  and 
easy  conquest,  but  they  now  received  their  first  repulse.  After  severe 
fighting,  Jimmu  was  defeated,  and  one  of  his  brothers  was  wounded. 
A  council  of  war  was  held,  and  sacred  ceremonies  celebrated  to  dis- 
cover the  cause  of  the  defeat.  The  solemn  verdict  was  that  as  chil- 
dren of  the  Sun -goddess  they  had  acted  with  irreverence  and  pre- 
sumption in  journeying  in  opposition  to  the  course  of  the  sun  from 
west  to  east,  instead  of  moving,  as  the  sun  moves,  from  east  to  west. 
Thereupon  they  resolved  to  turn  to  the  south,  and  advance  westv/ard. 
Leaving  the  ill-omened  shores,  they  coasted  round  the  southern  point 

thirty  miles,  with  many  narrow  passages.  It  has  six  divisions  (nada),  taking 
their  names  from  the  provinces  whose  shores  they  wasli.  It  contains  avast  num- 
ber of  islands,  but  few  known  dangers,  and  has  a  sea-board  of  seven  hundred 
miles,  densely  populated,  abounding  with  safe  and  convenient  anchorages,  dotted 
with  many  large  towns  and  provincial  capitals  and  castled  cities,  and  noted  for 
the  active  trade  of  its  inhabitants.  It  communicates  with  the  Pacific  by  the  chan- 
nels of  Kii  on  the  east,  Bungo  on  the  south,  and  by  the  Straits  of  Shimonoseki 
("the  Gibraltar  of  Japan"),  half  a  mile  wide,  on  the  west.  It  can  be  navigated 
safely  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  by  day,  and  now,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
by  night,  thanks  to  the  system  of  light-houses  thoroughly  equipped  with  the  latest 
instruments  of  optical  science,  including  dioptric  and  catoptric,  fixed  and  revolv- 
ing, white  and  colored  lights,  in  earthquake-proof  towers,  erected  by  English  en- 
gineers in  the  service  of  the  mikado's  Government.  The  tides  and  currents  of 
the  S^to  Uchi  are  not  as  yet  perfectly  known,  but  are  found  to  be  regular  at  the 
east  and  west  entrances,  the  tide- waves  coming  from  the  Pacific.  In  many  parts 
they  run  with  great  velocity.  The  cut  on  page  57  shows  one  of  these  narrow 
passages  where  the  eddying  currents  rush  past  a  rock  in  mid-channel,  scouring 
the  shores,  and  leaving  just  enough  room  for  the  passage  of  a  large  steamer. 

A  very  destructive  species  of  mollusk  inhabits  the  Inland  Sea,  which  perfo- 
rates timber,  making  holes  one-third  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Sailing-vessels 
bound  to  Nagasaki  sometimes  find  it  better  in  winter  to  work  through  the  Inland 
Sea  rather  than  to  beat  round  Cape  Chichakoff  against  the  Kuro  Shiwo.  This  lat- 
ter feat  is  so  diflScult  that  sailors  are  apt  to  drop  the  o  from  the  Japanese  name 
(Satano)  of  this  cape  (misaki)  and  turn  it  into  an  English  or  Hebrew  word.  Those 
who  are  trying  to  prove  that  the  Japanese  are  the  "lost  tribes  "  might  make  one 
of  their  best  arguments  from  this  fact.  Kaempfer,  it  may  be  stated,  derived  the 
Japanese,  by  rapid  transit,  from  the  Tower  of  Babel,  across  Siberia  to  the  islands. 

*  The  spelling  of  Ozaka  (accent  on  the  o)  is  in  accordance  with  the  require- 
ments of  Japanese  rules  of  orthography,  and  the  usage  of  the  people  in  Ozaka 
and  Kioto. 


THE  TWILIGHT  OF  FABLE. 


57 


of  Kii,  and  landed  at  Arasaka.  Here  a  peaceful  triumpli  awaited 
them,  for  the  chief  surrendered,  and  presented  Jimmu  with  a  sword. 
A  representation  of  this  scene,  engraved  on  steel,  now  adorns  the  green- 
back of  one  of  the  denominations  of  the  national  bank-notes  issued 
in  1872.  The  steps  of  the  conqueror  were  now  bent  toward  Yamato. 
The  mountain-passes  were  difficult,  and  the  way  unknown ;  but  by  act 
of  one  of  the  gods,  Michi  no  Omi  no  mikoto,  who  interposed  for  their 
guidance,  a  gigantic  crow,  having  wings  eight  feet  long,  went  before  the 
host,  and  led  the  warriors  into  the  rich  land  of  Yamato.  Here  they 
were  not  permitted  to  rest,  for  the  natives  fought  stoutly  for  their  soil. 


A  Narrow  Passage  in  the  luland  Sea. 

On  one  occasion  the  clouds  lowered,  and  thick  darkness  brooded 
over  the  battle-field,  so  that  neither  of  the  hosts  could  discern  each 
other,  and  the  conflict  stayed.  Suddenly  the  gloom  was  cleft  by  the 
descent  from  heaven  of  a  bird  like  a  hawk,  which,  hovering  in  a  flood 
of  golden  effulgence,  perched  upon  the  bow  of  Jimmu.  His  adver- 
saries, dazzled  to  blindness  by  the  awful  light,  fled  in  dismay.  Jim- 
mu, being  now  complete  victor,  proceeded  to  make  his  permanent 
abode,  and  fixed  the  miako^  or  capital,  at  Kashiwabara,  some  miles 
distant  from  the  present  site  of  Kioto.  Here  he  set  up  his  govern- 
ment, and  began  to  rule  over  all  the  lands  which  he  had  conquered. 
Peace  was  celebrated  with  rejoicings,  and  religious  ceremonies  of  im- 
posing magnificence.  He  distributed  rewards  to  his  soldiers  and  oflS- 
cers,  and  chose  his  chief  captains  to  be  rulers  over  provinces,  appor- 
tioning them  lands,  to  be  held  in  return  for  military  service.     It  will 


58  .     THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

be  noticed  that  this  primal  form  of  general  government  was  a  species 
of  feudalism.  Such  a  political  system  was  of  the  most  rudimentary 
kind  ;  only  a  little  better  than  the  Council  of  the  Six  Nations  of  the 
Iroquois,  or  was  similar  to  that  of  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico. 

The  country  being  now  tranquilized,  weapons  were  laid  aside,  and 
attention  was  given  to  the  arts  of  peace.  Among  the  first  things  ac- 
complished was  the  solemn  deposit  of  the  three  sacred  emblems — mir- 
ror, sword,  and  ball  —  in  the  palace.  Sacrifices  were  offered  to  the 
Sun-goddess  on  Torimino  yama. 

Jimmu  married  the  princess  Tatara,  the  most  beautiful  woman  in 
Japan,  and  daughter  of  one  of  his  captains.  During  his  life-time  his 
chief  energies  were  spent  in  consolidating  his  power,  and  civilizing 
his  subjects.  Several  rebellions  had  to  be  put  down.  After  choosing 
an  heir,  he  died,  leaving  three  children,  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-seven  years,  according  to  the  Nihongi,  and  of  one  hundred  and 
thirty-seven,  according  to  the  Kojiki. 

It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  Jimmu  was  a  historical  character. 
The  only  books  describing  him  are  but  collections  of  myths  and  fa- 
bles, in  which  exists,  perhaps,  a  mere  skeleton  of  history.  Even  the 
Japanese  writers,  as,  for  instance,  the  author  of  a  popular  history 
(2)a^  Nihon  Koku  Kai  Biahu  Yuraii  Ki),  interpret  the  narratives 
in  a  rationalistic  manner.  Thus,  the  "  eight-headed  serpents  "  in  the 
Kojiki  are  explained  to  be  persistent  arch-rebels,  or  valorous  enemies ; 
the  "  ground-spiders,"  to  be  rebels  of  lesser  note  ;  and  the  "  spider-pits 
or  holes,"  the  rebels'  lurking-places.  The  gigantic  crow,  with  wings 
eight  feet  long,  that  led  the  host  into  Yamato  was  probably,  says  the 
native  writer,  a  famous  captain  whose  name  was  Karasii  (crow),  who 
led  the  advance-guard  into  Yamato,  with  such  valor,  directness,  and 
rapidity,  that  it  seemed  miraculous.  The  myth  of  ascribing  the  guid- 
ance of  the  army  to  a  crow  was  probably  invented  later.  A  large 
number  of  the  incidents  related  in  the  Kojiki  have  all  the  character- 
istics of  the  myth. 

Chinese  tradition  ascribes  the  peopling  of  Japan  to  the  following 
causes :  The  grandfather  (Taiko)  of  the  first  emperor  (Buwo)  of  the 
Shu  dynasty  (thirty-seven  emperors,  eight  hundred  and  seventy-two 
years,  b.c.  1120-249)  in  China,  having  three  sons,  wished  to  bequeath 
his  titles  and  estates  to  his  youngest  son,  notwithstanding  that  law 
and  custom  required  him  to  endow  the  eldest.  The  younger  son  re- 
fused to  receive  the  inheritance ;  but  the  elder,  knowing  that  his  father 
Taiko  would  persist  in  his  determination,  and  unwilling  to  cause  trou- 


THE  TWILIGHT  OF  FABLE.  59 

ble,  secretly  left  his  father's  house  and  dominions,  and  sailed  away 
to  the  South  of  China.  Thence  he  is  supposed  to  have  gone  to  Ja- 
pan and  founded  a  colony  in  Hiuga.  His  name  was  Taihaku  Ki. 
From  this  legend  the  Chinese  frequently  apply  the  name  Kishi  Koku, 
or  "  country  of  the  Ki  family,"  to  Japan, 

Whatever  may  be  the  actual  facts,  Jimniu  Tenno  is  popularly  be- 
lieved to  have  been  a  real  person,  and  the  first  emperor  of  Japan. 
He  is  deified  in  the  Shinto  religion,  and  in  thousands  of  shrines  ded- 
icated to  him  the  people  worship  his  spirit.  In  the  official  list  of 
mikados,  he  is  named  as  the  first.  The  reigning  emperor  refers  to 
him  as  his  ancestor  from  whom  he  claims  unbroken  descent.  The 
7th  day  of  the  Fourth  month  (April  7th)  is  fixed  as  the  anniversary 
of  his  ascension  to  the  throne,  and  that  day  is  a  national  holiday,  on 
which  the  iron-clad  navy  of  modern  Japan  fires  salutes,  from  Krupp 
and  Armstrong  guns,  in  his  honor,  and  the  military,  in  French  uni 
forms,  from  Snider  and  Remington  rifles,  burn  in  memoriam  powder. 

The  era  of  Jimmu  is  the  starting-point  of  Japanese  chronology,  and 
the  year  1  of  the  Japanese  era  is  that  upon  which  he  ascended  the 
throne  at  Kashiwabara,*  A  large  number  of  Japanese  students  and 
educated  men  who  have  been  abroad,  or  who,  though  remaining  at 
home,  have  shed  their  old  beliefs,  and  imbibed  the  modern  spirit  of 
nihilism,  regard  Jimmu  as  a  myth.  The  majority,  however,  cling  to 
their  old  belief  that  the  name  Jimmu  represents  a  historical  verity, 
and  hold  it  as  the  sheet-anchor  of  their  shifting  faith,  A  young  Jap- 
anese, fresh  from  several  years'  residence  in  Europe,  was  recently  ral- 
lied concerning  his  belief  in  the  divinity  of  the  mikado  and  in  the 
truth  of  the  Kojiki.  His  final  answer  was,  "  It  is  my  duty  to  believe 
in  them." 

*  Dr.  J.  J.  Hoffman,  who  has  written  the  best  Japanese  grammar  yet  published, 
in  expressing  the  exact  date  given  in  the  Kojiki,  in  terms  of  the  Julian  stj'le, 
says  the  19th  of  February  (660  B.C.)  was  the  day  of  Jiramu's  ascension.  Pro- 
fessor F.  Kaiser  has  found  out  by  calculation  that  at  eight  a.m.  on  that  day  of 
the  said  year  tluTC  was  a  new  moon  at  the  miako.  "  Therefore,"  says  this  gram- 
marian, leaping  on  the  wings  of  his  own  logic  to  a  tremendous  conclusion,  and 
settling  down  into  assured  satisfaction,  "  the  correctness  of  the  Japanese  chro- 
nology may  not  be  called  in  question."  (See  page  157,  and  note  of  "A  Japanese 
Grammar,"  J.  J.  Hoffman,  Leyden,  1868.) 


60  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIBK 


VI. 

,  SUJIN,  THE    GIVILIZER. 

From  the  death  of  Jimmu  Tenno  to  that  of  Kimmei,  in  whose 
reign  Buddhism  was  introduced  (a.d.  571),  there  were,  according  to 
the  Dai  Nihon  Shi,  thirty -one  mikados.  During  this  period  of 
twelve  hundred  and  thirty-six  years,  beUeved  to  be  historic  by  most 
Japanese,  the  most  interesting  subjects  to  be  noted  are  the  reforms  of 
Sujin  Tenno,  the  miUtary  expeditions  to  Eastern  Japan  by  Yamato 
Dake,  the  invasion  of  Corea  by  the  Empress  Jingu  Kogo,  and  the  in- 
troduction of  Chinese  civilization  and  of  Buddhism. 

The  Nihongi  details  the  history  and  exploits  of  these  ancient  rulers 
with  a  minuteness  and  exactness  of  circumstance  that  are  very  sus- 
picious. It  gives  the  precise  birthdays  and  ages  of  the  emperors,  who 
in  those  days  attained  an  incredible  longevity.  Takenouchi,  the  Japa- 
nese Methusaleh,  lived  to  be  over  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  old, 
and  served  as  prime  minister  to  five  successive  emperors.  Twelve 
mikados  lived  to  be  over  one  hundred  years  old.  One  of  them  ruled 
one  hundred  and  one  years.  The  reigns  of  the  first  seventeen  aver^ 
aged  over  sixty-one  years.  From  the  seventeenth  to  the  thirty-first, 
the  average  reign  is  little  over  twelve  years.  In  the  list  there  are 
many  whose  deeds,  though  exaggerated  in  the  mirage  of  fable,  are,  in 
the  main,  most  probably  historic. 

Sujin,  also  called  Shujin  or  Sunin  (b.c.  97-30),  was,  according  to 
the  Dai  Nihon  Shi,  a  man  of  intense  earnestness  and  piety.  The 
traits  of  courage  and  energy  which  characterized  his  youth  gave  him 
in  manhood  signal  fitness  for  his  chosen  task  of  elevating  his  people. 
He  mourned  over  their  wickedness,  and  called  upon  them  to  forsake 
their  sins,  and  turn  their  minds  to  the  worship  of  the  gods.  A  great 
pestilence  having  broken  out,  and  the  people  being  still  unrepentant, 
the  pious  monarch  rose  early  in  the  morning,  fasted,  and  purified  his 
body  with  water,  and  called  on  the  kami  to  stay  the  plague.  After 
solemn  public  worship  the  gods  answered  him,  and  the  plagne  abated. 
A  revival  of  religious  feeling  and  worship  followed.  In  his  reign 
dates  the  building  of  special  shrines  for  the  adoration  of  the  gods. 


SUJIN,  THE  CIVILIZER.  61 

Hitherto  the  sacred  ceremonies  had  been  celebrated  in  the  open  air. 
Further,  the  three  holy  regalia  (mirror,  sword,  and  ball)  had  hith- 
erto been  kept  in  the  palace  of  the  mikado.  It  was  believed  that 
the  efficacy  of  the  spirit  was  so  great  that  the  mikado  dwelling  with 
the  spirit  was,  as  it  were,  equal  to  a  god.  These  three  emblems  had 
been  placed  within  the  palace,  that  it  might  be  said  that  where  they 
were  dwelt  the  divine  power.  A  rebellion  having  broken  out  during 
his  reign,  he  was  led  to  believe  that  this  was  a  mark  of  the  disfavor 
of  the  gods,  and  in  consequence  of  his  keeping  the  emblems  under 
his  own  roof.  Reverencing  the  majesty  of  the  divine  symbols,  and 
fearing  that  they  might  be  defiled  by  too  close  proximity  to  his  car- 
nal body,  he  removed  them  from  his  dwelling,  and  dedicated  them  in 
a  temple  erected  for  the  purpose  at  Kasanui,  a  village  in  Yamato. 
He  appointed  his  own  daughter  priestess  of  the  shrine  and  custodian 
of  the  symbols — a  custom  which  has  continued  to  the  present  time. 

The  shrines  of  Uji,  in  Ise,  which  now  hold  these  precious  relics  of 
the  divine  age,  are  always  in  charge  of  a  virgin  princess  of  imperial 
blood.  Later,  being  warned  by  the  goddess  Amaterasu  to  do  so,  she 
carried  the  mirror  from  province  to  province,  seeking  a  suitable  lo- 
cality ;  but  having  grown  old  in  their  search,  Yamato  hime*  continued 
it,  and  finally,  after  many  changes,  they  were  deposited  in  their  pres- 
ent place  A.D.  4.  Copies  of  the  mirror  and  sword  were,  however, 
made  by  Sujin,  and  placed  in  a  separate  building  within  the  palace 
called  the  "  place  of  reverence."  This  was  the  origin  of  the  chapel 
still  connected  with  the  mikado's  imperial  palace. 

From  the  most  early  time  the  dwelling  and  surroundings  of  the  mi- 
kado were  characterized  by  the  most  austere  simplicity,  quite  like  the 
Shinto  temples  themselves,  and  the  name  miya  was  applied  to  both. 
In  imagining  the  imperial  palace  in  Japan,  the  reader  on  this  side  the 
Pacific  must  dissolve  the  view  projected  on  his  mind  at  the  mention 
of  the  term  "  palace."  Little  of  the  stateliness  of  architecture  or  the 
splendor  and  magnificence  of  the  interior  of  a  European  palace  belongs 
to  the  Japanese  imperial  residence.  A  simple  structure,  larger  than  an 
ordinary  first-class  dwelling,  but  quite  like  a  temple  in  outward  appear- 
ance, and  destitute  of  all  meretricious  or  artistic  ornamentation  within, 
marks  the  presence  of  royalty,  or  semi-divinity,  in  Japan.  Even  in  Ki- 
oto, for  centuries,  the  palace,  except  for  its  size  and  slightly  greater  el- 

*  The  suffix  hime  after  female  proper  names  means  "  princess."  It  is  still  nsed 
bj'  the  ladies  of  the  imperial  famil)',  and  by  the  daughters  of  the  court  nobles. 
Maye,  with  no,  was  also  added  to  names  of  ladies  of  rank. 


62 


TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


evation,  could  not  be  distinguished  from  tlie  residences  of  the  nobles, 
or  from  a  temple.  All  this  was  in  keeping  with  the  sacredness  of  the 
personage  enshrined  within.  For  vain  mortals,  sprung  from  inferior  or 
wicked  gods,  for  upstart  generals,  or  low  traders  bloated  with  wealth, 
luxury  and  display  were  quite  seemly.  Divinity  needed  no  material 
show.  The  circumstances  and  attributes  of  deity  were  enough.  The 
indulgence  in  gaudy  display  was  opposed  to  the  attributes  and  char- 
acter of  the  living  representative  of  the  Heavenly  Line.  This  rigid 
simplicity  was  carried  out  even  after  death.  In  striking  contrast  with 
the  royal  burial  customs  of  the  nations  of  Asia  are  those  of  Japan. 


The  Mikado's  Method  of  Travel  in  very  Ancient  Times. 


All  over  the  East,  the  tombs  of  dead  dynasties  are  edifices  of  all  oth- 
ers the  most  magnificent.  The  durable  splendor  of  the  homes  of  the 
departed  far  exceed  that  of  the  palaces  of  the  living.  But  in  Japan, 
in  place  of  the  gorgeous  mausoleums  and  the  colossal  masterpieces  of 
mortuary  architecture  of  continental  Asia,  the  sepulchres  of  the  mika- 
dos  seem  monuments  of  chaste  poverty.  Nearly  all  of  the  imperial 
tombs  are  within  the  three  provinces  of  Yamato,  Yamashiro,  and  Set- 
tsu.  A  simple  base  of  stone,  surmounted  by  a  low  shaft,  set  upon  a 
hillocki,  surrounded  by  a  trench,  and  inclosed  with  a  neat  railing  of 
timber,  marks  the  resting-places  of  the  dead  emperors.  All  this  is  in 
accordance  with  the  precepts  of  Shinto. 


SUJIN,  THE  CIVILIZER. 


63 


The  whole  life  of  Stijin  was  one  long  effort  to  civilize  his  half- 
savage  subjects.  He  ordained  certain  days  when  persons  of  both 
sexes  must  lay  aside  their  regular  employment,  and  give  the  Govern- 
ment his  or  her  quantum  of  labor.  The  term  for  the  labor  of  the 
men  means  "bow-point,"  and  of  the  women  "hand-point,"  implying 
that  in  the  one  case  military  service  was  the  chief  requirement,  and 
in  the  other  that  of  the  loom  or  the  field.  He  endeavored,  in  or- 
der to  secure  just  taxation,  to  inaugurate  a  regular  periodical  census, 
and  to  reform  the  methods  of  dividing  and  recording  time.*  He 
encouraged  the  building  of  boats,  in  order  to  increase  the  means  of 
transportation,  promote  commerce,  and  to  bring  the  people  at  the 
extremities  of  the  country  in  contact  with  each  other.  Communi- 
cation between  Corea  and  Kiushiu  was  rendered  not  only  possible, 
but  promised  to  be  regular  and  profitable.  We  read  that,  during 
his  reign,  an  envoy,  bringing  presents,  arrived  from  Mimana,  in  Co- 
rea, B.C.  33.  Six  years  later,  it  is  recorded  that  the  prince,  a  chief  of 
Shiraki,  in  Corea,  came  to  Japan  to  live.  It  is  evident  that  these  Co- 
reans  would  tell  much  of  what  they  had  seen  in  their  own  country, 
and  that  many  useful  ideas  and  appliances  would  be  introduced  under 
the  patronage  of  this  enlightened  monarch.  Stijin  may  be  also  called 
the  father  of  Japanese  agriculture,  since  he  encouraged  it  by  edict  and 
example,  ordering  canals  to  be  dug,  water-courses  provided,  and  irriga- 
tion to  be  extensively  carried  on.  Water  is  the  first  necessity  of  the 
rice-farmer  of  Asia.  It  is  to  him  as  precious  a  commodity  as  it  is  to 
the  miner  of  California.  Rice  must  be  sown,  transplanted,  and  grown 
under  water.  Hence,  in  a  country  where  this  cereal  is  the  staple  crop, 
immense  areas  of  irrigated  fields  are  necessary.  One  of  the  unique 
forms  of  theft  in  rice-countries,  which,  in  popular  judgment,  equals  in 


■'"  The  twenty-four  divisions  of  the  solar  year  (according  to  the  lunar  calendar), 
by  which  the  Japanese  farmers  have  for  centuries  regulated  their  labors,  are  as 
follows : 


'Beginninfr  of  Spring" February  3. 

"Rain-water" February  19. 

'Awakening  of  the  Insects".  ..March  5. 

'Middle  of  the  Spring" March  20. 

''Clear  Weather" April  5. 

'Seed  Rain" April  20. 

"Beginning  of  Summer" May  5. 

"  Little  Plenty" May  20. 

"Transplanting  the  Rice" June  5. 

"Height  of  the  Summer" June  21. 

'  Little  Heat" July  6. 

"Great  Heat" July  23. 


"  Beginning  of  Autumn  " August  7. 

"Local  Heat" August  23. 

"  White  Dew" September  8. 

"Middle  of  Autumn  " September  23. 

"Cold  Dew" October  8. 

"  Fall  of  Hoar-frost" October  23. 

"  Beginning  of  Winter" November  7. 

"Little  Snow". November  22. 

"Great  Snow" December  7.  ■ 

"Height  of  the  Winter" December  22. 

"  Little  Frost" January  6. 

"Great  Frost" January  20. 


64  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

iniquity  the  stealing  of  ore  at  the  mines,  or  horses  on  the  prairies, 
is  the  drawing  oil  water  from  a  neighbor's  field.  In  those  old  rude 
times,  the  Japanese  water-thief,  when  detected,  received  but  little  more 
mercy  than  the  horse-robber  in  the  West.  The  immense  labor  neces- 
sary to  obtain  the  requisite  water-supply  can  only  be  appreciated  by 
one  who  has  studied  the  flumes  of  California,  the  tanks  of  India,  or 
the  various  appliances  in  Southern  Asia.  In  Japan,  it  is  very  com- 
mon to  terrace,  with  great  labor,  the  mountain  gulches,  and  utilize  the 
stream  in  irrigating  the  platforms,  thus  changing  a  noisy,  foaming 
stream  into  a  silent  and  useful  servant.  In  many  cases,  the  water  is 
led  for  miles  along  artificial  canals,  or  ditches,  to  the  fertile  soil  which 
needs  it.  On  flat  lands,  at  the  base  of  mountains,  huge  reservoirs  are 
excavated,  and  tapped  as  often  as  desired.  In  the  bosom  of  the  Ha- 
kone  Mountains,  between  Sagami  and  Suruga,  is  a  deep  lake  of  pure 
cold  water,  over  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level.  On  the  plain 
below  are  few  or  no  natural  streams.  Centuries  ago,  but  long  after 
Sujin's  time,  the  mountain  wall  was  breached  and  tunneled  by  man- 
ual labor,  and  now  through  the  rocky  sluices  flows  a  flood  sufficient 
to  enrich  the  millions  of  acres  of  Suruga  province.  The  work  begun 
by  Sujin  was  followed  up  vigorously  by  his  successor,  as  we  read  that, 
in  the  year  a.d.  6,  a  proclamation  was  issued  ordering  canals  and  sluices 
to  be  dug  in  over  eight  hundred  places. 

The  emperor  had  two  sons,  whom  he  loved  equally.  Unable  to  de- 
termine which  of  them  should  succeed  him,  he  one  day  told  them  to 
tell  him  their  dreams  the  next  morning,  and  he  should  decide  the 
issue  by  interpretation.  The  young  princes  accordingly  washed  their 
bodies,  changed  their  garments,  and  slept.  Next  day  the  elder  son 
said,  "  I  dreamed  that  I  climbed  up  a  mountain,  and,  facing  the  east, 
I  cut  with  the  sword  and  thrust  with  the  spear  eight  times."  The 
younger  said,  "  I  climbed  the  same  mountain,  and,  stretching  snares 
of  cords  on  every  side,  tried  to  catch  the  sparrows  that  destroy  the 
grain."  The  emperor  then  interpreted  the  dream,  "  You,  my  son," 
said  he  to  the  elder,  "  looked  in  one  direction.  You  will  go  to  the 
East,  and  become  its  governor."  "  You,  my  son,"  said  he  to  the 
younger,  "  looked  in  every  direction.  You  will  govern  on  all  sides. 
You  will  become  my  heir."  It  happened  as  the  father  had  said.  The 
younger  became  emperor,  and  a  peaceful  ruler.  The  elder  became  the 
governor  of,  and  a  warrior  in,  the  East. 

The  story  is  interesting  as  illustrating  the  method  of  succession  to 
the  throne.     Usually  it  was  by  primogeniture,  but  often  it  depended 


StJJIN,  THE  CIVJLIZER.  65 

upon  the  will  or  whim  of  the  father,  the  councils  of  his  chiefs,  or  the 
intrigues  of  courtiers. 

The  energies  of  this  pious  mikado  were  further  exerted  in  devising 
and  executing  a  national  military  system,  whereby  his  peaceably  dis- 
posed subjects  could  be  protected  and  the  extremities  of  his  domin- 
ions extended.  The  eastern  and  northern  frontiers  were  exposed  to 
the  assaults  of  the  wild  tribes  of  Ainos  who  were  yet  unsubdued. 
Between  the  peaceful  agricultural  inhabitants  who  owned  the  sway  of 
the  ruler  in  Yamato,  and  the  untamed  savages  who  gloried  in  their 
freedom,  a  continual  border-war  existed.  The  military  division  of  the 
empire  into  four  departments  was  made,  and  a  shogun,  or  general,  was 
appointed  over  each.  These  departments  were  the  To,  Nan,  and  Sai 
kai  do,  and  Hokurokudo,  or  the  East,  South,  and  West-sea  Circuits, 
and  the  Northern-land  Circuit.  The  strict  division  of  the  empire  into 
do,  or  circuits,  according  with  the  natural  features  and  partitions  of 
the  country,  which  is  still  recognized,  was  of  later  time ;  but  already, 
B.C.  25,  it  seems  to  have  been  foreshadowed  by  Sujin. 

One  of  these  shoguns,  or  generals,  named  Obiko,  who  was  assigned 
to  the  Northern  Department,  lying  north  of  Yamato  and  along  the 
west  coast,  holds  a  high  place  of  renown  among  the  long  list  of 
famous  Japanese  warriors.  It  is  said  that  when,  just  after  he  had 
started  to  join  his  command,  he  heard  of  a  conspiracy  against  the 
mikado,  returning  quickly,  he  killed  the  traitor,  restored  order,  and 
then  resumed  his  duties  in  the  camp  at  the  North.  His  son  held  com- 
mand in  the  East.  In  the  following  reign,  it  is  written  that  military 
arsenals  and  magazines  were  established,  so  that  weapons  and  rations 
were  ready  at  any  moment  for  a  military  expedition  to  repel  incursions 
from  the  wild  tribes  on  the  border,  or  to  suppress  insurrections  within 
the  pale  of  the  empire.  The  half-subdued  inhabitants  in  the  extremes 
of  the  realm  needed  constant  watching,  and  seem  to  have  been  as 
restless  and  treacherous  as  the  Indians  on  our  own  frontiers.  The 
whole  history  of  the  extension  and  development  of  the  mikado's  em- 
pire is  one  of  war  and  blood,  rivaling,  if  not  exceeding,  that  of  our 
own  country  in  its  early  struggles  with  the  Indians.  This  constant 
military  action  and  life  in  the  camp  resulted,  in  the  course  of  time,  in 
the  creation  of  a  powerful  and  numerous  military  class,  who  made  war 
professional  and  hereditary.  It  developed  that  military  genius  and 
character  which  so  distinguish  the  modern  Japanese,  and  mark  them 
in  such  strong  contrast  with  other  nations  of  Eastern  Asia.  The  long- 
sustained  military  operations  also  served  to  consolidate  the  empire. 


66  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

In  these  ancient  days,  however,  there  was  no  regular  army,  no  special 
class  of  warriors,  as  in  later  times.  Until  the  eighth  century,  the 
armies  were  extemporized  from  the  farmers  and  people  generally,  as 
occasion  demanded.  The  war  over,  they  returned  to  their  daily  em- 
ployments. The  mikados  Avere  military  chiefs,  and  led  their  armies, 
or  gave  to  their  sons  or  near  relatives  only,  the  charge  of  expeditions. 
It  is  not  my  purpose  to  follow  in  detail  the  long  series  of  battles, 


Imperial  or  Japauese  Government  Seal  for  Public  Business.     The  Chrysanthemmn. 

or  even  court  conspiracies  and  intrigues,  which  fill  the  Japanese  his- 
tories, and  lead  some  readers  to  suppose  that  war  was  the  normal  con- 
dition of  the  palace  and  empire.  I  prefer  to  show  the  condition 
of  the  people,  their  methods  of  life,  customs,  ideas,  and  beliefs.  Al- 
though wars  Avithout  and  intrigues  within  were  frequent,  these  by  no 
means  made  up  the  life  of  the  nation.  Peace  had  its  victories,  no 
less  renowned  than  those  of  war.  A  study  of  the  life  of  the  people, 
showing  their  progress  from  barbarism  to  civilization,  will,  I  think,  be 
of  more  interest  to  the  reader  than  details  concerning  imperial  rebels, 
poisoners,  or  stabbers. 

In  the  Japanese  histories,  and  in  official  language,  literature,  and  eti- 
quette of  later  days,  there  exists  the  conception  of  two  great  spheres 
of  activity  and  of  two  kinds  of  transactions,  requiring  two  methods  of 


SUjm,  THE  CIVILIZEB. 


67 


treatment.  They  are  the  nai  and  guai,  the  inner  and  the  outer,  the  in- 
terior and  exterior  of  the  palace,  or  the  throne  and  the  empire.  Thus 
the  Nikon  Guai  Shi,  by  Rai  Sanyo,  or  "  External  History  of  Japan," 
treats  of  the  events,  chiefly  military,  outside  the  palace.  His  other 
work,  Nikon  Seiki,  treats  rather  of  the  affairs  of  the  "  forbidden  in- 
terior" of  the  palace.  In  those  early  days  this  conception  had  not 
been  elaborated. 


Imperial  Crest,  or  the  Mikado's  Seal,  for  Private  or  Palace  Business.    Leaf  and  Blossomg 
of  the  Paulownia  imperialis  (kiri.) 

The  mikado  from  ancient  times  has  had  two  crests,  answering  to 
the  coats  of  arms  in  European  heraldry.  One  is  a  representation  of  a 
chrysanthemum  (kiku),  and  is  used  for  government  purposes  outside 
the  palace.  It  is  embroidered  on  flags  and  banners,  and  printed  on 
oflBcial  documents.  Since  the  Restoration,  in  1868,  the  soldiers  of  the 
imperial  army  wear  it  as  a  frontlet  on  their  caps.  The  other  crest, 
representing  a  blossom  and  leaves  of  the  Paulownia  imperialis  (kiri), 
is  used  in  business  personal  to  the  mikado  and  his  family.  The  an- 
cient golden  chrysanthemum  has,  since  1868,  burst  into  new  bloom, 
like  the  flowering  of  the  nation  itself,  and  has  everywhere  displaced 
the  trefoil  of  the  parvenus  of  later  feudalism — the  Tokugawas,  the 
only  military  vassals  of  the  mikado  who  ever  assumed  the  preposter 
ous  title  of  "  Tycoon." 


68  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


VII. 

YAMATODAKt:,  THE  CONQUEROR  OF  THE  KUANTO* 

A  NEW  hero  appears  in  the  second  century,  whose  personality  seema 
so  marked  that  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  within  the  shell  of  fabu- 
lous narration  is  a  rich  kernel  of  history.  This  hero,  a  son  of  the 
twelfth  emperor,  Keiko  (71-130  a.d.),  is  pictured  as  of  fair  mien,  manly 
and  graceful  carriage.  In  his  youth  he  led  an  army  to  put  down  a  re- 
bellion in  Kiushiu ;  and,  wishing  to  enter  the  enemy's  camp,  he  dis- 
guised himself  as  a  dancing-girl,  and  presented  himself  before  the  sen- 
tinel, who,  dazed  by  the  beauty  and  voluptuous  figure  of  the  supposed 
damsel,  and  hoping  for  a  rich  reward  from  his  chief,  admitted  her  to 
the  arch -rebel's  tent.  After  dancing  before  him  and  his  carousing 
guests,  the  delighted  voluptuary  drew  his  prize  by  the  hand  into  his 
own  tent.  Instead  of  a  yielding  girl,  he  found  more  than  his  match  in 
the  heroic  youth,  who  seized  him,  held  him  powerless,  and  took  his 
life.  For  this  valorous  effort  he  received  the  name  Yamato-Dake,  or, 
the  Warlike.  Thirteen  years  after  this  victory,  a.d.  110,  the  tribes  in 
eastern  Japan  revolted,  and  Yamato-Dake  went  to  subdue  them.  He 
stopped  at  the  shrine  of  the  Sun-goddess  in  Ise,  and,  leaving  his  own 
sword  under  a  pine-tree,  he  obtained  from  the  priestess  the  sacred 
sword,  one  of  the  holy  emblems  enshrined  by  Sujin.  Armed  with 
this  palladium,  he  penetrated  into  the  wilds  of  Suruga,  to  fight  the 
Ainas,  who  fled  before  him  from  the  plains  into  the  woods  and  mount- 
ain fastnesses.  The  Aino  method  of  warfare,  like  that  of  our  North 
American  Indians,  was  to  avoid  an  encounter  in  the  open  field,  and  to 

*  Kuanto  (east  of  the  barrier).  The  term  Kuanto  was,  probably  as  early  as  the 
ninth  century,  applied  to  that  part  of  Japan  lying  east  of  the  guard-gate,  or  bar- 
rier, at  Ozaka,  a  small  village  on  the  borders  of  Yamashiro  and  Omi.  It  included 
thirty-three  provinces.  The  remaining  thirty-three  provinces  were  called  Kuan- 
sei  (west  of  the  barrier).  In  modern  times  and  at  present,  the  term  Kuanto  (writ- 
ten also  Kanto)  is  applied  to  the  eight  provinces  (Kuan-hasshiu)  east  of  the  Ha- 
kon6  range,  consisting  of  Sagami,  Musashi,  Kodzuke,  Shimotsuke,  Kadzusa,  Awa, 
Shimosa,  and  Hitachi.  Sometimes  Idzu,  Kai,  and  the  provinces  of  Hondo  north 
of  the  thirty-eighth  parallel,  formerly  called  Mutsu  and  D^wa,  are  also  included. 


TAMATO-BAEi;,  THE  CONQUEROB   OF  THE  KUANTO. 


69 


fight  in  ambush  from  behind  trees,  rocks,  or  in  the  rank  undergrowth, 
using  every  artifice  by  which,  as  pursued,  they  could  inflict  the  great- 
est damage  upon  an  enemy  with  the  least  loss  and  danger  to  them- 
selves. In  the  lore  of  the  forest  they  were  so  well  read  that  they  felt 
at  home  in  the  most  tangled  wilds.  They  were  able  to  take  advan- 
tage of  every  sound  and  sign.  They  were  accustomed  to  disguise 
themselves  in  bear-skins,  and  thus  act  as  spies  and  scouts.  Fire  was 
one  of  their  chief  means  of  attack.     On  a  certain  occasion  they  kin- 


Japan,  as  known  to  the  Ancient  Mikados  before  the  Fifth  Centnry. 


died  the  underbrush,  which  is  still  seen  so  densely  covering  the  un- 
cleared portions  of  the  base  of  Fuji.  The  flames,  urged  by  the  wind, 
threatened  to  surround  and  destroy  the  Japanese  army — a  sight  which 
the  Ainos  beheld  with  yells  of  delight.  The  Sun-goddess  then  ap- 
peared to  Yamato-Dake,  who,  drawing  the  divinely  bestowed  sword — 
Murakumo,  or  "Cloud-cluster" — cut  the  grass  around  him.  So  in^-in- 
cible  was  the  blade  that  the  flames  ceased  advancing  and  turned  to- 
ward his  enemies,  who  were  consumed,  or  fled  defeated.    Yamato-Dake 


70  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

then  gratefully  acknowledging  to  the  gods  the  victory  vouchsafed  to 
him,  changed  the  name  of  the  sword  to  Kusanagi  (Grass-mower). 

Crossing  the  Hakone  Mountains,  he  descended  into  the  great  plain 
of  the  East,  in  later  days  called  the  Kuanto,  which  stretches  from  the 
base  of  the  central  ranges  and  table-land  of  Hondo  to  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific,  and  from  Sagami  to  Iwaki.  On  reaching  the  Bay  of  Yedo 
at  about  Kamizaki,  near  Uraga,  off  which  Commodore  Perry  anchored 
with  his  steamers  in  1853,  the  hills  of  the  opposite  peninsula  of  Awa 
seemed  so  very  close  at  hand,  that  Yamato-Dake  supposed  it  would  be 
a  trifling  matter  to  cross  the  intervening  channel.  He  did  not  know 
what  we  know  so  well  now,  that  at  these  narrows  of  the  bay  the 
winds,  tides,  currents,  and  weather  are  most  treacherous.  Having 
embarked  with  his  host,  a  terrific  storm  arose,  and  the  waves  tossed 
the  boat  so  helplessly  about  that  death  seemed  inevitable.  Then  the 
frightened  monarch  understood  that  the  Sea-god,  insulted  by  his  dis- 
paraging remark,  had  raised  the  storm  to  punish  him.  The  only  way 
to  appease  the  wrath  of  the  deity  was  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  victim. 
Who  would  offer?  One  was  ready.  In  the  boat  with  her  lord  was 
his  wife,  Tachibana  hime.  Bidding  him  farewell,  she  leaped  into  the 
mad  waves.  The  blinding  tempest  drove  on  the  helpless  boat,  and 
the  victim  and  the  saved  were  parted.  But  the  sacrifice  was  accepted. 
Soon  the  storm  ceased,  the  sky  cleared,  the  lovely  landscape  unveiled 
in  serene  repose.  Yamato-Dake  landed  in  Kadzusa,  and  subdued  the 
tribes.  At  the  head  of  the  peninsula,  at  a  site  still  pointed  out  within 
the  limits  of  modern  Tokio,  he  found  the  perfumed  wooden  comb  of 
his  wife,  which  had  floated  ashore.  Erecting  an  altar,  he  dedicated  the 
precious  relic  as  a  votive  offering  to  the  gods.  A  Shinto  shrine  still 
occupies  the  site  where  her  spirit  and  that  of  Yamato-Dake  are  wor- 
shiped by  the  fishermen  and  sailors,  whose  junks  fill  the  Bay  of  Yedo 
with  animation  and  picturesque  beauty.  As  usual,  a  pine-tree  stands 
near  the  shrine.  The  artist  has  put  Mount  Fuji  in  the  distance,  a 
beautiful  view  of  which  is  had  from  the  strand.  Yamato-Dake  then 
advanced  northward,  through  Shimosa,  sailing  along  the  coast  in 
boats  to  the  border,  as  the  Japanese  claimed  it  to  be,  between  the 
empire  proper  and  the  savages,  Avhich  lay  at  or  near  the  thirty-eighth 
parallel.  The  two  greatest  chiefs  of  the  Ainos,  apprised  of  his  com- 
ing, collected  a  great  army  to  overwhelm  the  invader.  Seeing  his 
fleet  approaching,  and  awed  at  the  sight,  they  were  struck  with  con- 
sternation, and  said,  "  These  ships  must  be  from  the  gods.  If  so,  and 
we  draw  bow  against  them,  we  shall  be  destroyed."     No  sooner  had 


YAMATO-DAKt:,  THE  CONQUEROR   OF  THE  KUANTO. 


Yl 


Yamato-Dake  landed  than  they  came  to  the  strand  and  surrendered. 
The  hero  kept  the  leaders  as  hostages,  and  having  tranquilized  the 
tribes,  exacting  promise  of  tribute,  he  set  out  on  the  homeward  jour- 
ney. His  long  absence  from  the  capital  in  the  wilds  of  the  East 
doubtless  disposed  him  to  return  gladly.  He  passed  through  Hitachi 
and  Shimosa,  resting  temporarily  at  Sakura,  then  through  Musashi 
and  Kai.  Here  he  is  said  to  have  invented  the  distich,  or  thirty-one- 
syllable  poem,  so  much  used  at  the  present  day.  After  his  army  had 
been  refreshed  by  their  halt,  he  sent  one  of  his  generals  into  Echizen 
and  Echigo  to  tranquilize  the  North-west  and  meet  him  in  Yamato. 


Juuk  iu  the  Bay  of  Yedo,  near  the  Shrine  of  Tachibana  him6. 


He  himself  marched  into  Shinano.  Hitherto,  since  crossing  the 
Hakone  range,  he  had  carried  on  his  operations  on  the  plains.  Shi- 
nano is  a  great  table-land  averaging  twenty-five  hundred,  and  rising 
in  many  places  over  five  thousand,  feet  above  the  sea-level,  surrounded 
and  intersected  by  the  loftiest  peaks  and  mountain  ranges  in  Japan. 
Ninety-five  miles  north-west  of  Tokio  is  the  famous  mountain  pass  of 
Usui  Toge,  the  ascent  of  which  from  Sakamoto,  on  the  high  plain  be- 
low, is  a  toilsome  task.  At  this  point,  twenty-six  hundred  feet  above 
Sakamoto,  unrolls  before  the  spectator  a  magnificent  view  of  the  Bay 
of  Yedo  and  the  plain  below,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  impress- 
ive in  Japan.     Here  Yamato  stood  and  gazed  at  the  land  and  water. 


72  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

draperied  in  the  azure  of  distance,  and,  recalling  the  memory  of  his 
beloved  wife,  who  had  sacrificed  her  life  for  him,  he  murmured,  sadly, 
"Adzuma,  adzuma  "  (My  wife,  my  Avife).  The  plain  of  Yedo  is  still, 
in  poetry,  called  Adzuma.  One  of  the  princes  of  the  blood  uses  Ad- 
zuma as  his  surname ;  and  the  ex-Confederate  iron-clad  ram  Stone- 
wall, now  of  the  Japanese  navy,  is  christened  Adzuma-kuan. 

To  cross  the  then  almost  unknown  mountains  of  Shinano  was  a 
bold  undertaking,  which  only  a  chief  of  stout  heart  would  essay.* 
To  travel  in  the  thinly  populated  mountainous  portions  of  Japan  even 
at  the  present  time,  at  least  to  one  accustomed  to  the  comfort  of  the 
palace-cars  of  civilization,  is  not  pleasant.  In  those  days,  roads  in  the 
Kuanto  were  unknown.  The  march  of  an  army  up  the  slippery  as- 
cents, through  rocky  defiles,  over  lava-beds  and  river  torrents,  required 
as  much  nerve  and  caution  as  muscle  and  valor.  To  their  superstitious 
fancies,  every  mountain  was  the  abode  of  a  god,  every  cave  and  defile 
the  lurking-place  of  spirits.  Air  and  water  and  solid  earth  were  pop- 
ulous with  the  creatures  of  their  imagination.  Every  calamity  was 
the  manifestation  of  the  wrath  of  the  local  gods  ;  every  success  a  proof 
that  the  good  kami  were  specially  favoring  them  and  their  leaders. 
The  clouds  and  fogs  were  the  discomfiting  snares  of  evil  deities  to 
cause  them  to  lose  their  path.  The  asphyxiating  exhalations  from 
volcanoes,  or  from  the  earth,  which  to  this  day  jet  out  inflammable 
gas,  were  the  poisonous  breath  of  the  mountain  gods,  insulted  by  the 
daring  intrusion  into  their  sacred  domain.  On  one  occasion  the  god 
of  the  mountain  came  to  Yamato-Dake,  in  the  form  of  a  white  deer,  to 
trouble  him.  Yamato-Dake,  suspecting  the  animal,  threw  some  wild 
garlic  in  its  eye,  causing  it  to  smart  so  violently  that  the  deer  died. 

*  The  cold  in  winter  in  the  high  mountain  regions  of  Shinano  is  severe,  and 
fires  are  needed  in  the  depth  of  summer.  Heavy  falls  of  snow  in  winter  make 
traveling  tedious  and  difficult.  I  went  over  this  part  of  Tamato-Dake's  journey 
in  1873,  completing  a  tour  of  nine  hundred  miles.  As  I  have  gone  on  foot  over 
the  mountain  toges  (passes)  from  Takata,  in  Echigo,  to  Tokio,  in  Musashi,  and 
likewise  have  been  a  pedestrian  up  and  over  the  pass  of  St.  Bernard,  I  think,  all 
things  considered,  the  achievement  of  Yamato-Dake  fully  equal  in  courage,  skill, 
daring,  patience,  and  romantic  interest  to  that  of  Napoleon.  The  tourist  to-day 
who  makes  the  trip  over  this  route  is  rewarded  with  the  most  inspiring  views  of 
Fuji,  Asama  yama,  Yatsugadakd,  and  other  monarchs  in  tliis  throne-room  of  nat- 
ure in  Japan.  In  the  lowlands  of  Kodzuke  also  is  the  richest  silk  district  in  all 
Japan,  the  golden  cocoons,  from  which  is  spun  silver  thread,  covering  the  floors 
of  almost  every  house  during  two  summer  months,  while  the  deft  fingers  of  Jap- 
anese maidens,  pretty  and  otherwise,  may  be  seen  busily  engaged  in  unraveling 
the  shroud  of  the  worm,  illustrating  the  living  proverb,  "  With  time  and  patience 
even  the  mulberry-leaf  becomes  silk." 


TAMArO-DAE£,  THE  CONQUEROB   OF  THE  EUANTO.  73 

Immediately  the  mountain  was  shrouded  in  mist  and  fog,  and  the  path 
disappeared.  In  the  terror  and  dismay,  a  white  dog — a  good  kami  in 
disguise — appeared,  and  led  the  way  safely  to  the  plains  of  Mino. 

Again  the  host  were  stricken  by  the  spirit  of  the  white  deer.     All 
the  men  and  animals  of  the  camp  were  unable  to  stand,  stupefied  by 
the  mephitic  gas  discharged  among  them  by  the  wicked  kami.     Hap- 
pily, some  one  bethought  him  of  the  wild  garlic,  ate  it,  and  gave  to 
the  men  and  animals,  and  all  recovered.     At  the  present  day  in  Japan, 
partly  in  commemoration  of  this  incident,  but  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
of  warding  off  infectious  or  malarious  diseases,  garlic  is  hung  up  be- 
fore gates  and  doors  in  time  of  epidemic,  when  an  attack  of  disease  is 
apprehended.     Thousands  of  people  believe  it  to  be  fully  as  effica- 
cious as  a  horseshoe  against  witches,  or  camphor  against  contagion. 
Descending  to  the  plains  of  Mino,  and  crossing  through  it,  he  came 
to  Ibuki  yama,  a  mountain  shaped  like  a  truncated  sugar-loaf,  which 
rears  its  colossal  flat  head  in  awful  majesty  above  the  clouds.     Yama- 
to-Dake  attempted  to  subdue  the  kami  that  dwelt  on  this  mountain. 
Leaving  his  sword,  "  Gi'ass-mower,"  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  he 
advanced  unarmed.     The  god  transformed  himself  into  a  serpent,  and 
ban-ed  his  progress.     The  hero  leaped  over  him.     Suddenly  the  heav- 
ens darkened.     Losing  the  path,  Yamato-Dake  swooned  and  fell.     On 
drinking  of  a  spring  by  the  way,  he  was  able  to  lift  up  his  head. 
Henceforward  it  was  called  Same  no  idzumi,  or  the  Fountain  of  Re- 
covery.    Reaching  Otsu,  in  Ise,  though  still  feeble,  he  found,  under 
the  pine-tree,  the  sword  which  he  had  taken  off  before,  and  forthwith 
composed  a  poem :  "  0  pine,  were  you  a  man,  I  should  give  you  this 
sword  to  wear  for  your  fidelity."     He  had  been  absent  in  the  Kuanto 
three  years.     He  recounted  before  the  gods  his  adventures,  difficulties, 
and  victories,  made  votive  offerings  of  his  weapons  and  prisoners,  and 
gave  solemn  thanks  for  the  deliverance  vouchsafed  him.     He  then  re- 
ported his  transactions  to  his  father,  the  mikado,  and,  being  weak  and 
nigh  to  death,  he  begged  to  see  him.     The  parent  sent  a  messenger 
to  comfort  his  son.     When  he  arrived,  Yamato-Dake  was  dead.     He 
was  buried  at  Nobono,  in  Ise.     From  his  tomb  a  white  bird  flew  up ; 
and  on  opening  it,  only  the  chaplet  and  robes  of  the  dead  hero  were 
found.     Those  who  followed  the  bird  saw  it  alight  at  Koto-hiki  hara 
(Plain  of  the  Koto-players)  in  Yamato,  which  was  hencefoilh  called 
Misazaki  Shiratori  (Imperial  Tomb  of  the  White  Bird).     His  death 
took  place  a.d.  113,  at  the  age  of  thirty-six.     Many  temples  in  the 
Kuanto  and  in  various  parts  of  Japan  are  dedicated  to  him. 


14: 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


I  have  given  so  full  an  account  of  Yamato-Dake  to  show  the  style 
and  quality  of  ancient  Japanese  tradition,  and  exhibit  the  state  of 
Eastern  Japan  at  that  time,  and  because  under  the  narration  there  is 
good  history  of  one  who  extended  the  real  boundaries  of  the  early 
empire.*  Yamato-Dake  was  one  of  the  partly  historic  and  partly  ideal 
heroes  that  are  equally  the  cause  and  the  effect  of  the  Japanese  mili- 
tary spirit.  It  may  be  that  the  future  historians  of  Japan  may  con- 
sider this  chapter  as  literary  trash,  and  put  Yamato-Dake  and  all  his 
deeds  in  the  same  limbo  with  Romulus  and  his  wolf-nurse,  William 
Tell  and  his  apple ;  but  I  consider  him  to  have  been  a  historical  per- 
sonage, and  his  deeds  a  part  of  genuine  history. 

*  The  names  of  the  various  provinces  of  Japan  are  given  below.  Each  name 
of  Japanese  origin  has  likewise  a  synonym  compounded  of  the  Chinese  word.sMw 
(province),  affixed  to  the  pronunciation  of  the  Chinese  character  with  which  the 
first  syllable  of  the  native  word  is  written.  In  some  cases  the  Chinese  form  is 
most  in  use,  in  which  case  it  is  italicized.     In  a  few  cases  both  forms  are  current. 


Oo  Kinai  (Five  Home  Provinces). 
Yamashiro,  or  .Joshiii. 
Yamato,        "  Washiu. 
Kawachi,       "  Kashhi. 
Idzunii,  "  Sr,nshiu. 

Settsu,  "  Sesshiu. 

Tokaido  (Eastern-sea  Region). 

Iga,  or  Ishiu. 

tse,  "  Seishiu. 

Shima,  "  Shishiu. 

Oioari,  "  Bishiti. 

Mikawa,  "  Sanshiu. 

Totomi,  "  Enshiu. 

Suruga,  "  Sunshiu. 

Idzu,  "  Dzushiu. 

Kai,  "  Koshiu. 

Sagami,  "  Soshiu. 

Musashi.  "  Btishiu. 

Awa,  "  Boshiu. 

Kadzuaa,  "  Soshiu. 

Shimosa,  "  Soshiu. 

Hitachi,  "  Joshiu. 

Tozando  (Eastern-mountain  Region). 


11 


or  Goshiu. 
"  Noshiu. 
"  Hishiu. 
"  Shinshiu. 
"  Joshiu. 
Yashiu. 


Omi, 

Mino, 

Hida, 

Shinano, 

Kodznke, 

Shimotsuke, 

riwashi, 

g     Iwashiro, 

3  ■{  Rikuzen, 

g     Rikuchiu, 

iMichinoku, 
^  fUzen, 
2   (Ugo, 

Hokurikudo  (Northern-land  Region). 
Wakasa,  or  Jakwshiu. 

Echizen,  "  Esshin. 

Kaga,  "  Koshiu. 

Noto,  "  Noshiu. 

Etchiu,  "  Esshiu. 


Oshiu. 


Ushiu. 


Hokmikiido  (Continued). 
Echigo,  "  Esshiu. 

Sarfo' (island),  "  Sashiu. 

Saniudo  (Mountain-back  Region). 


Tamha, 

Tango, 

Tajima, 

Iiiaba, 

Hoki, 

Idzuino, 

I  warn  i, 

Oki  (islands). 


or  Tanshiu. 
"  Tanshiu. 
"  Tanshiu. 
"  Inshiu. 
"  Hakushiu. 
"  dnshiu. 
"  Sekishiu. 


Sanyodo  (Mountain-front  Region). 


Harima, 

Mimasaka, 

Bizen, 

Bitehiu, 

Bingo, 

Aki, 

Suwo, 

Nagato, 


or  Banshiu. 
"  Sakzmhiu. 
"  Bishiu. 
"  Bishiu. 
"  Bishiu. 
"  Geishiu. 
"  Boshiu. 
"  Choshiu. 


Nankaido  (Southern-sea  Region). 
Kii,  or  Kishiu. 

AvMji  (island), 


Awa, 
Sanuki, 

Ivo, 
tosa. 


Tanshin. 

Ashiii. 

Sanshiu. 

Yoshiu. 

Toshiu. 


Saikaido  (Western-sea  Region). 
Chikuzen,  or  Chikushiu. 
Chikugo,     "  Chiknshiu. 
Buzen,        "  Hoshin. 
Bungo,       "  Hoshin. 
Uizen,         "  Hishin. 
Higo,  "  Hishiu. 

Hiuga,  "  Nieshiu. 
Ozumi,  "  GTishin. 
Satsuma,    "  Sasshiu. 

The  "Two  Islands." 
Tsushima,  or  Taishiu. 
Iki,  "  Ishiu. 


THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  CONTINENTAL   CIVILIZATION.         75 


VIIL 

THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  CONTINENTAL  CIVILIZATION. 

If  Japan  is  to  Asia  what  Great  Britain  is  to  Europe — according  to 
the  comparison  so  often  made  by  the  modern  Japanese — then  Corea 
was  to  Dai  Nippon  what  Norman  France  was  to  Saxon  England. 
Through  this  peninsula,  and  not  directly  from  China,  flowed  the  influ- 
ences whose  confluence  with  the  elements  of  Japanese  life  produced 
the  civilization  which  for  twelve  centuries  has  run  its  course  in  the 
island  empire.  The  comparison  is  not  perfect,  inasmuch  as  Japan 
sent  the  conqueror  to  Corea,  whereas  Normandy  sent  William  across 
the  Channel.  In  the  moral  and  aesthetic  conquest  of  Rome  by  Greece, 
though  vanquished  by  Roman  arms,  we  may  perhaps  find  a  closer  re- 
semblance to  the  events  of  the  second  triad  of  the  Christian  centuries 
in  the  history  of  Japan. 

Is  it  true  among  historic  nations  that  anciently  the  position  of 
woman  was  higher  than  in  later  times  ?  It  has  been  pointed  out  by 
more  than  one  writer  on  Greece  "  that  in  the  former  and  ruder  period 
women  had  undoubtedly  the  higher  place,  and  their  type  exhibited 
the  highest  perfection."  This  is  certainly  the  case  in  Japan.  The 
W'Omen  of  the  early  centuries  were,  according  to  Japanese  history, 
possessed  of  more  intellectual  and  physical  vigor,  filling  the  oflSces  of 
state,  religion,  and  household  honors,  and  approaching  more  nearly 
the  ideal  cherished  in  those  countries  in  which  the  relation  of  the 
sexes  is  that  of  professed  or  real  equality.  Certain  it  is  that,  wiiereas 
there  are  many  instances  of  ancient  Japanese  women  reaching  a  high 
plane  of  social  dignity  and  public  honor,  in  later  ages  the  virtuous 
woman  dwelt  in  seclusion ;  exemplars  of  ability  were  rare ;  and  the 
courtesan  became  the  most  splendid  type  of  womanhood.  This  must 
be  more  than  the  fancy  of  poets.  As  in  the  Greece  of  Homer  and 
the  tragedians,  so  in  early  Nippon,  woman's  abilities  and  possibilities 
far  surpassed  those  that  were  hers  in  the  later  days  of  luxury  and  civ- 
ilization. To  a  woman  is  awarded  the  glory  of  the  conquest  of  Co- 
rea, whence  came  letters,  religion,  and  civilization  to  Japan. 


76  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

In  all  Japanese  tradition  or  history,  there  is  no  greater  female  char- 
acter than  the  empress  Jingii  (godlike  exploit).  Her  name  was  Okina- 
ga  Tarashi  hime,  but  she  is  better  known  by  her  posthumous  title  of 
Jingu  Kogo,  or  Jingu,  the  wife  or  spouse  of  the  mikado.  She  was 
equally  renowned  for  her  beauty,  piety,  intelligence,  energy,  and  mar- 
tial valor.  She  was  not  only  very  obedient  to  the  gods,  but  they  de- 
lighted to  honor  her  by  their  inspiration.  She  feared  neither  the 
waves  of  the  sea,  the  arrows  of  the  battle-field,  nor  the  difficulties  that 
wait  on  all  great  enterprises.  Great  as  she  was  in  her  own  person, 
she  is  greater  in  the  Japanese  eyes  as  the  mother  of  the  god  of  war. 

In  the  year  193  a  rebellion  broke  out  at  Kumaso,  in  Kiushiu.  The 
mikado  Chiuai  (191-200)  headed  his  army,  and  marched  to  subdue 
the  rebels.  Jingu  Kogo,  or  Jingu,  the  empress,  followed  him  by  ship, 
embarking  from  Tsuruga,  in  Echizen — a  port  a  few  miles  north-west 
of  the  head  of  Lake  Biwa — meeting  her  husband  at  Toyo  no  ura,  near 
the  modern  Shimonoseki,  of  indemnity  fame.  While  worshiping  on 
one  of  the  islands  of  the  Inland  Sea,  the  god  spoke  to  her,  and  said, 
"  Why  are  you  so  deeply  concerned  to  conquer  Kumaso  ?  It  is  but  a 
poor,  sparse  region,  not  worth  conquering  with  an  army.  There  is  a 
much  larger  and  richer  country,  as  sweet  and  lovely  as  the  face  of  a 
fair  virgin.  It  is  dazzling  bright  with  gold,  silver,  and  fine  colors,  and 
every  kind  of  rich  treasures  is  to  be  found  in  Shiraki  (in  Corea).  Wor- 
ship me,  and  I  will  give  you  power  to  conquer  the  country  without 
bloodshed ;  and  by  my  help,  and  the  glory  of  your  conquest,  Kumaso 
shall  be  straightway  subdued."  The  emperor,  hearing  this  from  his 
wife,  which  she  declared  was  the  message  of  the  gods,  doubted,  and, 
climbing  to  the  summit  of  a  high  mountain,  looked  over  the  sea,  and 
seeing  no  land  to  the  westward,  answered  her :  "  I  looked  everywhere 
and  saw  water,  but  no  land.  Is  there  a  country  in  the  sky  ?  If  not, 
you  deceived  me.  My  ancestors  worshiped  all  the  gods :  is  there  any 
whom  they  did  not  worship  ?" 

The  gods,  answering  through  the  inspired  empress,  made  reply : 
"  If  you  believe  only  your  doubts,  and  say  there  is  no  country  when 
I  have  declared  there  is  one,  you  blaspheme,  and  you  shall  not  go 
thither ;  but  the  empress,  your  wife,  has  conceived,  and  the  child 
within  her  shall  conquer  the  country."  Nevertheless,  the  emperor 
doubted,  and  advanced  against  Kumaso,  but  was  worsted  by  the  rebels. 
While  in  camp,  he  took  sick  and  died  suddenly.  According  to  an- 
other tradition,  he  was  slain  in  battle  by  an  arrow.  His  minister, 
Takenouchi,  concealed  his  death   from  the   soldiers,  and  carried  the 


THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  CONTINENTAL   CIVILIZATION.         77 

corpse  back  to  Toyo  no  ura,  in  Nagato.  The  brave  Jingu,  witli  the 
aid  of  Takenouchi,  suppressed  the  rebellion,  and  then  longed  for  con- 
quest beyond  the  sea. 

While  in  Hizen,  in  order  to  obtain  a  sign  from  the  gods  she  went 
down  to  the  sea-shore,  and  baited  a  hook  with  a  grain  of  boiled  rice, 
to  catch  a  fish.  "  Now,"  said  she,  "  I  shall  conquer  a  rich  country  if  a 
fish  be  caught  with  this  grain  of  rice."  The  bait  took.  A  fish  was 
caught,  and  Jingu  exultingly  accepted  the  success  of  her  venture  as  a 
token  of  celestial  approval  of  her  design.  "  Medzurashiki  mono !" 
(wonderful  thing),  exclaimed  the  royal  lady.  The  place  of  the  omen 
is  still  called  Matsura,  corrupted  from  the  words  she  used.  In  further 
commemoration,  the  women  of  that  section,  every  year,  in  the  first 
part  of  the  Fourth  month,  go  fishing,  no  males  being  allowed  the  priv- 
ilege on  that  day.  The  pious  Jingu  prepared  to  invade  Corea;  but 
wishing  another  indication  of  the  will  of  the  kami,  she  on  one  occa- 
sion immersed  her  hair  in  water,  saying  that,  if  the  gods  approved  of 
her  enterprise,  her  tresses  would  become  dry,  and  be  parted  into  two 
divisions.  It  was  as  she  desired.  Her  luxuriant  black  hair  came 
from  the  water  dry,  and  parted  in  two.  Her  mind  was  now  fixed. 
She  ordered  her  generals  and  captains  to  collect  troops,  build  ships, 
and  be  ready  to  embark.  Addressing  them,  she  said :  "  The  safety 
or  destruction  of  our  country  depends  upon  this  enterprise.  I  intrust 
the  details  to  you.  It  will  be  your  fault  if  they  are  not  carried  out. 
I  am  a  woman,  and  young ;  I  shall  disguise  myself  as  a  man,  and  un- 
dertake this  gallant  expedition,  trusting  to  the  gods,  and  to  my  troops 
and  captains.  We  shall  acquire  a  wealthy  country.  The  glory  is 
yours,  if  we  succeed ;  if  we  fail,  the  guilt  and  disgrace  shall  be  mine." 
Her  captains,  with  unanimity  and  enthusiasm,  promised  to  support 
her  and  carry  out  her  plans.  The  enterprise  was  a  colossal  one  for 
Japan  at  that  time.  Although  the  recruiting  went  on  in  the  various 
provinces,  and  the  ships  were  built,  the  army  formed  slowly.  Chaf- 
ing at  the  delay,  but  not  discouraged,  again  she  had  recourse  to  the 
efficacy  of  worship  and  an  appeal  to  the  gods.  Erecting  a  tabernacle 
of  purification,  with  prayers  and  lustrations  and  sacrifices  she  prayed 
the  kami  to  grant  her  speedy  embarkation  and  success.  The  gods 
were  propitious.  Troops  came  in.  The  army  soon  assembled,  and 
all  was  ready,  a.d.  201. 

Before  starting,  Jingu  issued  orders  to  her  soldiers,  as  follows : 

"  No  loot. 

"  Neither  despise  a  few  enemies  nor  fear  many. 

6 


78  THE  3IIK ADO'S  EMPIRE. 

"  Give  mercy  to  those  who  yield,  but  no  quarter  to  the  stubborn. 

"  Rewards  shall  be  apportioned  to  the  victors ;  punishments  shall  be 
meted  to  the  deserters." 

Then  the  words  of  the  gods  came,  saying,  "  The  Spirit  of  Peace  will 
always  guide  you  and  protect  your  life.  The  Spirit  of  War  will  go 
before  you  and  lead  your  ships." 

Jingu  again  returned  thanks  for  these  fresh  exhibitions  of  divine 
favor,  and  made  her  final  preparations  to  start,  when  a  new  impedi- 
ment threatened  to  delay  hopelessly  the  expedition,  or  to  rob  it  of  its 
soul  and  leader,  the  Amazonian  chief.  She  discovered  that  she  was 
pregnant.  Again  the  good  favor  of  the  gods  enabled  her  to  triumph 
over  the  obstacles  which  nature,  or  the  fate  of  her  sex,  might  throw  in 
the  path  of  her  towering  ambition.  She  found  a  stone  which,  being 
placed  in  her  girdle,  delayed  her  accouchement  until  her  return  from 
Corea. 

It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  perfectly  clear  in  the  minds  of  those 
ancient  filibusters  where  Corea  was,  or  for  what  particular  point  of  the 
horizon  they  were  to  steer.  They  had  no  chart  or  compass.  The 
sun,  stars,  and  the  flight  of  birds  were  their  guides.  In  a  storm  they 
would  be  helpless.  One  fisherman  had  been  sent  to  sail  westward 
and  report.  He  came  back  declaring  there  was  no  land  to  be  seen. 
Another  man  was  dispatched,  and  returned,  having  seen  the  mount- 
ains on  the  main-land.  The  fleet  sailed  in  the  Tenth  month.  Winds, 
waves,  and  currents  were  all  favorable.  The  gods  watched  over  the 
fleet,  and  sent  shoals  of  huge  fishes  to  urge  on  the  waves  that  by  their 
impact  lifted  the  sterns  and  made  the  prows  leap  as  though  alive. 
The  ships  beached  safely  in  Southern  Corea,  the  Japanese  army  land- 
ed in  the  glory  of  sunlight  and  the  grandeur  of  war  in  splendid  array. 
The  king  of  this  part  of  Corea  had  heard  from  his  messengers  of  the 
coming  of  a  strange  fleet  from  the  East,  and,  terrified,  exclaimed,  "  We 
never  knew  there  was  any  country  outside  of  us.  Have  our  gods  for- 
saken us  ?"  The  invaders  had  no  fighting  to  do  as  they  expected.  It 
was  a  bloodless  invasion.  The  Coreans  came,  holding  white  flags,  and 
surrendered,  ofEering  to  give  up  their  treasures.  They  took  an  oath 
that  they  would  be  tributary  to  Japan,  that  they  would  never  cause 
their  conquerors  to  dispatch  another  expedition,  and  that  they  would 
send  hostages  to  Japan.  The  rivers  might  flow  backward,  or  the  peb- 
bles in  their  beds  leap  up  to  the  stars,  yet  would  they  not  break  their 
oath.  Jingu  set  up  weapons  before  the  gate  of  the  king  in  token  of 
peace.     By  his  order  eighty  ships  well  laden  with  gold  and  silver,  ar- 


r HE  INTRODUCTION  OF  CONTINENTAL   CIVILIZATION.         79 

tides  of  wealth,  silk  and  precious  goods  of  all  kinds,  and  eighty  hos- 
tages, men  of  high  families,  were  put  on  board. 

The  stay  of  the  Japanese  army  in  Corea  was  very  brief,  and  the 
troops  returned  in  the  Twelfth  month.  Jingu  was,  on  her  arrival,  de- 
livered of  a  son,  who,  in  the  popular  estimation  of  gods  and  mortals, 
holds  even  a  higher  place  of  honor  than  his  mother,  who  is  believed 
to  have  conquered  Southern  Corea  through  the  power  of  her  yet  un- 
born illustrious  offspring.  After  leaving  her  couch,  the  queen-regent 
erected  in  Nagato  (Choshiu)  a  shrine,  and  in  it  dedicated  the  Spirit  of 
War  that  had  guided  her  army.  She  then  attended  to  the  funeral 
rites  of  her  deceased  husband,  and  returned  to  the  capital. 

The  conquest  of  Corea,  more  correctly  a  naval  raid  into  one  of  the 
southern  provinces,  took  place  a.d.  203.  The  motive  which  induced 
the  invasion  seems  to  have  been  the  same  as  that  carried  out  by  Hide- 
yoshi  in  158.3,  and  contemplated  in  1873 — mere  love  of  war  and  con- 
quest. The  Japanese  refer  with  gTeat  pride  to  this  their  initial  ex- 
ploit on  foreign  soil.  It  was  the  first  time  they  had  ever  gone  in 
ships  to  a  foreign  country  to  fight.  For  the  first  time  it  gave  them 
the  opportunity  of  displaying  their  valor  in  making  "  the  arms  of  Ja- 
pan shine  beyond  the  seas  " — a  pet  phrase  which  occurs  in  many  docu- 
ments in  Japan,  even  in  this  2536th  year  of  the  Japanese  empire,  and 
of  our  Lord  1876.  Nevertheless,  the  honor  of  the  exploit  is  given  to 
the  unborn  son  on  whom  dwelt  the  Spirit  of  AVar,  rather  than  to  the 
mother  who  bore  him. 

The  queen-mother  is  worshiped  in  many  temples  as  Kashii  dai  mio 
jin.  The  son,  Ojin,  afterward  a  great  warrior,  was,  at  his  death,  313 
A.D.,  deified  as  the  god  of  war ;  and  down  through  the  centuries  he 
has  been  worshiped  by  all  classes  of  people,  especially  by  soldiers,  who 
offer  their  prayers,  pay  their  vows,  and  raise  their  votive  offerings  to 
him.  Many  of  the  troops,  before  taking  steamer  for  Formosa,  in  1874, 
implored  his  protection.  In  his  honor  some  of  the  most  magnificent 
temples  in  Japan  have  been  erected,  and  almost  every  town  and  \\\- 
lage,  as  well  as  many  a  rural  grove  and  hill,  has  its  shrine  erected  to 
this  Japanese  Mars.  He  is  usually  represented  in  his  images  as  of 
frightful,  scowling  countenance,  holding,  with  arms  akimbo,  a  broad 
two-edged  sword.  One  of  the  favorite  subjects  of  Japanese  artists  of 
all  periods  is  the  group  of  figures  consisting  of  the  snowy-bearded 
Takenouchi,  in  civil  dress,  holding  the  infant  of  Jingu  Kogo  in  his 
arms,  the  mother  standing  by  in  martial  robes.  Jingu  is  the  heroine 
and  model  for  boys,  not  of  the  girls.     In  the  collection  of  pictures, 


80  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

images,  and  dolls  which  in  Japanese  households  on  the  5th  of  May, 
every  year,  teach  to  the  children  the  names  and  deeds  of  the  national 
heroes,  and  instill  the  lessons  taught  by  their  example,  this  warrior- 
woman  is  placed  among  the  male,  and  not  among  the  female,  groups. 

Nine  empresses  in  all  have  sat  upon  the  throne  of  Japan  as  rulers, 
four  of  whom  reigned  at  the  capital,  Nara.  None  have  won  such  mar- 
tial renown  as  Jingu.  It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  military  enter- 
prise will  ever  again  give  the  nation  another  ideal  woman  like  the 
conqueror  of  Corea.  It  is  now,  in  modern  days,  given  to  the  Empress 
of  Japan  to  elevate  the  condition  of  her  female  subjects  by  graciously 
encouraging  the  education  of  the  girls,  and  setting  a  noble  example, 
not  only  of  womanly  character  and  of  active  deeds  of  benevolence, 
but  also  in  discarding  the  foolish  and  barbarous  customs  of  past  ages, 
notably  that  of  blacking  the  teeth  and  shaving  off  the  eyebrows.  This 
the  present  empress,  Haruko,  has  done.  Already  this  chief  lady  of  the 
empire  has  accomplished  great  reforms  in  social  customs  and  fashions, 
and,  both  by  the  encouragement  of  her  presence  and  by  gifts  from  her 
private  purse,  has  greatly  stimulated  the  cause  of  the  education  and  the 
elevation  of  woman  in  Japan.  Haply,  it  may  come  to  pass  that  this 
lady  in  peaceful  life  may  do  more  for  the  good  and  glory  of  the  em- 
pire than  even  the  renowned  queen-regent,  Jingu  Kogo. 

The  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  from  the  third  to  the 
eighth,  mark  that  period  in  Japanese  history  during  which  the  future 
development  and  character  of  the  nation  were  mightily  influenced  by 
the  introduction,  from  the  continent  of  Asia,  of  the  most  potent  fac- 
tors in  any  civilization.  They  were  letters,  religion,  philosophy,  liter- 
ature, laws,  ethics,  medicine,  science,  and  art.  Heretofore  the  first  un- 
foldings  of  the  Japanese  intellect  in  the  composition  of  sacred  hymns, 
odes,  poems,  myths,  and  tradition  had  no  prop  upon  which  to  train, 
and  no  shield  against  oblivion  but  the  unassisted  memory.  The  Jap- 
anese were  now  to  have  records.  Heretofore  religion  was  simply  the 
rude  offspring  of  human  imagination,  fear,  and  aspiration,  without 
doctrinal  systems,  moral  codes,  elaborate  temples,  or  sacerdotal  caste. 
Henceforth  the  Japanese  were  to  be  led,  guided,  and  developed  in 
morals,  intellect,  and  worship  by  a  religion  that  had  already  brought 
the  nations  of  Asia  under  its  sway — a  strong,  overpowering,  and  ag- 
gressive faith,  that  was  destined  to  add  Japan  to  its  conquests.  Bud- 
dhism, bringing  new  and  greater  sanctions,  penalties,  motives,  and  a 
positive  theology  and  code  of  morals,  was  to  develop  and  broaden  the 
whole  nature  of  the  individual  man,  and  to   lead  the  entire   nation 


Her  Imperial  Japanese  Majesty,  ihe  Empress  of  Jjipaii,  Hariiko,  nee  Ichijo  Haruko, 
(From  a  photoj^'wph  taken  at  Tokio,  1S7-1.) 


z^m 


THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  CONTINENTAL   CIVILIZATION.         S3 

forward.  Chinese  philosophy  and  Confucian  morals  were  to  form 
the  basis  of  the  education  and  culture  of  the  Japanese  statesman, 
scholar,  and  noble,  to  modify  Shinto,  and  with  it  to  create  new 
ideals  of  government,  of  codes,  laws,  personal  honor,  and  household 
ordering.  Under  their  influence,  and  that  of  circumstances,  have 
been  shaped  the  unique  ideals  of  the  samurai;  and  by  it  a  healthy 
skepticism,  amidst  dense  superstition,  has  been  maintained.  The  com- 
ing of  many  immigrants  brought  new  blood,  ideas,  opinions,  methods, 
improvements  in  labor,  husbandry,  social  organization.  Japan  received 
from  China,  through  Corea,  what  she  is  now  receiving  from  America 
and  Europe — a  new  civilization. 

For  nearly  a  century  after  the  birth  of  Ojin,  the  record  of  events  is 
blank.  In  249  a.d.  a  Japanese  general,  Arata,  was  sent  to  assist  one 
state  of  Corea  against  another.  Occasional  notices  of  tribute-bearers 
arridng  from  Corea  occur.  In  283  a  number  of  tailors,  in  284  excel- 
lent horses,  were  sent  over  to  Japan.  In  285,  Wani,  a  Corean  schol- 
ar, came  over  to  Japan,  and,  residing  some  time  at  the  court,  gave 
the  mikado's  son  instruction  in  writing.  If  the  Nihongi — the  author- 
ity for  the  date  of  Wani's  arrival  in  Japan  —  could  be  trusted  in 
its  chronology,  the  introduction  of  Chinese  writing,  and  probably 
of  Buddhism,  would  date  from  this  time ;  but  the  probabilities  are 
against  positive  certainty  on  this  point.  If  it  be  true,  it  shows  that 
the  first  missionary  conquest  of  this  nation  was  the  work  of  four  cent- 
uries, instead  of  as  many  decades.  Wani  died  in  Japan,  and  his 
tomli  stands  near  Ozaka.  In  a.d.  403  a  court  annalist  was  chosen. 
Envoys  and  tribute-bearers  came,  and  presents  were  exchanged.  In 
462  mulberry-trees  were  planted — evidently  brought,  together  with 
the  silk-worm,  for  whose  sustenance  they  were  intended — from  China 
or  Corea.  Again,  tailors  in  471,  and  architects  in  493,  and  learned 
men  in  512,  arrived.  An  envoy  from  China  came  in  522.  The  ar- 
rival of  fresh  immigrants  and  presents  from  Corea  in  543  is  noted. 
In  551,  during  a  famine  in  Corea,  several  thousand  bushels  of  barley 
were  dispatched  thither  by  Japan.  In  552,  a  company  of  doctors, 
diviners,  astronomers,  and  mathematicians  from  Corea  came  to  live  at 
the  Japanese  court.  With  them  came  Buddhist  missionaries.  This 
may  be  called  the  introduction  of  continental  civilization.  Begin- 
ning with  Jingu,  there  seems  to  have  poured  into  the  island  empire  a 
stream  of  immigrants,  skilled  artisans,  scholars,  and  teachers,  bringing 
arts,  sciences,  letters  and  written  literature,  and  the  Buddhist  religion. 
This  was  the  first  of  three  great  waves  of  foreign  civilization  in  Japan. 


84  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

The  first  was  from  China,  through  Corea  in  the  sixth ;  the  second 
from  Western  Europe,  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  the  third  was  from 
America,  Europe,  and  the  world,  in  the  decade  following  the  advent  of 
Commodore  Perry.  These  innovations  were  destined  to  leaven  might- 
ily the  whole  Japanese  nation  as  a  lump.  Of  these  none  was  so  pow- 
erful and  far-reaching  in  effects  as  that  in  the  sixth  century,  and  no  one 
element  as  Buddhism.  This  mighty  force  was  destined  to  exert  a  re- 
sistless and  unifying  influence  on  the  whole  people.  Nothing,  among 
all  the  elements  that  make  up  Japanese  civilization,  has  been  so  potent 
in  forming  the  Japanese  character  as  the  religion  of  Buddha.  That 
the  work  of  these  new  civilizers  may  be  fully  appreciated,  let  us 
glance  at  life  in  Dai  Nippon  before  their  appearance.* 

*  The  Empress  Jingu,  after  her  return,  made  a  very  important  change  in  the 
divisions  of  the  empire.  Seimu  Tenno  (a.d.  131-190)  had  divided  the  empire  into 
provinces,  the  number  of  which  was  thirty-two  in  all,  the  land  above  the  thirty- 
eighth  parallel  being  still  unknown,  and  inhabited  by  the  wild  tribes  of  Aiuos. 
Jingu,  imitating  the  Corean  arrangement,  divided  the  empire  into  five  home 
provinces,  and  seven  do,  or  circuits,  naming  them  in  relation  to  tlieir  direction 
from  the  capital.  These  are  analogous  to  our  "Eastern,"  "Middle,"  "South- 
ern," "Western,"  "Trans-Mississippi,"  and  "Pacific-coast"  divisions  of  States. 
The  "five  home  provinces  "  (Go  Kinai)  are  Yamashiro,  Yamato,  Kawachi,  Idzu- 
mi,  and  Settsu.  The  Tokaido,  or  Eastern-sea  Circuit,  comprised  the  provinces 
skirting  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  Iga  to  Hitachi,  including  Kai. 

The  Tozando,  or  Eastern-mountain  Circuit,  included  those  provinces  from  Omi 
to  the  end  of  the  main  island,  not  on  the  Sea  of  Japan,  nor  included  within  the 
Tokaido. 

The  Hokurokudo,  or  Northern -land  Circuit,  comprised  the  provinces  from 
Wakasa  to  Echigo  inclusive,  bordering  on  the  Sea  of  Japan,  and  Sado  Island. 

The  Sanindo,  or  Mountain -back  Circuit,  comprised  with  the  Oki  group  of 
islands  the  provinces  from  Tamba  to  Iwami,  bordering  on  the  Sea  of  Japan. 

The  Sanyodo,  or  Mountain-front  Circuit,  comprised  the  provinces  from  Hari- 
ma  to  Nagato  (or  Choshiu)  bordering  the  Inland  Sea. 

The  Nankaido,  or  Southern-sea  Circuit,  comprises  the  province  of  Kii,  the  four 
provinces  of  lyo,  Sanuki,  Awa,  and  Tosa,  in  Shikoku  {ski,  four ;  koku,  province), 
and  the  Island  of  Awaji. 

The  Saikaido,  or  Western -sea  Circuit,  comprises  nine  provinces  of  Kiushiu 
{kiu,  nine ;  shiu,  province). 

The  "  two  islands  "  are  Iki  and  Tsushima. 

This  division  accords  with  the  physical  features  of  the  country,  and  has  ever 
since  been  retained,  with  slight  modifications  as  to  provinces.  It  is  very  proba- 
ble that  in  the  time  of  Jingu,  the  Japanese  did  not  know  that  Hondo  was  an 
island.  A  foreigner  looking  at  the  map  of  the  empire,  or  a  globe  representing 
the  world,  could  hardly  imagine  that  the  Japanese  have  no  special  and  universal- 
ly used  name  for  the  main  island.  Yet  such  is  the  fact,  that  neither  they  nor 
their  books  popularly  apply  any  particular  name  to  the  main  island.  It  may  be 
even  doubted  whether  the  people  in  general  ever  think  of  the  main  island  as  be- 
ing a  particular  division  requiring  a  name,  as  the  foreigner  conceives  it,  and  thus 


THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  CONTINENTAL    CIVILIZATION.        85 

feels  a  uamc  to  be  a  necessity.  This  necessity  has  given  rise  to  the  error  of  ap- 
plying the  term  "  Niphon  "  (Nilion,  Nippon,  or  Nifon),  first  done  by  Kaenipfer. 
The  Japanese  liacl  no  more  necessity  to  apply  a  special  name  to  the  main  island 
than  the  early  American  colonists  had  to  give  a  name  to  the  region  beyond  the 
Mississippi.  Even  now  we  have  no  name  in  general  use  for  that  now  well-known 
part  of  our  country.  To  foreigners,  the  absence  of  a  name  for  the  largest  island 
seems  an  anomaly.  In  the  Japanese  mind  it  never  existed.  He  rarely  spoke 
even  of  Kiusliiu  or  Shikoku  as  names  of  islands,  always  using  the  names  of  the 
do,  or  circuits,  just  as  an  American  speaks  of  the  New  England  or  the  Eastern 
States.  In  modern  times,  native  scholars  who  have,  from  their  study,  compari- 
sons, and  foreign  methods  of  thought,  felt  the  need  of  a  distinctive  name,  have 
used  Hondo  (main  continent  or  division),  Honjima  (main  island),  or  Honjiu 
{main  country).  Of  these,  Hondo  seems  to  be  the  best;  and  as  it  is  used  in  the 
official  geography  recently  issued  by  the  War  Department,  I  have  made  use  of 
t.  Nippon  is  not,  nor  ever  was,  the  name  of  the  main  island,  as  Kaempfer  first 
asserted.  Nippon,  or  Dai  Nippon,  is  the  name  of  the  whole  empire.  The  word 
is  Chinese,  and  must  have  been  applied  in  very  ancient  times,  as  the  Nihongi  con- 
tains the  three  characters  with  which  the  name  is  written.  The  very  name  of  the 
book,  Nipponyi,  or,  more  elegantly,  Nihouyi,  shows  that  the  use  of  the  term  Nip- 
pon antedates  the  eighth  century.  Tenchi  Teuuo,  in  a.d.  670,  first  officially  de- 
clared Nippon  to  be  the  name  of  Japan.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  use  of  Dai 
(Great)  before  Nippon  is  quite  recent,  and  that  the  motive  of  the  modern  natives 
of  Japan  in  thus  designating  their  empire  is  "from  a  desire  to  imitate  what  they 
mistake  for  the  pride  or  vainglory  of  Great  Britain,  not  knowing  that  the  term 
Great  was  used  there  to  distinguish  it  from  a  smaller  French  province  of  the 
same  name."  To  this  remarkable  statement  it  is  sufficient  to  answer,  that  one 
of  the  most  ancient  names  of  Japan  is  O  Yamato,  the  word  6  meaning  great,  and 
the  Japanese  equivalent  of  the  Chinese  word  tai  or  dai.  When  Chinese  writing 
was  introduced,  the  Japanese,  in  seeking  an  equivalent  for  O  Yamato,  found  it  in 
Dai  Nippon,  as  ma}'  be  seen  in  the  Nihongi.  The  Chinese  have  always  been  in 
the  habit  of  prefixing  dai  or  tai  to  whatever  relates  to  their  country,  govern- 
ment, or  any  thing  which  they  in  their  pride  consider  very  superior.  Anciently 
they  called  China  Dai  To,  and  they  now  call  it  Dai  Tsin  (or  Dai  Chin),  Great 
China.  The  Japanese  have  done  the  same  analogous  thing  for  at  least  twelve, 
probably  for  fifteen,  centuries.  That  the  use  of  Dai  (Great)  before  Nippon  is  not 
the  fashion  of  the  present  century  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  Japanese  ency- 
clopedia San  Sai  Dzu  Ye,  finished  in  1712,  contains  the  name  with  the  pronuncia- 
tion as  now  used,  and  that  it  is  found  in  the  very  name  Dai  Nihon  Shi,  a  book 
completed  in  1715.  The  use  of  Nippon  (or  Niphon,  or  Nipon),  applied  to  the 
main  island,  is  altogether  unwarrantable  and  confusing.  The  Japanese  have 
very  properly  protested  against  this  improper  naming  of  their  chief  island,  and, 
notwithstanding  the  long  use  of  the  name  in  Europe  and  America,  I  believe  it 
should  be  expunged.  The  Japanese  have  some  geographical  rights  which  we  are 
'jound  to  respect. 

Map  of  Japan.— The  best  map  of  Japan  is  that  by  Mr.  K.  Henry  Brunton,  C.E., 
F.R.G.S.,  late  Engineer-in-chief  of  the  Light-house  Department  of  the  Japanese 
Government.  It  is  five  feet  by  four,  and  drawn  to  a  scale  of  twenty  miles  to  the 
inch.  It  is  well  engraved,  and  gives  also  rules  of  pronunciation,  explanation  of 
terms,  Japanese  lineal  measures,  railways,  highways,  by-roads,  telegraph  lines, 
light-houses,  deptlis  of  water  along  the  coast,  steamer  routes,  lists  of  principal 
mountains,  rivers,  islands,  promontories,  lakes,  open  ports,  classes  of  population, 
provinces, /«,  ken,  and  a  comparative  scale  of  English  miles  and  Japanese  ri. 


86  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


IX. 

LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  JAPAN. 

The  comparatively  profound  peace  from  the  era  of  Sujin  Tenno  to 
the  introduction  of  Chinese  civilization  was  occasionally  interrupted 
by  insurrections  in  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  the  empire,  or 
by  the  incursions  of  the  unsubdued  aborigines  in  the  North  and  East. 

During  these  centuries  there  continued  that  welding  of  races — the 
Aino,  Malay,  Nigrito,  Corean,  and  Yamato — into  one  ethnic  compos- 
ite— the  Japanese — and  the  development  of  the  national  temperament, 
molded  by  nature,  circumstances,  and  original  bent,  which  have  pro- 
duced the  unique  Japanese  character.  Although,  in  later  centuries, 
Japan  borrowed  largely  from  China,  blood,  language,  religion,  letters, 
education,  laws,  politics,  science,  art,  and  the  accumulated  treasures  of 
Chinese  civilization,  her  children  are  to-day,  as  they  have  ever  been,  a 
people  distinct  from  the  Chinese,  ethnologically,  physically,  and  morally. 

Though  frequent  fighting  was  necessary,  and  many  of  the  aborigi- 
nes were  slaughtered,  the  great  mass  of  them  were  tranquilized.  To 
rude  men,  in  a  state  of  savagery  whose  existence  is  mainly  animal,  it 
matters  little  who  are  their  masters,  so  long  as  they  are  not  treated 
with  intolerable  cruelty.  The  aborigines  attached  to  the  land  roamed 
over  it  to  hunt,  or  remained  upon  it  to  till  it,  and,  along  the  water- 
courses and  sea-coast,  to  fish.  With  a  soil  that  repaid  generously  the 
rude  agriculture  of  that  day,  an  ample  food-supply  in  the  sea,  without 
severe  labor,  or  exorbitant  tribute  to  pay,  the  conquered  tribes,  when 
once  quieted,  lived  in  happiness,  content,  and  peace.  The  govern- 
ment of  them  was  the  easiest  possible.  The  invaders  from  the  very 
beginning  practiced  that  system  of  concubinage  which  is  practical 
polygamy,  and  filled  their  harems  with  the  most  attractive  of  the 
young  native  females.  The  daughter  of  the  former  chief  shared  the 
couch  of  the  conqueror,  and  the  peasant  became  the  wife  of  the  sol- 
dier, securing  that  admixture  of  races  that  the  merest  tyro  in  ethnol- 
ogy notices  in  modern  Japan.  In  certain  portions,  as  in  the  extreine 
north  of  Hondo,  the  Aino  type  of  face  and  head,  and  the  general 
physical  characteristics  of  skin,  hair,  eyes,  and  form,  have  suffered  the 


LIFE  IX  ANCIENT  JAPAN.  87 

least  modification,  owing  to  later  conquest  and  less  mixture  of  foreign 
blood.  In  Southern  and  Central  Japan,  where  the  fusion  of  the  races 
was  more  perfect,  the  oval  face,  oblique  eyes,  aquiline  nose,  prominent 
features,  and  light  skin  prevail.  Yet  even  here  are  found  compara- 
tively pure  specimens  of  the  Malay  and  even  Nigrito  races,  besides  the 
Aino  and  Corean  types.  The  clod-hopper,  with  his  flat,  round  face,  up- 
turned nose,  expanded  at  the  roots  and  wide  and  sunken  at  the  bridge, 
nostrils  round,  and  gaping  like  the  muzzle  of  a  proboscidian,  bears  in 
his  veins  the  nearly  pure  blood  of  his  aboriginal  ancestors.  Intellectu- 
ally and  physically,  he  is  the  developed  and  improved  Aino — the  re- 
sultant of  the  action  upon  the  original  stock  of  the  soil,  food,  climate, 
and  agricultural  life,  prolonged  for  more  than  twenty  centuries. 

In  the  imperial  family,  and  among  the  kuge,  or  court-nobles,  are  to 
be  oftener  found  the  nearest  approach  to  the  ideal  Japanese  of  high 
birth.  Yet  even  among  these,  who  claim  twenty -five  centuries  of 
semi-divine  succession,  and  notably  among  the  daimios,  or  territorial 
nobles — the  parvenus  of  feudalism — the  grossly  sensual  cast,  the  ani- 
mal features,  the  beastly  expression,  the  low  type,  the  plebeian  face 
of  some  peasant  ancestor  re-appear  to  plague  the  descendant,  and  to 
imbitter  his  cup  of  power  and  luxury.  This  phenomenon  is  made 
abundant  capital  of  by  the  native  fiction  -  writers,  caricaturists,  and 
dramatists.  The  diversity  of  the  two  types  is  shown,  especially  by 
the  artists,  in  strongly  marked  contrast.  In  the  pictures  illustrative 
of  legendary  or  historic  lore,  and  notably  on  the  Japanese  fans,  now 
so  fashionably  common  among  us,  the  noble  hero,  the  chivalrous 
knight,  or  the  doughty  warrior,  is  delineated  with  oblique  eyes,  high 
eyebrows,  rounded  nose,  oval  face,  and  smooth  skin ;  while  the  peas- 
ant, boor,  vanquished  rufiian,  or  general  scape-goat,  is  invariably  a  man 
of  round,  flat  face,  upturned  and  depressed  nose,  gaping  nostrils,  hori- 
zontal eyes,  and  low  eyebrows.  In  painting  the  faces  of  actors,  sing- 
ing-girls, and  those  public  characters  who,  though  the  popular  idols, 
are  of  low  birth  and  blood,  the  fan-artist  exaggerates  the  marks  cf 
beauty  to  the  delight  of  his  native,  and  to  the  disgust  of  his  foreign^ 
patrons.  What  depreciates  the  value  of  his  wares  in  the  eyes  of  the 
latter  enhances  it  in  those  of  the  natives. 

All  savages  worship  heroes,  and  look  upon  their  conquerors,  who 
have  been  able  apparently  to  overcome  not  only  themselves,  but  even 
the  gods  in  whom  they  trusted,  if  not  as  gods  themselves,  at  least  as 
imjued  with  divine  power.  The  Ainos  of  Yezo  to  this  day  adore  the 
\.arrior  Yoshitsune.     Their  fathers  doubtless  considered  Jimmu  and 


88  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

his  followers  as  gods  or  men  divinely  assisted.  The  conquerors  were 
not  slow  in  cultivating  such  a  belief  for  their  own  benefit,  and  thus 
what  was  once  the  fancy  of  savages  became  the  dogma  of  religion 
and  the  tool  of  the  magistrate.  The  reverence  and  obedience  of  the 
people  were  still  further  secured  by  making  the  government  pure- 
ly theocratic,  and  its  general  procedure  and  ceremonial  identical  with 
those  of  worship.  The  forms  of  local  authority  among  the  once 
independent  tribes  were  but  little  interfered  with,  and  the  govern- 
ment exercised  over  them  consisted  at  first  chiefly  in  the  exaction 
of  tribute.  The  floating  legends,  local  traditions,  and  religious  ideas 
of  the  aborigines,  gathered  up,  amplified  by  the  dominant  race,  trans- 
formed and  made  coherent  by  the  dogmatics  of  a  theocracy,  became 
the  basis  of  Shinto,  upon  which  a  modified  Chinese  cosmogony  and 
abstract  philosophical  ideas  were  afterward  grafted.  It  was  this  back- 
ground that  has  made  the  resultant  form  of  Shint5  different  from 
what  is  most  probably  its  prototype,  the  ante-Confucian  Chinese  re- 
ligion. In  its  origin,  Shinto  is  from  the  main -land  of  Asia.  In 
growth  and  development  it  is  "  a  genuine  product  of  Japanese  soil." 
As  yet,  before  the  advent  of  Buddhism  and  Chinese  philosophy, 
there  were  no  moral  codes,  no  systems  of  abstract  doctrines,  no 
priestly  caste.  These  were  all  later  developments.  There  were  then 
no  colossal  temples  with  their  great  belfries  and  immense  bells  whose 
notes  quivered  the  air  into  leagues  of  liquid  melody ;  no  sacred  court- 
yards decked  with  palm-trees ;  no  costly  shrines  decked  out  in  the 
gaudy  magnificence  characteristic  of  Buddhism,  or  impure  Shinto. 
No  extensive  monasteries,  from  which  floated  on  the  breeze  the  chant- 
ing of  priests  or  the  droning  hum  of  students,  were  then  built.  No 
crimson  pagodas  peeped  out  from  camphor  groves,  or  cordons  of  fire- 
warding  firs  and  keyaki-trees.  No  splendid  vestments,  gorgeous  ritual, 
waves  of  incense,  blazing  lights,  antiphonal  responses,  were  seen  or 
heard  in  the  thatched  huts  which  served  as  shrines  of  the  kami.  No 
idols  decked  the  altars.  No  wayside  images  dotted  the  mountain  or 
the  meadow  paths.  No  huge  portals  {torii)  of  stone  or  red-lacquered 
timber  stood  fronting  or  opening  the  path  to  holy  edifices. 

On  the  hill-top,  or  river-side,  or  forest  grove,  the  people  assembled 
when  invocations  were  offered  and  thanksgiving  rendered  to  the  gods. 
Confession  of  sin  was  made,  and  the  wrath  of  the  kami,  therefore,  was 
deprecated.  The  priest,  after  fasting  and  lustrations,  purified  himself 
and,  robed  in  white,  made  offerings  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth  or  the 
trophies  of  the  net  and  the  chase. 


LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  J  A  FAN. 


89 


At  the  court,  a  shrine  of  the  Sun-goddess  had  been  set  up  and  sac- 
rifices offered.  Gradually  in  the  towns  and  villages  similar  shrines 
were  erected,  and  temples  built ;  but  for  long  centuries  among  the 
mountains,  along  the  rivers  and  sea-coasts,  the  child  of  the  soil  set  up 
his  fetich,  made  the  water-worn  stone,  the  gnarled  tree,  or  the  storm- 
cloud  his  god.  Wherever  evil  was  supposed  to.  lurk,  or  malignity  re- 
side, there  were  the  emblems  of  the  Aino  religion.  On  precipice,  in 
gorge,  in  that  primeval  landscape,  stood  the  plume  of  curled  shavings 
to  ward  o£E  the  evil  influences.     In  agony  of  terror  in  presence  of  the 


Shinto  Wayside  Siiriue  iu  Muderu  Japan. 

awful  phenomenon  of  nature,  earthquake,  typhoon,  flood,  or  tidal  wave, 
the  savage  could  but  supplicate  deified  Nature  to  cease  from  wrath 
and  tumult,  and  restore  her  face  in  peace  of  sunshine  and  calm. 

The  houses  of  the  ancient  Japanese  were  oblong  huts,  made  by 
placing  poles  of  young  trees,  with  the  bark  on,  upright  in  the  ground, 
with  transverse  poles  to  make  the  frame,  and  fastened  together  with 
ropes  made  of  rushes  or  vines.  The  walls  were  of  matted  grass, 
boughs,  or  rushes,  the  rafters  of  bamboo,  and  the  sloping  roof  of 
grass-thatch,  fastened  down  by  heavy  ridge-poles.  The  two  larger 
rafters  at  each  end  projected  and  crossed  each  other,  like  two  bayonets 


90  THE  MIKADO'S  ENTIRE. 

in  a  stack  of  guns.  Across  the  ridge-pole,  and  beneath  it  and  anoth- 
er heav^y  tree  laid  lengthwise  on  top  of  the  thatch,  projected  at  right 
angles  on  either  side  short,  heavy  logs,  which  by  their  weight,  and 
from  being  firmly  bound  by  withes  running  under  the  ridge-pole, 
kept  the  thatch  firmly  in  its  place.  This  primeval  hut  is  the  model 
of  the  architecture  of  a  pure  Shinto  temple.  A  short  study  of  one 
easily  reveals  the  fact.  The  floor,  of  hardened  earth,  had  the  fire  in 
the  centre ;  the  doors  and  windows  were  holes  covered  at  times  with 
mats — in  short,  the  Aino  hut  of  to-day.  The  modern  Japanese  dwell- 
ing is  simply  an  improvement  upon  that  ancient  model. 

The  clothing  of  that  period  consisted  of  skins  of  animals,  coarsely 
woven  stuff  of  straw,  grass,  bark,  palm-fibre,  and  in  some  cases  of 
asbestos.  Silk  and  cotton  fabrics  were  of  later  invention  and  use. 
It  is  evident,  even  from  modern  proof,  as  exhibited  in  the  normal 
Japanese  of  to-day,  that  the  wearing  of  many  garments  was  not  con- 
genial to  the  ancient  people.  As  for  straw  and  grass,  these  materials 
are  even  now  universally  used  in  town  and  country  for  hats,  rain-coats, 
leggings,  sandals,  and  a  great  variety  of  wearing  apparel.  A  long 
loose  garment,  with  the  breech,  or  loin-cloth,  and  girdle,  leggings,  and 
sandals  of  straw,  comprised  a  suit  of  ancient  Japanese  clothing.  The 
food  of  the  people  consisted  chiefly  of  fish,  roots,  and  the  flesh  of  ani- 
mals. They  ate  venison,  bear-meat,  and  other  flesh,  with  untroubled 
consciences,  until  Buddhism  came  with  its  injunctions.  The  conquer- 
ors evidently  brought  cereals  with  them,  and  taught  their  cultivation ; 
but  the  main  reliance  of  the  masses  was  upon  the  spoils  of  the  rivers 
and  sea.  Even  now  the  great  centres  and  lines  of  the  population  are 
rivers  and  the  sea-coast.  Roots,  sea-weed,  and  edible  wild  vegetables 
were,  as  at  present,  an  important  portion  of  native  diet. 

The  landscape  of  modern  Japan  is  one  of  minute  prettiness.  It  is 
one  continued  succession  of  mountains  and  valleys.  The  irregularities 
of  the  surface  render  it  picturesque,  and  the  labors  of  centuries  have 
brought  almost  every  inch  of  the  cultivable  soil  in  the  populous  dis- 
tricts into  a  state  of  high  agricultural  finish.  The  peasant  of  to-day 
is  in  many  cases  the  direct  descendant  of  the  man  who  first  plunged 
mattock  and  hoe  into  the  rooty  soil,  and  led  the  water  from  a  distance 
of  miles  to  his  new-made  fields.  The  gullies,  gorges,  and  valleys  are 
everywhere  terraced  for  the  growth  of  rice.  Millions  of  irrigated 
fields  without  fences  or  live-stock,  bounded  by  water-courses,  and  ani- 
mate with  unharmed  and  harmless  wild -fowl,  the  snowy  heron,  and 
the  crane,  and  whose  fertility  astonishes  the  stranger,  and  the  elaborate 


LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  JAPAN. 


91 


system  of  reservoirs,  ditclies,  and  flumes,  are  the  harvest  of  twenty 
centuries  of  toil.  The  face  of  nature 
has  been  smoothed ;  the  unkempt  kix- 
uriance  of  forest  and  undergrowth  has 
been  sobered ;  the  courses  of  rivers 
have  been  bridled ;  the  once  inaccess- 
ible sides  of  mountains  graded,  and 
their  summits  crossed  by  the  paths 
of  the  traveler  or  pilgrim.  The  earth 
has  been  honey-combed  by  miners  in 
quest  of  its  metallic  wealth. 

In  the  primeval  landscape  of  Japan 
there  were  no  meadows,  hedges,  cat- 
tle, horses,  prairies  of  ripening  rice, 
irrigated  fields,  and  terraced  gulches. 
Then  also,  as  now,  the  landscape  was 
nude  of  domestic  animal  life.  Instead 
of  castled  cities,  fortified  hills,  gar- 'r'^«P«^'''°*''f'r°-^'»y-  (Carrying  Home 

"  the  Sheaves  of  Rice.)    Holiusai. 

dens,  and  hedges,  were  only  thatched 

villages,  or  semi-subterranean  huts.  There  were  no  roads,  no  dikes. 
No  water  -  courses  had  been  altered,  no  slopes  or  hills  denuded  of 
timber.  The  plethora  of  nature  was  unpruned;  the  scrub  bamboo, 
wild  flowers,  or  grass  covered  the  hills.  The  great  plains  of  the 
East  and  North  were  luxuriant  moors,  covered  w^ith  grass,  reeds,  or 
bamboo,  populous  with  wild  animal  life.  No  laden  junks  moved  up 
the  rivers.  The  mulberry  and  tea  plantations  had  not  yet  been  set 
out.  The  conquerors  found  a  virgin  soil  and  a  land  of  enrapturing 
beauty.  They  brought  with  them,  doubtless,  a  knowledge  of  agricul- 
ture and  metals.  Gradually  the  face  of  nature  changed.  The  hunter 
became  a  fanner.  The  women  learned  to  spin  and  weave  cotton  and 
hemp.  Division  of  labor  began.  The  artisan  and  merchant  appear- 
ed. Arts,  sciences,  skilled  agriculture,  changed  the  face  of  the  land. 
Society  emerged  from  its  savage  state,  and  civilization  began. 

As  yet  there  was  no  writing.  All  communications  were  oral,  all 
teachings  handed  down  from  father  to  son.  Memory  was  the  only 
treasury  of  thought.  There  is,  indeed,  shown  in  Japan  at  the  present 
day  a  so-called  ancient  Japanese  alphabet — the  kami,  or  god,  letters 
— which  it  is  asserted  the  ancient  Japanese  used.  This  assertion  is 
voided  of  truth  by  the  testimony  of  the  best  native  scholars  to  the 
contrary.     No  books  or  ancient  inscriptions  exist  in  this  character.     I 


92  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

have  myself  sought  in  vain,  in  the  grave-yards  of  Kioto  and  other  an- 
cient places,  to  discover  any  of  these  characters  upon  the  old  tombs. 
The  best  authorities,  scholars  who  have  investigated  the  subject,  pro- 
nounce the  so-called  god-letters  a  forgery,  that  reveals  their  artificial 
and  modern  character  upon  a  slight  examination.  They  consist  al- 
most entirely  of  a  system  of  straight  lines  and  circles,  which  has,  doubt- 
less, either  been  borrowed  from  Corea,  or  invented  by  some  person  in 
modern  times.  Yet  the  morning  of  literature  had  dawned  before 
writing  was  known.  Poems,  odes  to  the  gods,  prayers,  fragments  of 
the  Shinto  liturgy,  which  still  exist  in  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi,  had 
been  composed.  From  these  fragments  we  may  presume  that  a  much 
larger  unwritten  literature  existed,  which  was  enjoyed  by  the  men  who, 
in  those  early  days,  by  thought  and  reflection,  attained  to  a  certain  de- 
gree of  culture  above  their  fellows.  The  early  sovereigns  worshiped 
the  gods  in  person,  and  prayed  that  their  people  might  enjoy  a  suf- 
ficiency of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  from  the  elements ;  and  twice 
a  year,  in  the  Sixth  and  Twelfth  months,  the  people  assembled  at 
the  river-side,  and,  by  washings  and  prayer,  celebrated  the  festival  of 
General  Purification,  by  which  the  whole  nation  was  purged  of  of- 
fenses and  pollutions.  This  was  the  most  characteristic  of  Shinto 
festivals,  and  the  liturgy  used  in  celebrating  it  is  still  in  vogue  at  the 
present  day.  Time  was  measured  by  the  phases  of  the  moon,  and 
the  summer  and  winter  solstices.  The  division  of  months  and  years 
was  in  use.  The  ancient  laws  and  punishments  were  exceedingly  se- 
vere. Besides  the  wager  of  battle  to  decide  a  quarrel,  the  ordeal  still 
in  use  among  the  Ainos  was  then  availed  of.  The  persons  involved 
immersed  their  hands  in  boiling  water.  He  whose  hand  was  scald- 
ed most  was  the  guilty  one.  The  wholly  innocent  escaped  without 
scath,  or  was  so  slightly  injured  that  his  hand  rapidly  healed. 

Japanese  art  had  its  birth  in  mercy,  about  the  time  of  Christ's  ad- 
vent on  earth.  A  custom  long  adhered  to  among  the  noble  classes 
was  the  burial  of  the  living  with  the  dead  {jun-shi,  dying  with  the 
master).  The  wife,  and  one  or  more  servants,  of  the  deceased  lord 
committed  suicide,  and  were  inhumed  with  him.  The  mikado  Suinin, 
son  of  Sujin,  attempted  (b.c.  2)  to  abolish  the  cruel  rite  by  imperial 
edict.  Yet  the  old  fashion  was  not  immediately  abandoned.  In  a.d. 
3,  the  empress  died.  Nomi  no  Tsukune,  a  courtier,  having  made 
some  clay  images,  succeeded  in  having  these  substituted  for  the  living 
victims.  This  was  the  birth  of  Japanese  art.  Henceforth  these  first 
products  of  man's  unfolding  genius  stood  vicarious  for  the  breathing 


LIFE  m  ANCIENT  JAPAN. 


93 


beings  they  simulated.  For  this  reform,  the  originator  was  given  the 
honorable  designation,  Haji  (Jia,  clay;  shi,  ji,  teacher  =  clay  -  image 
teacher,  or  artist). 

The  domestic  life  and  morals  of  those  days  deserve  notice.  There 
were  no  family  names.  Tlie  institution  of  marriage,  if  such  it  may  be 
called,  was  upon  the  same  basis  as  that  among  the  modern  Ainos 
or  North  American  Indians.  Polygamy  was  common.  Marriage  be- 
tween those  whom  w-e  consider  brothers  and  sisters  was  frequent,  and 
a  thing  not  to  be  condemned.  Children  of  the  same  fathers  by  dif- 
ferent mothers  were  not  considered  fraternally  related  to  each  other, 
and  hence  could  marry  ;  but  marriage  between  a  brother  and  sister 
born  of  the  same  mother  was  prohibited  as  immoral. 

The  annexed  illustration  is  taken  from  a  native  work,  and  represents 
a  chief  or  nobleman  in  ancient 
Japan.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
beards  and  mustaches  were 
worn  in  those  days.  The  art- 
ist has  depicted  his  subject 
with  a  well -wrinkled  face  to 
make  him  appear  venerable, 
and  with  protruding  cheeks  to 
show  his  lusty  physique,  recall- 
ing the  ideals  of  Chinese  art, 
in  which  the  men  are  always 
portly  and  massive,  while  the 
women  are  invariably  frail  and 
slender.  His  pose,  expression, 
folded  arms,  and  dress  of  fig- 
ured material  (consisting  of  one 
long  loose  robe  with  flowing 
sleeves,  and  a  second  garment, 
like  very  wide  trousers,  girded 
at  the  waist  with  straps  of  the 
same  material)  are  all  to  be 
seen,  though  in  modified  forms, 

in    modern   Japan.      The    fash-  A  Court  Noble  in  Ancient  Japan.    (From  a  Na- 
n    .  ,  ,      .        1  tive  Drawing;.) 

ions  ot  twenty  centuries  have  " 

changed  but  slightly.  Suspended  from  his  girdle  may  be  seen  the 
magatama  chatelaine,  evidently  symbolizing  his  rank.  The  magatama 
are  perforated  and  polished  pieces  of  soap-stone  or  cornelian,  of  various 
colors,  shaped  something  like  a  curved  seed-pod.     They  were  strurg 

7 


9i  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

together  like  beads.  Other  ornaments  of  this  age  were  the  kudatama, 
jewels  of  gold,  silver,  or  iron.  The  ancient  sword  was  a  straight, 
double-edged  blade,  about  three  feet  long. 

Buddhists  and  Confucianists  assert  that  there  existed  no  words  in 
their  language  for  benevolence,  justice,  propriety,  sagacity,  and  truth. 
Doubtless  these  virtues  existed,  though  not  as  necessary  principles,  to 
be  taught,  formulated,  and  incorporated  into  daily  life.  Chastity  and 
restraint  among  the  unmarried  were  not  reckoned  as  necessary  virtues  ; 
and  the  most  ancient  Japanese  literature,  to  say  nothing  of  their 
mythology,  proves  that  marriage  was  a  flimsy  bar  against  the  excursions 
of  irregular  passion.  Great  feasts  and  drinking-bouts,  in  which  ex- 
cessive eating  was  practiced,  were  common.  They  were  fond  of  the 
chase,  and  hunting-parties  were  frequent  from  the  most  ancient  times. 
Among  the  commendable  features  of  their  life  were  the  habit  of  daily 
bathing  and  other  methods  of  cleanliness.  They  treated  their  wom- 
en with  comparative  kindness  and  respect.  They  loved  the  beautiful 
in  Nature,  and  seemed  to  have  been  ever  susceptible  to  her  charms. 
In  brief,  they  had  neither  the  virtues  nor  vices  of  high  civilization. 

The  arts  were  in  the  rudest  state.  Painting,  carving,  and  sculpture 
were  scarcely  known.  No  theatre  existed.  Sacred  dancing  with  masks, 
at  the  holy  festivals,  was  practiced  as  part  of  the  public  worship,  with 
music  from  both  wind  and  stringed  instruments. 

Until  the  seventh  century  of  our  era,  when  the  Chinese  centralized 
system  was  adopted,  the  government  of  the  Japanese  empire  was  a 
species  of  feudalism.  The  invaders,  on  conquering  the  land,  divided 
it  into  fiefs  that  were  held  sometimes  by  direct  followers  of  Jimmu, 
or  by  the  original  Aino  chiefs,  or  nobles  of  mixed  blood,  on  their 
rendition  of  homage  or  tribute  to  the  conqueror.  The  frequent  de- 
fection of  these  native  or  semi-Japanese  chiefs  was  the  cause  of  the 
numerous  rebellions,  the  accounts  of  which  enter  so  largely  into  the 
history  of  the  first  centuries  of  the  empire.  The  mikado  himself 
ruled  over  what  is  now  called  the  Kinai,  or  Five  Home  Provinces,  a 
space  of  country  included  between  Lake  Biwa  and  the  bays  of  Ozaka 
and  Owari.  The  provinces  in  Shikokii,  Kiushiu,  and  the  circuits 
west,  north,  and  east,  were  ruled  by  tributary  chiefs  who  paid  homage 
to  the  mikado  as  their  suzerain,  but  most  probably  allowed  him  to 
interfere  to  a  slight  extent  in  the  details  of  the  administration  of 
their  lands.  In  cases  of  dispute  between  them,  the  mikado  doubtless 
acted  as  umpire,  his  geographical  position,  superior  power,  and  the 
sacredness  of  person  insuring  his  supremacy  at  all  times,  even  in  the 
height  of  turbulence  and  riot  so  often  prevailing. 


LIFE  IN  ANCIENT  JAPAN.  95 

In  the  ancient  mikadoate,  called  by  the  Japanese  the  Osei  era,  or 
the  government  of  monarchs,  there  were  several  features  tending  to 
increase  the  power  of  the  suzerain,  or  central  chief.  The  first  was  the 
essentially  theocratic  form  of  the  government.  The  sovereign  was 
the  centre  of  that  superstitious  awe,  as  well  as  of  loyalty  and  personal 
reverence,  which  still  exists.  There  grew  into  being  that  prestige, 
that  sense  of  hedging  divinity  and  super-mortal  supremacy  of  the 
mikado  that  still  forms  the  most  striking  trait  of  the  Japanese  char- 
acter, and  the  mightiest  political,  as  it  is  a  great  religious  and  moral, 
force  in  Japan,  overshadowing  even  the  tremendous  power  of  Bud- 
dhism, which  is,  as  Shinto  is  not,  armed  with  the  terrors  of  eternity. 
In  both  a  theological  and  political  sense,  in  him  dwelt  the  fullness  of 
the  gods  bodily.  He  was  their  hypostasis.  He  was  not  only  their 
chosen  servant,  but  was  himself  a  god,  and  the  vicegerent  of  all  the 
gods.  His  celestial  fathers  had  created  the  very  ground  on  which 
they  dwelt.  His  wrath  could  destroy,  his  favor  appease,  celestial  an- 
ger, and  bring  them  fortune  and  prosperity.  He  was  their  preserver 
and  benefactor.  In  his  custody  were  the  three  sacred  symbols.  It 
was  by  superior  intellect  and  the  dogmatism  of  religion,  as  well  as 
with  superior  valor,  weapons,  and  skill,  that  a  handful  of  invaders  con- 
quered and  kept  a  land  populated  by  millions  of  savages. 

To  the  eye  of  a  foreigner  and  a  native  of  Japan,  this  imperfect  pict- 
ure of  primitive  Japan  which  I  have  given  appears  in  very  different 
lights.  The  native  who  looks  at  this  far-off  morning  of  Great  Japan, 
the  Holy  Country,  sees  his  ancestors  only  through  the  atmosphere  in 
which  he  has  lived  and  breathed.  The  dim  religious  light  of  reverent 
teaching  of  mother,  nurse,  father,  or  book  falls  on  every  object  to  re- 
veal beauty  and  conceal  defects.  The  rose-tints  which  innocent  child- 
hood casts  upon  every  object  here  makes  all  things  lovely.  Heaven 
lies  about  his  country's  infancy.  The  precepts  of  his  religion  make 
the  story  sacred,  and  forbid  the  prying  eye  and  the  sandaled  foot. 
The  native  loves,  with  passionate  devotion,  the  land  that  nursed  his 
holy  ancestors,  and  thrills  at  the  oft-told  story  of  their  prowess  and 
their  holy  lives.     He  makes  them  his  model  of  conduct. 

The  foreigner,  in  cold  blood  and  with  critical  eye,  patiently  seeks 
the  truth  beneath,  and,  regarding  not  the  dogma  which  claims  to  rest 
upon  it,  looks  through  dry  light.  To  the  one  Nippon  is  the  Land  of 
the  Gods,  and  the  primal  ages  were  holy.  To  the  other,  Japan  is 
merely  a  geographical  division  of  the  earth,  and  its  beginnings  were 
from  barbarism. 


96  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


X. 

THE  ANCIENT  RELIGION. 

The  ancient  religion  of  the  Japanese  is  called  Kami  no  michi  (way 
or  doctrine  of  the  gods ;  i.  e.,  theology).  The  Chinese  form  of  the 
same  is  Shinto.  Foreigners  call  it  Shintoism,  or  Sintooism.  Almost 
all  the  foreign  writers*  who  have  professed  to  treat  of  Shinto  have 
described  only  the  impure  form  which  has  resulted  from  the  contact 
with  it  of  Buddhism  and  Chinese  philosophy,  and  as  known  to  them 
since  the  sixteenth  century.  My  purpose  in  this  chapter  is  to  give  a 
mere  outline  of  ancient  Shinto  in  its  purity.  A  sketch  of  its  tradi- 
tional and  doctrinal  basis  has  been  given.  Only  a  very  few  Shinto 
temples,  called  miya,  have  preserved  the  ancient  purity  of  the  rites 
and  dogmas  during  the  overshadowing  influences  of  Buddhism. 

In  Japanese  mythology  the  universe  is  Japan,  the  legends  relating 
to  Japan  exclusively.  All  the  deities,  with  perhaps  a  few  exceptions, 
are  historical  personages ;  and  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  of 
cosmogony  and  celestial  genealogy  is  that  the  mikado  is  the  descend- 
ant and  representative  of  the  gods  who  created  the  heavens  and  earth 
(Japan).  Hence,  the  imperative  duty  of  all  Japanese  is  to  obey  him. 
Its  principles,  as  summed  up  by  the  Department  of  Religion,  and  pro- 
mulgated throughout  the  empire  so  late  as  1872,  are  expressed  in  the 
following  commandments : 

1.  "  Thou  shalt  honor  the  Gods,  and  love  thy  country. 

2.  "  Thou  shalt  clearly  understand  the  principles  of  Heaven  and 
the  duty  of  man. 

3.  "Thou  shalt  revere  the  Mikado  as  thy  sovereign,  and  obey  the 
will  of  his  court." 


*  By  far  the  best  writing  on  Shinto,  based  on  profound  researches,  is  the  long 
article  of  Mr.  Ernest  Satow,  entitled  "The  Revival  of  Pure  Shinto,"  in  the  Japan 
Mail,  1874,  and  contained  in  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan  " 
for  the  same  year.  Also  on  "The  Shinto  Temples  of  Ise,"  by  the  same  writer. 
A  scholarly  article,  by  Mr.  P.  Kemperman,  secretary  to  the  German  legation  in 
Japan,  was  published  in  the  Japan  Mail  of  August  26th,  1874. 


THE  ANCIENT  liELIGION.  97 

The  chief  characteristic,  which  is  preserved  in  various  manifesta- 
tions, is  the  worship  of  ancestors,  and  the  deification  of  emperors,  he- 
roes, and  schohirs.  The  adoration  of  the  personified  forces  of  nature 
enters  hxrgely  into  it.  It  employs  no  idols,  images,  or  efligies  in  its 
worship.  Its  symbols  are  the  mirror  and  the  gohei — strips  of  notched 
white  paper  depending  from  a  wand  of  wood.  It  teaches  no  doctrine 
of  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  though  it  is  easy  to  see  that  such  a 
dogma  may  be  developed  from  it,  since  all  men  (Japanese)  are  de- 
scended from  the  immortal  gods.  The  native  derivation  of  the  term 
for  man  is  hito  ("  light- bearer ") ;  and  the  ancient  title  of  the  mi- 
kado's heir-apparent  was  "  light-inheritor."  Fire  and  light  (sun)  have 
from  earliest  ages  been  the  objects  of  veneration. 

Shinto  has  no  moral  code,  no  accurately  defined  system  of  ethics 
or  belief.  The  leading  principle  of  its  adherents  is  imitation  of  the 
illustrious  deeds  of  their  ancestors,  and  they  are  to  prove  themselves 
worthy  of  their  descent  by  the  purity  of  their  lives.  A  number  of 
salient  points  in  their  mythology  are  recognized  as  maxims  for  their 
guidance.  It  expresses  great  detestation  of  all  forms  of  uncleanness, 
and  is  remarkable  for  the  fullness  of  its  ceremonies  for  bodily  purifi- 
cation. Birth  and  death  are  especially  polluting.  Anciently,  the 
corpse  and  the  lying-in  woman  were  assigned  to  buildings  set  apart, 
which  were  afterward  burned.  The  priest  must  bathe  and  don  clean 
garments  before  officiating,  and  bind  a  slip  of  paper  over  his  mouth, 
lest  his  breath  should  pollute  the  offerings.  Many  special  festivals 
were  observed  for  purification,  the  ground  dedicated  for  the  purpose 
being  first  sprinkled  with  salt.  The  house  and  ground  were  defiled 
by  death,  and  those  who  attended  a  funeral  must  also  free  themselves 
from  contamination  by  the  use  of  salt.  The  ancient  emperors  and 
priests  in  the  provinces  performed  the  actual  ablution  of  the  people, 
or  made  public  lustrations.  Later  on,  twice  a  year,  at  the  festivals  of 
purification,  paper  figures  representing  the  people  were  thrown  into 
the  river,  allegorical  of  the  cleansing  of  the  nation  from  the  sins  of 
the  past  six  months.  Still  later,  the  mikado  deputized  the  chief  min- 
ister of  religion  at  Kioto  to  perform  the  symbolical  act  for  the  peo- 
ple of  the  whole  country. 

After  death,  the  members  of  a  family  in  which  death  had  occurred 
must  exclude  themselves  from  all  intercourse  with  the  world,  attend 
no  religious  services,  and,  if  in  official  position,  do  no  work  for  a 
specified  number  of  days. 

Thanksgiving,  supplication,  penance,  and  praise  are  all  represented 


98  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

in  the  prayers  to  the  gods,  which  are  offered  by  both  sexes.  The  em- 
peror and  nobles  often  met  in  the  temple  gardens  to  compose  hymns 
or  sacred  poems  to  the  gods.  Usually  in  prayer  the  hands  are  clap- 
ped twice,  the  head  or  the  knees  bowed,  and  the  petition  made  in 
silence.  The  worshiper  does  not  enter  the  temple,  but  stands  before 
it,  and  first  pulls  a  rope  dangling  down  over  a  double  gong,  like  a 
huge  sleigh-bell,  with  which  he  calls  the  attention  of  the  deity.  The 
kami  are  believed  to  hear  the  prayer  when  as  yet  but  in  thought,  be- 
fore it  rises  to  the  lips.  Not  being  intended  for  human  ears,  elo- 
quence is  not  needed.  The  mikado  in  his  palace  daily  offers  up  peti- 
tions for  all  his  people,  which  are  more  effectual  than  those  of  his  sub- 
jects. Washing  the  hands  and  rinsing  out  the  mouth,  the  worshiper 
repeats  prayers,  of  which  the  following  is  an  example :  "  O  God,  that 
dwellest  in  the  high  plain  of  heaven,  who  art  divine  in  substance  and 
in  intellect,  and  able  to  give  protection  from  guilt  and  its  penalties, 
to  banish  impurity,  and  to  cleanse  us  from  uncleanness  —  hosts  of 
gods,  give  ear  and  listen  to  these  our  petitions."  Or  this :  "  I  say  with 
awe,  deign  to  bless  me  by  correcting  the  unwitting  faults  which,  seen 
and  heard  by  you,  I  have  committed;  by  blowing  off  and  clearing 
away  the  calamities  which  evil  gods  might  inflict ;  by  causing  me  to 
live  long,  like  the  hard  and  lasting  rock ;  and  by  repeating  to  the 
gods  of  heavenly  origin,  and  to  the  gods  of  earthly  origin,  the  peti- 
tions which  I  present  every  day,  along  with  your  breath,  that  they 
may  hear  with  the  sharp-earedness  of  the  forth-galloping  colt." 

The  offerings,  most  commonly  laid  with  great  ceremony  by  the 
priest,  in  white  robes,  before  the  gods,  were  fruit  and  vegetables  in 
season,  fish  and  venison.  A.t  night  they  were  removed,  and  became 
the  property  of  the  priest.  Game  and  fowls  were  offered  up  as  an 
act  of  worship,  but  with  the  peculiarity  that  their  lives  were  not  sacri- 
ficed. They  were  hung  up  by  the  legs  before  the  temple  for  some 
time,  and  then  permitted  to  escape,  and,  being  regarded  as  sacred  to 
the  gods,  were  exempt  from  harm.  The  new  rice  and  the  products 
furnished  by  the  silk-wonn  and  the  cotton-plant  were  also  dedicated. 

Before  each  temple  stood  a  torii,  or  bird-rest.  This  was  made  of 
two  upright  tree-trunks.  On  the  top  of  these  rested  a  smoother  tree, 
with  ends  slightly  projecting,  and  underneath  this  a  smaller  horizontal 
beam.  On  this  perched  the  fowls  offered  up  to  the  gods,  not  as  food, 
but  as  chanticleers  to  give  notice  of  day-break.  In  later  centuries  the 
meaning  of  the  torii  was  forgotten,  and  it  was  supposed  to  be  a  gate- 
way.    The  Buddhists  attached  tablets  to  its  cross-beam,  painted  or 


THE  ANCIENT  EELIOION.  99 

coppered  its  posts,  curved  its  top-piece,  made  it  of  stone  or  bronze, 
and  otherwise  altered  its  character.  Resembling  two  crosses  with 
their  ends  joined,  the  torii  is  a  conspicuous  object  in  the  landscape, 
and  a  purely  original  work  of  Japanese  architecture. 

All  the  miyas  were  characterized  by  rigid  simplicity,  constructed 
of  pure  wood,  and  thatched.  No  paint,  lacquer,  gilding,  or  any  mer- 
etricious ornaments  were  ever  allowed  to  adorn  or  defile  the  sacred 
structure,  and  the  use  of  metal  was  avoided.  Within,  only  the  gohei 
and  the  daily  offerings  were  visible.  Within  a  closet  of  purest  wood 
is  a  case  of  wood  containing  the  "august  spirit-substitute,"  or  "gods'- 
seed,"  in  which  the  deity  enshrined  in  the  particular  temple  is  be 
lieved  to  reside.  This  spirit-substitute  is  usually  a  mirror,  which  in 
some  temples  is  exposed  to  view.  The  principal  Shinto  temples  are 
at  Ise,  in  which  the  mirror  given  by  Amaterasu  to  Ninigi,  and  brought 
down  from  heaven,  was  enshrined.  Some  native  writers  assert  that 
the  mirror  was  the  goddess  herself ;  others,  that  it  merely  represented 
her.     All  others  in  Japan  are  imitations  or  copies  of  this  original. 

The  priests  of  Sliinto  are  designated  according  to  their  rank.  They 
are  called  kannushi  (shrine-keepers).  Sometimes  they  receive  titles 
from  the  emperor,  and  the  higher  ranks  of  the  priesthood  are  court 
nobles.  They  are,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.  Government  offi- 
cials. The  office  of  chief  minister  of  religion  was  hereditary  in  the 
Nakatomi  family.  Ordinarily  they  dress  like  other  people,  but  are 
robed  in  white  when  officiating,  or  in  court -dress  when  at  court. 
They  marry,  rear  families,  and  do  not  shave  their  heads.  The  office 
is  usually  hereditary.     Virgin  priestesses  also  minister  at  the  shrines. 

After  all  the  research  of  foreign  scholars  who  have  examined  the 
claims  of  Shinto  on  the  soil,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  language,  and  the 
sacred  books  and  commentators,  many  hesitate  to  decide  whether 
Shint5  is  "  a  genuine  product  of  Japanese  soil,"  or  whether  it  is  not 
closely  allied  with  the  ancient  religion  of  China,  which  existed  before 
the  period  of  Confucius.  The  weight  of  opinion  inclines  to  the  latter 
belief.  Certain  it  is  that  many  of  the  Japanese  myths  are  almost  ex- 
actly like  those  of  China,  while  many  parts  of  the  cosmogony  can  be 
found  unaltered  in  older  Chinese  works.  The  Kojiki  (the  Bible  of 
the  Japanese  believers  in  Shinto)  is  full  of  narrations ;  but  it  lays 
dowTi  no  precepts,  teaches  no  morals  or  doctrines,  prescribes  no  ritual. 
Shinto  has  very  few  of  the  characteristics  of  a  religion,  as  understood 
by  us.  The  most  learned  native  commentators  and  exponents  of  Shin- 
to expressly  maintain  the  view,  that  Shinto  has  no  moral  code.     Mo- 


100  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

toori,  the  great  modern  revivalist  of  Shinto,  teaches,  with  polemic  em- 
phasis, that  morals  were  invented  by  the  Chinese  because  they  were 
an  immoral  people ;  but  in  Japan  there  was  no  necessity  for  any  sys- 
tem of  morals,  as  every  Japanese  acted  aright  if  he  only  consulted  his 
own  heart.  The  duty  of  a  good  Japanese  consists  in  obeying  the 
commands  of  the  mikado  without  questioning  whether  these  com- 
mands are  right  or  wrong.  It  was  only  immoral  people,  like  the 
Chinese,  who  presumed  to  discuss  the  character  of  their  sovereigns. 
Among  the  ancient  Japanese,  government  and  religion  were  the  same.* 

*  In  this  chapter,  I  have  carefully  endeavored  to  exclude  mere  opinions  and 
conjectures,  and  to  give  the  facts  only.  I  append  below  the  views  held  by  gen- 
tlemen of  cosmopolitan  culture,  and  earnest  students  of  Shinto  on  the  soil,  whose 
researches  and  candor  entitle  them  to  be  heard. 

"  Shinto,  as  expounded  by  Motoori,  is  nothing  else  than  an  engine  for  reducing 
the  people  to  a  condition  of  mental  slavery." — Ernest  Satow,  English,  the  fore- 
most living  Japanese  scholar,  and  a  special  student  of  Shinto. 

"  There  is  good  evidence  that  Shinto  resembles  very  closely  the  ancient  religion 
of  the  Chinese."  "A  distinction  should  be  drawn  between  the  Shinto  of  ancient 
times  and  the  doctrine  as  developed  by  writers  at  the  court  of  the  mikado  in 
modern  times."  "The  sword  and  dragon,  the  thyrsus  stall"  and  ivy,  the  staff  of 
^sculapius  and  snakes,  most  probably  had  the  same  significance  as  the  Japanese 
gohei;  and,  as  Sieboldhas  remarked,  it  symbolized  the  union  of  the  two  elements, 
male  and  female.  The  history  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  as  given  by  the  Japa- 
nese, bore  the  closest  resemblance  to  the  myths  of  China  and  India;  while  little 
doubt  existed  that  these  (symbol  and  myth)  were  imported  from  the  West,  the 
difficulty  being  to  fix  the  date.  Little  was  known  of  Shinto  that  might  give  it 
the  character  of  a  religion  as  understood  by  Western  nations." — J.  A.  Von  Brandt, 
German,  late  minister  of  the  Gernian  empire  to  Japan,  and  now  to  Peking,  a  student  of 
Japanese  archceology,  and  founder  of  the  German  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan. 

"  Japanese,  in  general,  are  at  a  loss  to  describe  what  Shinto  is ;  but  this  cir- 
cumstance is  intelligible  if  what  was  once  an  indigenous  faith  had  been  turned, 
in  later  days,  into  a  political  engine."  "  Infallibility  on  the  part  of  the  head  of 
the  state,  which  was  naturally  attributed  to  rulers  claiming  divine  descent,  was 
a  convenient  doctrine  for  political  purposes  in  China  or  Japan,  as  elsewhere." 
"We  must  look  to  early  times  for  the  meaning  of  Shinto."  "  Its  origin  is  close- 
ly allied  to  the  early  religion  of  the  Chinese."  "The  practice  of  putting  up 
sticks  with  shavings  or  paper  attacJied,  in  order  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
spirits,  is  observable  among  certain  hill  tribes  of  India,  as  well  as  among  the  Ainos 
of  Tezo.  The  Hindoos,  Burmese,  and  Chinese  have  converted  these  sticks  into 
flags,  or  streamers."  "  If  Shinto  had  ever  worked  great  results,  or  had  taken 
deep  liold  on  the  Japanese  people,  it  would  scarcely  have  been  superseded  so 
completely  as  it  had  been  by  Buddhism." — Sir  Harry  S.  Parkes,  British  m.itiister 
plenipotentiary  in  Japan,  a  fine  scholar,  and  long  resident  in  both  China  and  Japan. 

"  The  leading  idea  of  Shinto  is  a  reverential  feeling  toward  the  dead."  "  As  to 
the  political  use  of  it,  the  state  is  quite  right  in  turning  it  to  account  in  support 
of  the  absolute  government  which  exists  in  Japan."  "The  early  records  of  Ja- 
pan are  by  no  means  reliable." — Arinori  Mori,  Japa7iese,  formerly  charge  d'af- 
faires of  Japan  at  Washington,  U.  S.A.,  now  Vice-Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  Japan, 


THE  THRONE  AND  THE  NOBLE  FAMILIES.  101 


XL 

THE  THRONE  AND  THE  NOBLE  FAMILIES. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  Japanese  empire,  until  the  century  aft- 
er the  introduction  of  Buddhism,  the  mikados  were  the  real  rulers  of 
their  people,  having  no  hedge  of  division  between  them  and  their 
subjects.  The  palace  was  not  secluded  from  the  outer  world.  No 
screen  hid  the  face  of  the  monarch  from  the  gaze  of  his  subjects. 
No  bureauocracy  rose,  like  a  wall  of  division,  between  ruler  and  ruled. 
No  hedge  or  net  of  officialdom  hindered  free  passage  of  remonstrance 
or  petition.  The  mikado,  active  in  word  and  deed,  was  a  real  ruler, 
leading  his  armies,  directing  his  Government.  Those  early  days  of 
comparative  national  poverty  when  the  mikado  was  the  warrior-chief 
of  a  conquering  tribe ;  and,  later,  when  he  ruled  a  little  kingdom  in 
Central  Japan,  holding  the  distant  portions  of  his  quasi -empire  in 
tribute ;  and,  still  later,  when  he  was  the  head  of  an  undivided  em- 
pire— mark  the  era  of  his  personal  importance  and  energy.  Then,  in 
the  mikado  dwelt  a  manly  soul,  and  a  strong  mind  in  a  strong  body. 
This  era  was  the  golden  age  of  the  imperial  power.  He  was  the  true 
executive  of  the  nation,  initiating  and  carrying  out  the  enterprises  of 
peace  or  war.  As  yet,  no  military  class  had  arisen  to  make  themselves 
the  arbiters  of  the  throne ;  as  yet,  that  throne  was  under  no  proprie- 
torship ;  as  yet,  there  was  but  one  capital  and  centre  of  authority. 

Gradually,  however,  there  arose  families  of  nobility  who  shared  and 
dictated  the  power,  and  developed  the  two  official  castes  of  civilian 
and  military  officials,  widening  the  distance  between  the  sovereign  and 
his  subjects,  and  rendering  him  more  and  more  inaccessible  to  his 
people.  Then  followed  in  succession  the  decay  of  his  power,  the  cre- 
ation of  a  dual  system  of  government,  with  two  capitals  and  centres 
of  authority ;  the  domination  of  the  military  classes ;  the  centuries  of 
anarchy ;  the  progress  of  feudalism ;  the  rending  of  the  empire  into 
hundreds  of  petty  provinces,  baronies,  and  feudal  tenures.  Within 
the  time  of  European  knowledge  of  Japan,  true  national  unity  has 
scarcely  been  known.     The  political  system  has  been  ever  in  a  state 


102 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


of  unstable  equilibrium,  and  the  nation  but  a  conglomeration  of  units, 
in  wliicli  the  forces  of  repulsion  ever  threatened  to  overcome  the  forces 
of  cohesion.  Two  rulers  in  two  capitals  gave  to  foreigners  the  im- 
pression that  there  were  two  "  emperors  "  in  Japan — an  idea  that  has 
been  incorporated  into  most  of  the  text -books  and  cyclopedias  of 
Christendom.  Let  it  be  clearly  understood,  however,  that  there  never 
was  but  one  emperor  in  Japan,  the  mikado,  who  is  and  always  was 


The  Mikado  on  his  Throne.    Time,  from  the  Se\ .  „ 


utiiry. 


the  only  sovereign,  though  his  measure  of  power  has  been  very  dif- 
ferent at  various  times.  Until  the  rise  and  domination  of  the  milita- 
ry classes,  he  was  in  fact,  as  well  as  by  law,  supreme.  How  the  mi- 
kado's actual  power  ebbed  away  shall  form  the  subject  of  this  and  the 
following  chapter. 

From  the  death  of  Nintoku  Tenn5,  the  last  of  the  long-lived  mika- 
dos,  to  Kimmei  (540-571),  in  whose  time  continental  civilization  was 
introduced,  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  forty-one  years,  fourteen  em- 
perors ruled,  averaging  a  little  over  ten  years  each.     From  Kimmei 


THE  THRONE  AND   THE  NOBLES.  103 

to  Gotoba  (a.d.  1198)  fifty -three  emperors  reigned,  averaging  eleven 
years  each.     (See  list  of  emperors,  p.  123.) 

In  A.D.  603,  the  first  attempt  to  create  orders  of  nobility  for  the 
nobles,  already  numerously  existing,  was  made  by  the  Empress  Suiko. 
Twelve  orders  were  instituted,  with  symbolic  names,  after  the  Chinese 
custom  —  such  as  Virtue,  Humanity,  Propriety,  etc. —  distinguished 
by  the  colors  of  the  caps  worn.  In  649,  this  system  was  changed  for 
that  having  nine  ranks,  with  two  divisions.  In  each  of  the  last  six 
were  two  subdivisions,  thus  in  reality  making  thirty  grades.  The  first 
grade  was  a  posthumous  reward,  given  only  to  those  who  in  life  had 
held  the  second.  Every  oflRcer,  from  the  prime  minister  to  the  offi- 
cial clerks,  had  a  rank  attached  to  his  office,  which  was  independent 
of  birth  or  age.  All  officers  were  presented,  and  all  questions  of  pre- 
cedence were  settled,  in  accordance  with  this  rank. 

The  court  officials,  at  first,  had  been  very  few,  as  might  be  imagined 
in  this  simple  state  of  society  without  writing.  The  Jin  Gi  Kuan, 
which  had  existed  from  very  ancient  times,  supervised  the  ceremonies 
of  religion,  the  positions  being  chiefly  held  by  members  of  the  Naka- 
tomi  family.  This  was  the  highest  division  of  the  Government.  In 
A.D.  603,  with  the  introduction  of  orders  of  nobility,  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  changed  from  simple  feudalism  to  centralized  monarchy, 
with  eight  ministries,  or  departments  of  state,  as  follows  : 

1.  Nakatsukasa  no  Sho  (Department  of  the  Imperial  Palace). 

2.  Shiki  bu  Sho  (Department  of  Civil  Office  and  Education). 

3.  Ji  bu  Sho  (Department  of  Etiquette  and  Ceremonies). 

4.  Mim  bu  Sho  (Department  of  Ptevenue  and  Census). 
6.  Hio  bu  Sho  (Department  of  War). 

6.  Gio  bu  Sho  (Department  of  Justice). 

7.  O  kura  Sho  (Department  of  Treasury). 

8.  Ku  nai  Sho  (Department  of  Imperial  Household). 

The  Jin  Gi  Kuan  (Council  of  Religion  ;  literally.  Council  of  the  Gods 
of  Heaven  and  Earth),  though  anciently  outranking  the  Dai  Jo  Kuan 
(Great  Government  Council),  lost  its  prestige  after  the  introduction 
of  Buddhism.  The  Dai  Jo  Kuan,  created  a.d.  786,  superintended  the 
eight  boards  and  ruled  the  empire  by  means  of  local  governors  ap- 
pointed from  the  capital.     In  it  were  four  ministers : 

1.  Dai  Jo  Dai  Jin  (Great  Minister  of  the  Great  Government). 

2.  Sa  Dai  Jin  (Great  Minister  of  the  Left). 

3.  U  Dai  Jin  (Great  Minister  of  the  Right). 

4.  Nai  Dai  Jin  (Inner  Great  Minister). 


104  THE  3nE ADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Of  the  eight  departments,  that  of  War  ultimately  became  the  most 
important.  A  special  department  was  necessary  to  attend  to  the  pub- 
lic manners  and  forms  of  society,  etiquette  being  more  than  morals, 
and  equal  to  literary  education.  The  foreign  relations  of  the  empire 
were  then  of  so  little  importance  that  they  were  assigned  to  a  bureau 
of  the  above  department.  The  treasury  consisted  of  imperial  store- 
houses and  granaries,  as  money  was  not  then  in  general  use.  Rice 
was  the  standard  of  value,  and  all  taxes  were  paid  in  this  grain. 

The  introduction  of  these  orders  of  nobility  and  departments  of 
state  from  China  brought  about  the  change  from  the  species  of  feu- 
dalism hitherto  existing  to  centralized  monarchy,  the  rise  of  the  noble 
families,  and  the  fixing  of  official  castes  composed,  not,  as  in  most 
ancient  countries,  of  the  priestly  and  Avarrior  classes,  but,  as  in  China, 
of  the  civilian  and  military. 

The  seeds  of  the  mediaeval  and  modern  complex  feudalism,  which 
lasted  until  1872,  were  planted  about  this  time.  A  division  of  all 
the  able-bodied  males  into  three  classes  was  now  made,  one  of  which 
was  to  consist  of  regular  soldiers  permanently  in  service.  This  was 
the  "  military  class,"  from  which  the  legions  kept  as  garrisons  in  the 
remote  provinces  were  recruited.  The  unit  of  combination  was  the 
go,  consisting  of  five  men.  Two  go  formed  a  Icuttj  five  kua  a  tai, 
two  tai  a  Wo,  ten  rid  a  dan.  These  terms  may  be  translated  "  file," 
"  squad,"  "  company,"  "  battalion,"  "  regiment."  The  dan,  or  regi- 
ment, could  also  be  regularly  divided  into  four  detachments.  The 
generals  who  commanded  the  army  in  the  field  were  in  many  cases 
civil  officials,  who  were  more  or  less  conversant  with  the  rude  military 
science  of  the  day.  In  their  time,  success  in  war  depended  more  on 
disciplined  numbers  and  personal  valor,  and  was  not  so  much  a  prob- 
lem of  weight,  mathematics,  machinery,  and  money  as  in  our  day. 
The  expeditions  were  led  by  a  shogun,  or  general,  who,  if  he  com- 
manded three  regiments,  was  called  a  tai-sh5gun,  or  generalissimo. 
The  vice-commanders  were  called  fuku-shogun.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  term  "  shogun  "  is  merely  the  Japanese  word  for  "  general." 
All  generals  were  shoguns,  and  even  the  effete  figure-head  of  the  great 
usurpation  at  Yedo,  with  whom  Commodore  Perry  and  those  who  fol- 
lowed him  made  treaties,  supposing  him  to  be  the  "  secular  emperor," 
was  nothing  more. 

Muster-rolls  were  kept  of  the  number  of  men  in  the  two  remaining 
classes  that  could  be  sent  in  the  field  on  an  emergency  ;  and  whenever 
an  insurrection  broke  out,  and  a  military  expedition  was  determined 


THE  THRONE  AND  THE  NOBLES.  105 

upon,  orders  were  sent  to  the  provinces  along  the  hne  of  march  to  be 
ready  to  obey  the  imperial  command,  and  compare  the  quota  required 
with  the  local  muster-rolls.  An  army  would  thus  be  quickly  assem- 
bled at  the  capital,  or,  starting  thence,  could  be  re-enforced  on  the 
route  to  the  rebellious  province.  All  that  was  necessary  were  the  or- 
ders of  the  emperor.  When  war  was  over,  the  army  was  dissolved, 
and  the  army  corps,  regiments,  and  companies  were  mustered  out  of 
service  into  their  units  of  combination,  go  of  five  men.  The  general, 
dofl[ing  helmet,  made  his  votive  offering  to  the  gods,  and  returned  to 
garrison  duty. 

Until  about  the  twelfth  century,  the  Japanese  empire,  like  the  old 
Roman,  was  a  centre  of  civilization  surrounded  by  barbarism,  or,  rath- 
er, like  a  wave  advancing  ever  farther  northward.  The  numerous  re- 
volts in  Kiushiu,  Shikoku,  and  even  in  the  North  and  East  of  Hondo, 
show  that  the  subjugation  of  these  provinces  was  by  no  means  com- 
plete on  their  first  pacification.  The  Kuanto  needed  continual  mili- 
tary care,  as  well  as  civil  government ;  while  the  northern  provinces 
were  in  a  chronic  state  of  riot  and  disorder,  being  now  peaceful  and 
loyally  obedient,  and  anon  in  rebellion  against  the  mikado.  To  keep 
the  remote  provinces  in  order,  to  defend  their  boundaries,  and  to  col- 
lect tribute,  military  occupation  became  a  necessity  ;  and,  accordingly, 
in  each  of  the  distant  provinces,  especially  those  next  to  the  frontier, 
beyond  which  were  the  still  unconquered  savages,  an  army  was  per- 
manently encamped.  This,  in  the  remote  pro^'inces,  was  the  perma- 
nent military  force.  Throughout  the  country  was  a  reserve  militia, 
or  latent  army ;  and  in  the  capital  was  the  regular  army,  consisting 
of  the  generals  and  "  the  Six  Guards,"  or  household  troops,  who  form- 
ed the  regular  garrison  of  Kioto  in  peace,  and  in  war  became  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  army  of  chastisement. 

This  system  worked  well  at  first,  but  time  showed  its  defects,  and 
wherein  it  could  be  improved.  Among  that  third  of  the  population 
classed  as  soldiers,  some  naturally  proved  themselves  brave,  apt,  and 
skillful ;  others  were  worthless  in  war,  while  in  the  remaining  two- 
thirds  many  who  were  able  and  willing  could  not  enter  the  army. 
xVbout  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  a  reform  was  instituted,  and  a 
new  division  of  the  people  made.  The  court  decided  that  all  those 
among  the  rich  peasants  who  had  capacity,  and  were  skilled  in  arch- 
ery and  horsemanship,  should  compose  the  military  class,  and  that  the 
remainder,  the  weak  and  feeble,  should  continue  to  till  the  soil  and 
apply  themselves  to  agriculture.     The  above  was  one  of  the  most  sig- 


106 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIIiE. 


nificant  of  all  the  changes  in  the  history  of  Japan.  Its  fruits  are  seen 
to-day  in  the  social  constitution  of  the  Japiinese  people.  Though 
there  are  many  classes,  there  are  but  two  great  divisions  of  the  Japa- 
nese, the  military  and  the  agricultural.  It  wrought  the  complete  sev- 
erance of  the  soldier  and  the  farmer.  It  lifted  up  one  part  of  the  peo- 
ple to  a  plane  of  life  on  which  travel,  adventure,  the  profession  and 
the  pursuit  of  arms,  letters,  and  the  cultivation  of  honor  and  chivalry 

were  possible,  and  by  which 
that  brightest  type  of  the 
Japanese  man,  the  samurai, 
was  produced.  This  is  the 
class  which  for  centuries  has 
monopolized  arms,  polite  learn- 
ing, patriotism,  and  intellect 
of  Japan.  They  are  the  men 
whose  minds  have  been  ever 
open  to  learn,  from  whom 
sprung  the  ideas  that  once 
made,  and  which  later  over- 
threw, the  feudal  system, which 
wrought  the  mighty  reforms 
that  swept  away  the  shdgunate 
in  1868,  restored  the  mikado 
to  ancient  power,  who  intro- 
duced those  ideas  that  now 
rule  Japan,  and  sent  their  sons 
abroad  to  study  the  civilization 

A  Samurai,  in  Winter  Traveling-dress.  ^f  the  West.      To  the  samurai 

Japan  looks  to-day  for  safety  in  war,  and  progress  in  peace.  The 
samurai  is  the  soul  of  the  nation.  In  other  lands  the  priestly  and  the 
military  castes  were  formed.  In  Japan  one  and  the  same  class  held 
the  sword  and  the  pen  —  liberal  learning  and  secular  culture.  The 
other  class — the  agricultural — remained  unchanged.  Left  to  the  soil 
to  till  it,  to  live  and  die  upon  it,  the  Japanese  farmer  has  remained 
the  same  to-day  as  he  was  then.  Like  the  wheat  that  for  successive 
ages  is  planted  as  wheat,  sprouts,  beards,  and  fills  as  wheat,  the  peas- 
ant, with  his  horizon  bounded  by  his  rice-fields,  his  water-courses,  or 
the  timbered  hills,  his  intellect  laid  away  for  safe -keeping  in  the 
priests'  hands,  is  the  son  of  the  soil ;  caring  little  who  rules  him,  un- 
less he  is  taxed  beyond  the  power  of  flesh  and  blood  to  bear,  or  an 


THE  THRONE  AND  THE  NOBLEH. 


107 


A.  Japauese  Farmer.     (Seed-beds  of  rice  protected  from  the  birds  by  striugs  and  slips  of 

wood.)* 

overmeddlesome  officialdom  touches  his  land  to  transfer,  sell,  or  re- 
divide  it :  then  he  rises  as  a  rebel.  In  time  of  war,  he  is  a  disinter- 
ested and  a  passive  spectator,  and  he  does  not  fight.  He  changes 
masters  with  apparent  unconcern.  Amidst  all  the  ferment  of  ideas 
induced  by  the  contact  of  Western  civilization  with  Asiatic  within  the 
last  two  decades,  the  farmer  stolidly  remains  conservative :  he  knows 
not,  nor  cares  to  hear,  of  it,  and  hates  it  because  of  the  heavier  taxes 
it  imposes  upon  him. 

*  In  the  above  sketch  by  Hokusai,  the  farmer,  well  advanced  in  life,  bent  and 
bald,  is  lookiniS  dubiously  over  a  piece  of  newly  tilled  land,  perhaps  just  reclaim- 
ed, -which  he  defends  from  the  birds  by  the  device  of  strings  holding  strips  of 
thin  wood  and  bamboo  stretched  from  a  pole.  With  his  ever-present  bath-towel 
and  headkerchief  on  his  shoulders,  his  pipe  held  behind  him,  he  stands  in  medi- 
tative attitude,  in  his  old  rice-straw  sandals,  run  down  and  out  at  the  heels,  his 
well-worn  cotton  coat,  darned  crosswise  for  durability  and  economy,  wondering 
whether  he  will  see  a  full  crop  before  he  dies,  or  whether  he  can  pay  his  taxes, 
and  fill  his  children's  mouths  with  rice.  The  writing  at  side  is  a  proverb  which 
has  two  meanings:  it  may  be  read,  "A  new  field  gives  a  small  crop,"  or  "Hu- 
man life  is  but  fifty  years."  In  either  case,  it  has  pregnant  significance  to  the 
farmer.  The  pathos  and  humor  are  irresistible  to  one  who  knows  the  life  of 
these  sons  of  toil. 


108  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

To  support  the  military,  a  certain  portion  of  rice  was  set  apart  per- 
manently as  revenue,  and  given  as  wages  to  the  soldiers.  This  is  the 
origin  of  the  pensions  still  enjoyed  by  the  samurai,  and  the  burden  of 
the  Government  and  people,  which  in  18V6,  after  repeated  reductions, 
amounts  to  nearly  $18,000,000. 

Let  us  notice  how  the  noble  families  originated.  To  this  hour 
these  same  families,  numbering  one  hundred  and  fifty -five  in  all, 
dwell  in  Tokio  or  Kioto,  intensely  proud  of  their  high  descent  from 
the  mikados  and  the  heavenly  gods,  glorying  in  their  pedigree  more 
than  the  autochthons  of  Greece  gloried  in  their  native  soil.  The  ex- 
istence of  this  feeling  of  superiority  to  all  mankind  among  some  of 
the  highest  officials  under  the  present  mikado's  government  has  been 
the  cause  of  bitter  quarrels,  leading  almost  to  civil  war.  Under  the 
altered  circumstances  of  the  national  life  since  1868,  the  oflScials  of 
ancient  lineage,  either  unable  to  conceal,  or  desirous  of  manifesting 
their  pride  of  birth,  have  on  various  occasions  stung  to  rage  the  ris- 
ing young  men  who  have  reached  power  by  sheei  force  of  merit. 
Between  these  self-made  men,  whose  minds  have  been  expanded  by 
contact  with  the  outer  world,  and  the  high  nobles  nursed  in  the  at- 
mosphere of  immemorial  antiquity,  and  claiming  descent  from  the 
gods,  an  estrangement  that  at  times  seems  irreconcilable  has  grown. 
As  the  chasm  between  the  forms  and  spirit  of  the  past  and  the  pres- 
ent widens,  as  the  modern  claims  jostle  the  ancient  traditions,  as  vig- 
orous parvenuism  challenges  effete  antiquity,  the  difficulty  of  harmo- 
nizing these  tendencies  becomes  apparent,  adding  another  to  the  cat- 
alogue of  problems  awaiting  solution  in  Japan.  I  have  heard  even 
high  officers  under  the  Government  make  the  complaint  I  have  indi- 
cated against  their  superiors ;  but  I  doubt  not  that  native  patience 
and  patriotism  will  heal  the  wound,  though  the  body  politic  must 
suffer  long. 

The  kuge,  or  court  nobles,  sprung  from  mikados.  From  the  first, 
polygamy  was  common  among  both  aborigines  and  conquerors.  The 
emperor  had  his  harem  of  many  beauties  who  shared  his  couch.  In 
very  ancient  times,  as  early  as  Jimmu,  it  was  the  custom  to  choose 
one  woman,  called  kogo,  who  was  wife  or  empress  in  the  sense  of  re- 
ceiving special  honor,  and  of  having  her  offspring  most  likely  to  suc- 
ceed to  the  throne.  In  addition  to  the  wife,  the  mikado  had  twelve 
concubines,  whose  offspring  might  fill  the  throne  in  case  of  failure  of 
issue  by  the  wife.  To  guard  still  further  against  desinence,  four  fam- 
ilies of  imperial  descent  were  afterward  set  apart,  from  which  an  heir 


THE  THRONE  AND   THE  NOBLES.  109 

to  the  throne  or  ;i  Imsband  of  the  mikado's  daughter  might  be  sought. 
In  either  case  the  chosen  one  became  mikado.  Only  those  sons, 
brothers,  or  grandsons  of  the  sovereign,  to  whom  the  title  was  spe- 
cially granted  by  patent,  were  called  princes  of  the  blood.  There 
were  five  grades  of  these.  Surnames  were  anciently  unknown  in  Ja- 
pan;  individuals  only  having  distinguishing  appellatives.  In  415, 
families  were  first  distinguished  by  special  names,  usually  after  those 
of  places.  Younger  sons  of  mikados  took  surnames  and  founded  ca- 
det families.  The  most  famous  in  the  Japanese  peerage  are  given 
below.  By  long  custom  it  came  to  pass  that  each  particular  family 
held  the  monopoly  of  some  one  high  office  as  its  prerogative.  The 
Nakatomi  family  was  formerly  charged  with  the  ceremonies  of  Shinto, 
and  religious  offices  became  hereditary  in  that  family.  The  Fujiwara 
(Wistaria  meadow)  family  is  the  most  illustrious  in  all  Japan.  It  was 
founded  by  Kamatari,  who  was  regent  of  the  empire  (a.d.  645-649), 
who  was  said  to  have  been  descended  from  Ame  no  ko  yane  no 
mikoto,  the  servant  of  the  grandfather  of  Jimniu.  The  influence  of 
this  family  on  the  destinies  of  Japan,  and  the  prominent  part  it  has 
played  in  history,  will  be  fully  seen.  At  present  ninety-five  of  the 
one  hundred  and  fifty-five  families  of  kuge  are  of  Fujiwara  name  and 
descent.  The  office  of  Kuambaku,  or  Regent,  the  highest  to  which  a 
subject  could  attain,  was  held  by  members  of  this  family  exclusively. 
The  Sugawara  family,  of  which  six  families  of  kuge  are  descendants, 
is  nearly  as  old  as  the  Fujiwara.  Its  members  have  been  noted  for 
scholarship  and  learning,  and  as  teachers  and  lecturers  on  religion. 

The  Taira  family  was  founded  by  Takamochi,  great  grandson  of 
the  Emperor  Kuammu  (a.d.  782-805),  and  became  prominent  as  the 
great  military  vassals  of  the  mikado.  But  five  kuge  families  claim 
descent  from  the  survivors. 

The  Minamoto  family  was  founded  by  Tsunemoto,  grandson  of 
the  Emperor  Seiwa  (839-880).  They  were  the  rivals  of  the  Taira. 
Seventeen  families  of  kuge  are  descended  from  this  old  stock.  The 
office  of  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun,  or  Barbarian-chastising  Great  General,  was 
monopolized  by  the  Mijiamoto,  and,  later,  by  other  branches  of  the 
stock,  named  Ashikaga  and  Tokugawa. 

Though  so  many  offices  were  created  in  the  seventh  century,  the 
kuge  were  sufficiently  numerous  to  fill  them.  The  members  of  the 
Fujiwara  family  gradually  absorbed  the  majority,  until  almost  all  of 
the  important  ones  at  court,  and  the  governorships  of  many  provinces, 
were  filled  by  them.      When  vacancies  occurred,  no   question  was 


110  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

raised  as  to  this  or  that  man's  fitness  for  the  position :  it  was  simply 
one  of  liigh  descent,  and  a  man  of  Fujiwara  blood  was  sure  to  get  the 
appointment,  whether  he  had  abilities  or  not.  This  family,  in  spite 
of  its  illustrious  name  and  deeds,  are  to  be  credited  with  the  forma- 
tion of  a  "  ring "  around  the  mikado,  which  his  people  could  not 
break,  and  with  the  creation  of  one  of  the  most  accursed  systems  of 
nepotism  ever  seen  in  any  country.  Proceeding  step  by  step,  with 
craft  and  signal  ability,  they  gradually  obtained  the  administration  of 
the  government  in  the  mikado's  name.  Formerly  it  had  been  the 
privilege  of  every  subject  to  petition  the  sovereign.  The  Fujiwara 
ministers  gradually  assumed  the  right  to  open  all  such  petitions,  and 
decide  upon  them.  They  also  secured  the  appointment  of  younger 
sons,  brothers,  nephews,  and  kinsmen  to  all  the  important  positions. 
They  based  their  hold  on  the  throne  itself  by  marrying  their  daugh- 
ters to  the  mikado,  whose  will  was  thus  bent  to  their  own  designs. 
For  centuries  the  empresses  were  chiefly  of  Fujiwara  blood.  In  this 
way,  having  completely  isolated  the  sovereign,  they  became  the  virtual 
rulers  of  the  country  and  the  proprietors  of  the  throne,  and  dictated 
as  to  who  should  be  made  emperor.  Every  new  office,  as  fast  as  cre- 
ated, was  filled  by  them.  In  the  year  888,  the  title  of  Kuambaku 
(literally,  "  the  bolt  inside  the  gate,"  but  meaning  "  to  represent  to 
the  mikado  ")  was  first  used  and  bestowed  on  a  Fujiwara  noble.  The 
Kuambaku  was  the  highest  subject  in  the  empire.  He  was  regent 
during  the  minority  of  the  emperor,  or  when  an  empress  filled  the 
throne.  The  office  of  Kuambaku,  first  filled  by  Fujiwara  Mototsune, 
became  hereditary  in  the  family,  thus  making  them  all  powerful.  In 
time  the  Fujiwaras,  who  had  increased  to  the  proportions  of  a  great 
clan,  were  divided  into  five  branches  called  the  Sekke,  or  Regent  fam- 
ilies, named  Konoye,  Kujo,  Nijo,  Ichijo,  and  Takadzukasa. 

So  long  as  the  succession  to  the  throne  was  so  indefinite,  and  on 
such  a  wide  basis,  it  was  easy  for  this  powerful  family  to  choose  the 
heir  whenever  the  throne  was  empty,  as  it  was  in  their  power  to  make 
it  empty  when  it  so  suited  them,  by  compelling  the  mikado  to  abdicate. 

In  A.D.  794  the  capital  was  removed  to  Kioto,  seven  miles  from 
Lake  Biwa,  and  there  permanently  located.  Before  that  time  it  was 
at  Kashiwabara,  at  Nara,*  or  at  some  place  in  the  Home  Provinces 


*  The  ancient  town  of  Nara,  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  all  Jap;in,  lies  about 
twenty  miles  due  east  of  Ozaka,  in  Yamato.  The  town  and  neighborhood  abound 
with  antiquities,  mikado's  tombs,  grand  old  temples,  and  colossal  images  of 
Buddha.     Seven  sovereigns,  of  whom  four  were  females,  ruled  at  Nara  from  a.d. 


THE  THRONE  AND   THE  NOBLES.  Ill 

{kinai)  of  Yamato,  Yamashiro,  or  Settsu.  So  long  as  the  course  of 
empire  was  identified  with  that  of  a  central  military  chief,  who  was 
the  ruler  of  a  few  provinces  and  suzerain  of  tributaries,  requiring  him 
to  be  often  in  camp  or  on  the  march,  government  was  by  the  sword 
rather  than  by  the  sceptre,  and  the  permanent  location  of  a  capi- 
tal was  unnecessary.  As  the  area  of  dominion  increased  and  became 
more  settled  the  government  business  grew  apace,  in  amount  and 
complexity,  and  division  of  labor  was  imperative,  and  a  permanent 
capital  Avas  of  prime  importance.  The  choice  was  most  felicitous. 
The  ancient  city  of  Heianjo,  seven  miles  south-west  of  the  southern 
end  of  Lake  Biwa,  was  chosen.  The  Japanese  word  meaning  capital, 
or  large  city,  is  miako,  of  which  kid  or  kioto  is  the  Chinese  equiva- 
lent. The  name  Heianjo  soon  fell  into  disuse,  the  people  speaking  of 
the  city  as  the  miako.  Even  this  term  gave  way  in  popular  usage  to 
Kioto.  Miako  is  now  chiefly  used  in  poetry,  while  the  name  most 
generally  applied  has  been  and  is  Kioto,  the  miako  by  excellence. 
Kioto  remained  the  capital  of  Japan  until  1868,  when  the  miako  was 
removed  to  Yedo,  which  city  having  become  the  kio,  was  re-named 
Tokio,  or  Eastern  capital.  The  name  Yedo  is  no  longer  in  use  among 
the  Japanese.  No  more  eligible  site  could  have  been  chosen  for  the 
purpose.  Kioto  lies  not  mathematically,  but  geographically  and  prac- 
tically in  respect  of  the  distribution  of  population  and  habitable  area, 
in  the  centre  of  Japan.  It  is  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  narrowest 
neck  of  land  between  the  Sea  of  Japan  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It 
lies  at  the  foot,  and  stands  like  a  gate  between  the  great  mountain 
ranges,  diverging  north  and  south,  or  east  and  west.  Its  situation  at 
the  base  of  the  great  central  lake  of  Biwa,  or  Omi,  forty  miles  from 
whose  northern  point  is  the  harbor  and  sea-port  of  Tsuruga,  makes  it 

708-782.  Their  reigns  were  prosperous  and  glorious,  and  were  distinguished  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  arts,  literature,  and  religion.  Here,  in  711,  the  Kojiki  was 
written,  and  in  713,  by  orders  of  the  imperial  court,  sent  to  all  the  governors  of 
provinces ;  a  book,  in  sixty-six  volumes,  descriptive  of  the  provinces,  cities,  mount- 
ains, rivers,  valleys,  and  plains,  plants,  trees,  birds,  and  quadrupeds,  was  begun, 
and  finished  in  1634.  Only  fragments  of  this  fine  work  are  now  extant.  In  the 
period  708-715  copper  was  discovered.  In  739,  the  colossal  gilded  copper  image 
of  Buddha,  fifty-three  feet  high,  was  cast  and  set  up.  Many  envoys  from  China, 
and  Buddhist  priests  from  Siam,  India,  and  China,  visited  Nara,  one  of  the  lat- 
ter bringing  a  library  of  five  thousand  volumes  of  Buddhist  literature.  In  749 
it  was  forbidden  by  imperial  edict  to  slaughter  animals  in  Japan.  A  large  col- 
lection of  the  personal  and  household  articles  in  the  possession  of  the  mikados 
of  the  eighth  century  was  exhibited  at  Nara  in  June,  1875,  the  inventories  made 
at  that  ancient  period  being  accessible  for  comparison. 


112  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

acccessible  to  the  ships  coming  from  the  entire  west  coast  and  from 
Yezo.  On  the  west  and  east  the  natural  mountain  roads  and  passes 
slope  down  and  open  toward  it.  Forty  miles  to  the  south  are  the 
great  harbors  lining  the  bay  of  Ozaka,  the  haven  of  all  ships  from 
northern  or  southern  points  of  the  eastern  coast.  Easy  river  com- 
munications connect  Ozaka  with  Kioto. 

The  mialco  is  beautiful  for  situation,  the  joy  of  the  whole  empire 
of  Japan.  The  tone  of  reverential  tenderness,  of  exulting  joy,  the 
sparkling  of  the  eyes  with  which  Japanese  invariably  speak  of  Kioto, 
witness  to  the  fact  of  its  natural  beauty,  its  sacred  and  classic  associa- 
tions, and  its  place  in  the  affections  of  the  people.  The  city  stands 
on  an  elliptical  plain  walled  in  on  all  sides  by  evergreen  hills  and' 
mountains,  like  the  floor  of  a  huge  flattened  crater  no  longer  choked 
with  lava,  but  mantled  with  flowers.  On  the  south  the  river  Kamo, 
and  on  the  north,  east,  and  west,  flowing  in  crystal  clearness,  the  afiiu- 
ents  of  Kamo  curve  around  the  city,  nearly  encircle  it,  uniting  at  the 
south-west  to  form  the  Yodo  River.  Through  the  centre  and  in  sev- 
eral of  the  streets  the  branches  of  the  river  flow,  giving  a  feeling  of 
grateful  coolness  in  the  heats  of  summer,  and  is  the  source  of  the 
cleanliness  characteristic  of  Kioto.  The  streets  run  parallel  and  cross 
at  right  angles,  and  the  whole  plan  of  the  city  is  excellent.  The 
mikado's  palace  is  situated  in  the  north-eastern  quarter.  Art  and 
nature  are  wedded  in  beauty.  The  monotony  of  the  clean  squares 
is  broken  by  numerous  groves,  temples,  monasteries,  and  cemeteries. 
On  the  mountain  overlooking  the  city  peep  out  pagodas  and  shrines. 
The  hill-slopes  blossom  with  gardens.  The  suburbs  are  places  of  de- 
light and  loveliness.  The  blue  Lake  of  Biwa,  the  tea-plantations  of 
Uji,  the  thousand  chosen  resorts  of  picnic  groups  in  the  adjacent 
shady  hills,  the  resorts  for  ramblers,  the  leafy  walks  for  the  poet,  the 
groves  for  the  meditative  student  or  the  pious  monk,  the  thousand 
historical  and  holy  associations  invest  Kioto  with  an  interest  attaching 
to  no  other  place  in  Japan,  Here,  or  in  its  vicinity,  have  dwelt  for 
seventeen  centuries  the  mikados  of  Japan. 

As  the  children  and  descendants  of  the  mikados  increased  at  the 
capital  there  was  formed  the  material  for  classes  of  nobility.  It  was 
to  the  interest  of  these  nobles  to  cherish  with  pride  their  traditions 
of  divine  descent.  Their  studied  exaltation  of  the  mikado  as  their 
head  was  the  natural  consequence.  The  respect  and  deference  of  dis- 
tant tributary  princes  wishing  to  obtain  and  preserve  favor  at  court 
served  only  to  increase  the  honor  of  these  nobles  of  the  capital.     The 


THE  THRONE  AND  THE  NOBLES.  113 

fealty  of  the  distant  princes  was  measured  not  only  by  their  trib- 
ute and  military  assistance,  but  by  their  close  conformity  to  the  cus- 
toms of  the  miako,  which  naturally  became  the  centre  of  learning  and 
civilization. 

Previous  to  the  era  of  Sujin,  the  observance  of  the  time  of  begin- 
ning the  new  year,  as  well  as  the  celebration  of  the  sacred  festivals  to 
the  gods,  was  not  the  same  throughout  the  provinces.  The  acceptance 
of  a  uniform  calendar  promulgated  from  the  capital  was  then,  as  now, 
a  sign  of  loyalty  of  far  greater  significance  than  would  appear  to  us 
at  first  sight.  This  was  forcibly  shown  in  Yokohama,  as  late  as  18V2, 
after  the  mikado  had  abolished  the  lunar,  and  ordered  the  use  of 
the  solar,  or  Gregorian,  calendar  in  his  dominions.  The  resident  Chi- 
nese, in  an  incendiary  document,  which  was  audaciously  posted  on 
the  gates  of  the  Japanese  magistrate's  office,  denounced  the  Japanese 
for  having  thus  signified,  by  the  adoption  of  the  barbarians'  time, 
that  they  had  yielded  themselves  up  to  be  the  slaves  of  the  "  foreign 
devils." 

The  mikado  has  no  family  name.  He  needs  none,  because  his 
dynasty  never  changes.  Being  above  ordinary  mortals,  no  name  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  him  from  men.  He  need  be  personally  dis- 
tinguished only  from  the  gods.  When  he  dies,  he  will  enter  the 
company  of  the  gods.  He  is  deified  under  some  name,  with  Tenno 
(son,  or  king,  of  heaven)  affixed.  It  was  not  proper  (until  1872, 
when  the  custom  was  abrogated)  for  ordinary  people  to  pronounce 
the  name  of  the  living  mikado  aloud,  or  to  write  it  in  full :  a  stroke 
should  be  left  out  of  each  of  the  characters. 

Previous  to  the  general  use  of  Chinese  writing,  the  mikados,  about 
fifty  in  all,  had  long  names  ending  in  "  mikoto,"  a  term  of  respect  equiv- 
alent to  "  augustness,"  and  quite  similar  to  those  applied  to  the  gods. 
These  extremely  long  names,  now  so  unmanageable  to  foreign,  and 
even  to  modern  native,  tongues,  gave  place  in  popular  use  to  the  great- 
ly abbreviated  Chinese  equivalents.  A  complete  calendar  of  the  names 
of  the  gods  and  goddesses,  mikados  and  empresses  and  heroes,  was 
made  out  in  Chinese  characters.  It  is  so  much  more  convenient  to 
use  these,  that  I  have  inserted  them  in  the  text,  even  though  to  do  so 
seems  in  many  an  instance  an  anachronism.  The  difference  in  learned 
length  and  thundering  sound  of  the  Japanese  and  the  Chinese  form 
of  some  of  these  names  will  be  easily  seen  and  fully  appreciated  after 
a  glance,  by  the  Occidental  reader  who  is  terrified  at  the  uncouthness 
of  both,  or  who  fears  to  trust  his  vocal  organs  to  attempt  their  pro- 


114  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

nunciation.  Amaterasu  5  mikami  becomes  Ten  Sho  Dai  Jin ;  Oki- 
naga  Taraslii  Hime  becomes  Jingu  Kogo. 

After  the  Chinese  writing  became  fashionable,  the  term  mikoto 
was  dropped.  The  mikados  after  death  received  a  different  name 
from  that  used  when  living :  thus  Kan  Yamato  Iware  hiko  no  mikoto 
became,  posthumously,  Jimmu  Tenno. 

The  Golden  Age  of  the  mikado's  power  ceased  after  the  introduc- 
tion of  Buddhism  and  the  Chinese  system  of  officialdom.  The  de- 
cadence of  his  personal  power  began,  and  steadily  continued.  Many 
of  the  high  ministers  at  court  became  Buddhists,  as  well  as  the  mi- 
kados. It  now  began  to  be  a  custom  for  the  emperors  to  abdicate 
after  short  reigns,  shave  off  their  hair  in  token  of  renunciation  of 
the  world,  become  monks,  and  retire  from  active  life,  taking  the  title 
Ho-o  {ho,  law  of  Buddha;  o,  mikado = cloistered  emperor).  During 
the  eighth  century,  while  priests  were  multiplying,  and  monasteries 
were  everywhere  being  established,  the  court  was  the  chief  propaganda. 
The  courtiers  vied  with  each  other  in  holy  zeal  and  study  of  the  sacred 
books  of  India,  while  the  minds  of  the  empresses  and  boy-emperors 
were  occupied  with  schemes  for  the  advancement  of  Buddhism.  In 
741,  the  erection  of  two  great  temples,  and  of  a  seven-storied  pagoda 
in  each  province,  was  ordered.  The  abdication  after  short  reigns 
made  the  mikados  mere  puppets  of  the  ministers  and  courtiers.  In- 
stead of  warriors  braving  discomforts  of  the  camp,  leading  armies  in 
battle,  or  fighting  savages,  the  chief  rulers  of  the  empire  abdicated, 
after  short  reigns,  to  retire  into  monasteries,  or  give  themselves  up  to 
license.  This  evil  state  of  affairs  continued,  until,  in  later  centuries, 
effeminate  men,  steeped  in  sensual  delights,  or  silly  boys,  who  droned 
away  their  lives  in  empty  pomp  and  idle  luxury,  or  became  the  tools 
of  monks,  filled  the  throne.  Meanwhile  the  administration  of  the 
empire  from  the  capital  declined,  while  the  influence  of  the  military 
classes  increased.  As  the  mikado's  actual  power  grew  weaker,  his 
nominal  importance  increased.  He  was  surrounded  by  a  hedge  of 
etiquette  that  secluded  him  from  the  outer  world.  He  never  appeared 
in  public.  His  subjects,  except  his  wife  and  concubines  and  highest 
ministers,  never  saw  his  face.  He  sat  on  a  throne  of  mats  behind  a 
curtain.  His  feet  were  never  allowed  to  touch  the  earth.  When  he 
went  abroad  in  the  city,  he  rode  in  a  car  closely  curtained,  and  drawn 
by  bullocks.  The  relation  of  emperor  and  subject  thus  grew  mythic- 
al, and  the  way  was  paved  for  some  bold  usurper  to  seize  the  actual- 
ity of  power,  while  the  name  remained  sacred  and  inviolate. 


THE  BEGINNING   OF  MILITARY  DOMINATION.  115 


XII. 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  MILITARY  DOMINATION 

With  rank,  place,  and  power  as  the  prizes,  there  were  not  want- 
ing rival  contestants  to  dispute  the  monopoly  of  the  Fujiwara.  The 
prosperity  and  domineering  pride  of  the  scions  of  this  ancient  house, 
instead  of  overawing  those  of  younger  families  that  were  forming  in 
the  capital,  served  only  as  spurs  to  their  pride  and  determination  to 
share  the  highest  gifts  of  the  sovereign.  It  may  be  easily  supposed 
that  the  Fujiwara  did  not  attain  the  summit  of  their  power  without 
the  sacrifice  of  many  a  rival  aspirant.  The  looseness  of  the  marriage 
tie,  the  intensity  of  ambition,  the  greatness  of  the  prize — the  throne 
itself  —  made  the  court  ever  the  fruitful  soil  of  intrigue,  jealousies, 
proscription,  and  even  the  use  of  poison  and  the  dagger.  The  fate 
of  many  a  noble  victim  thus  sacrificed  on  the  altars  of  jealousy  and 
revenge  forms  the  subject  of  the  most  pathetic  passages  of  the  Jap- 
anese historians,  and  the  tear-compelling  scenes  of  the  romance  and 
the  drama.  The  increase  of  families  was  the  increase  of  feuds.  Ar- 
rogance and  pride  were  matched  by  craft  and  subtlety  that  finally  led 
to  quarrels  which  rent  the  nation,  to  civil  war,  and  to  the  almost  utter 
extinction  of  one  of  the  great  families. 

The  Sugawara  were  the  most  ancient  rivals  of  the  Fujiwara.  The 
most  illustrious  victim  of  court  intrigue  bearing  this  name  was  Suga- 
wara Michizane.  This  polished  courtier,  the  Beauclerc  of  his  age, 
had,  by  the  force  of  his  talents  and  learning,  risen  to  the  position  of 
inner  great  minister.  As  a  scholar,  he  ranked  among  the  highest  of 
his  age.  At  different  periods  of  his  life  he  wrote,  or  compiled,  from 
the  oldest  records  various  histories,  some  of  which  are  still  extant. 
His  industry  and  ability  did  not,  however,  exempt  him  from  the  jeal- 
ous annoyances  of  the  Fujiwara  courtiers,  who  imbittered  his  life  by 
poisoning  the  minds  of  the  emperor  and  courtiers  against  him.  One 
of  them,  Tokihira,  secured  an  edict  banishing  him  to  Kiushiu.  Here, 
in  the  horrors  of  poverty  and  exile,  he  endeavored  to  get  a  petition 
to  the  mikado,  but  failed  to  do  so,  and  starved  to  death,  on  the  25th 


116  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

day  of  the  Second  month,  903.  Michizane  is  now  known  by  his 
posthumous  name  of  Tenjin.  Many  temples  have  been  erected  in  his 
honor,  and  students  worship  his  spirit,  as  the  patron  god  of  letters 
and  literature.  Children  at  school  pray  to  him  that  they  may  become 
2:ood  writers,  and  win  success  in  study.  Some  of  his  descendants  are 
still  living. 

When  Michizane  died,  the  Sugawara  were  no  longer  to  be  dreaded 
as  a  rival  family.  Another  brood  were  springing  up,  who  were  des- 
tined to  become  the  most  formidable  rivals  of  the  Fujiwara.  More 
than  a  century  before,  one  of  the  concubines,  or  extra  wives,  of  the 
Emperor  Kuammu  had  borne  a  son,  who,  having  talents  as  well  as  im- 
perial blood,  rose  to  be  head  of  the  Board  of  Civil  Office,  and  master 
of  court  ceremonies  —  an  office  similar  to  the  lord  high  chamberlain 
of  England.*  To  his  grandson  Takamochi  was  given  the  surname  of 
Taira  in  889 — one  hundred  and  one  years  before  the  banishment  of 
Michizane. 

The  civil  offices  being  already  monopolized  by  the  Fujiwara,  the 
members  of  the  family  of  Taira  early  showed  a  fondness  and  special 
fitness  for  military  life,  which,  with  their  experience,  made  them  most 
eligible  to  the  commands  of  military  expeditions.  The  Fujiwara  had 
become  wholly  wedded  to  palace  life,  and  preferred  the  ease  and  lux- 
ury of  the  court  to  the  discomforts  of  the  camp  and  the  dangers  of 
the  battle-field.  Hence  the  shoguns,  or  generals,  were  invariably  ap- 
pointed among  sons  of  the  Taira  or  the  Minamoto,  both  of  which 
families  became  the  military  vassals  of  the  crown.  While  the  men 
led  the  armies,  fought  the  foe,  and  returned  in  triumph,  the  mothers 
at  home  fired  the  minds  of  their  sons  with  the  recital  of  the  deeds  of 
their  fathers.  Thus  bred  to  arms,  inured  to  war,  and  living  chiefly  in 
the  camp,  a  hardy  race  of  warriors  grew  up  and  formed  the  military 
caste.  So  long  as  the  Taira  or  Minamoto  leaders  were  content  with 
war  and  its  glory,  there  was  no  reason  for  the  Fujiwara  to  fear  dan- 
ger from  them  as  rivals  at  court.  But  in  times  of  peace  and  inaction, 
the  minds  of  these  men  of  war  longed  to  share  in  the  spoils  of  peace ; 
or,  having  no  more  enemies  to  conquer,  their  energies  were  turned 
against  their  fellows.  The  peculiar  basis  of  the  imperial  succession 
opened  an  equally  wide  field  for  the  play  of  female  ambition ;  and 

*  Princes  of  the  blood  were  eligible  to  the  following  offices :  Minister  of  the 
imperial  household,  lord  high  chamberlain,  minister  of  war,  president  of  the 
censorate,  and  the  governorships  of  Kodznke,  Kadznsa,  and  Hitachi.  The  act- 
ual duties  of  the  office  were,  however,  performed  by  inferior  officials. 


THE  BEGINNING   OF  MILITARY  DOMINATION.  117 

while  Taira  and  Minamoto  generals  lusted  after  the  high  offices  held 
by  Fujiwara  courtiers,  Taira  and  Minamoto  ladies  aspired  to  become 
empresses,  or  at  least  imperial  concubines,  where  they  might,  for  the 
glory  of  their  family,  beard  the  dragon  of  power  in  his  own  den. 
They  had  so  far  increased  in  influence  at  court,  that  in  1008,  the 
wife  of  the  boy-emperor,  Ichijo,  was  chosen  from  the  house  of  Mi- 
namoto. 

The  Minamoto  family,  or,  as  the  Chinese  characters  express  the 
name,  Genji,  w^as  founded  by  Tsunemoto,  the  grandson  of  Seiwa 
(859-880)  and  son  of  the  minister  of  war.  His  great-grandson  Yori- 
yoshi  became  a  shogun,  and  was  sent  to  fight  the  Ainos ;  and  the 
half-breeds,  or  rebels  of  mixed  Aino  and  Japanese  blood,  in  the  east 
and  extreme  north  of  Hondo.  Yoriyoshi's  son,  Yoshiiye,  followed 
his  father  in  arms,  and  was  likewise  made  a  shogun.  So  terrible  was 
Yoshiiye  in  battle  that  he  was  called  Hachiman  taro.  The  name  Taro 
is  given  to  the  first-born  son.  Hachiman  is  the  Buddhist  form  of 
Ojin,  the  deified  son  of  Jingu  Kogo,  and  the  patron  of  warriors,  or 
god  of  war.  After  long  years  of  fighting,  he  completely  tranquilized 
the  provinces  of  the  Kuanto.    His  great-grandson  Yoshitomo*  became 

*  The  family  name  {uji)  precedes  the  personal,  or  what  we  call  the  baptismal 
or  Christian  name.  Thus  the  full  name  of  the  boy  Kotaro,  son  of  Mr.  Ota, 
would  be  Ota  Kotaro.  Family  names  nearly  always  have  a  topographical  mean- 
ing, having  been  talien  from  names  of  streets,  villages,  districts,  rivers,  mount- 
ains, etc.  The  following  are  specimens,  taken  from  the  register  of  my  students 
in  the  Imperial  College  in  Tokio,  many  of  whom  are  descendants  of  the  illustri- 
ous personages  mentioned  in  this  book,  or  in  Japanese  history.  The  great  bulk 
of  the  Samurai  claim  descent  from  less  than  a  hundred  original  fomilies:  Plain- 
village,  Crane -slope.  Hill -village.  Middle -mountain.  Mountain -foot,  Grove -en- 
trance. High-bridge,  East-river,  River-point,  Garden-mountain,  River-meadow, 
Pine-village,  Great-tree,  Pine-well,  Shrine-promontory,  Cherry-well,  Cedar-bay, 
Lower-field,  Stone-pine,  Front-field,  Bamboo-bridge,  Large-island,  Happy-field, 
Shrine-plain,  Temple-island,  Hand-island,  North-village,  etc.,  etc.  It  was  not  the 
custom  to  have  godparents,  or  namesakes,  in  our  sense  of  these  words.  Mid- 
dle names  were  not  given  or  used,  each  person  having  but  a  family  and  a  person- 
al name.  Neither  could  there  be  a  senior  and  junior  of  exactly  the  same  name 
iu  the  same  familj-,  as  with  us.  The  father  usually  bestowed  on  his  son  half  of 
his  name ;  that  is,  he  gave  him  one  of  the  Chinese  characters  with  which  his  own 
was  written.  Thus,  Toriyoshi  named  his  first-bom  son  Yoshiiyd,  i.  e.,  Yoshi 
(good)  and  iy6  (houae  or  family).  Yoshiiye  had  six  sons,  named,  respectively, 
Yoshimune,  Yoshichika,  Yoshikuni,  Yoshitada,  Yoshitoki,  and  Yoshitaka.  The 
Taira  nobles  retained  the  mori  in  Tadamori,  in  their  own  personal  names.  Fe- 
male names  were  borrowed  from  those  of  beautiful  and  attractive  objects  or  of 
auspicious  omens,  and  were  usually  not  changed  at  marriage  or  throughout  life. 
Males  made  use  during  life  of  a  number  of  appellations  given  them,  or  assumed 
on.  the  occasions  of  birth,  reaching  adult  age,  oflacial  promotion,  change  of  life; 


118 


THE  MIKADO' H  EMPIBE. 


the  greatest  rival  of  the  Taira,  and  the  father  of  Yoritomo,  one  of  the 
ablest  men  in  Japanese  history.  The  star  of  Minamoto  was  in  the 
ascendant. 

Meanwhile  the  Taira  shoguns,  who  had  the  military  oversight  of 
the  South  and  West,  achieved  a  succession  of  brilliant  victories.  As 
a  reward  for  his  services,  the  court  bestowed  the  island  of  Tsushima 
on  Tadamori,  the  head  of  the  house.  It  being  a  time  of  peace,  Ta- 
damori  came  to  Ki5to  to  live,  and  while  at  court  had  a  liaison  with 
one  of  the  palace  lady  attendants,  whom  he  afterward  married.  The 
fruit  of  this  union  was  a  son,  who  grew  to  be  a  man  of  stout  physique. 
In  boyhood  he  gave  equal  indications  of  his  future  greatness  and  his 


View  ill  the  Inliiiid  Sea. 


future  arrogance.  He  wore  unusually  high  clogs — the  Japanese  equiv- 
alent for  "  riding  a  high  horse."  His  fellows  gave  the  strutting  roist- 
erer the  nickname  of  koheda  ("high  clogs").  Being  the  son  of  a 
soldier,  he  had  abundant  opportunity  to  display  his  valor.      At  this 


or  on  account  of  special  events,  entering  a  monastery,  and  after  death.  This  cus- 
tom as  a  police  measure,  as  well  as  for  other  reasons,  was  abolished  in  1872.  Oft- 
en a  superior  rewarded  an  inferior  by  bestowing  upon  him  a  new  name,  or  by  al- 
lowing him  to  incorporate  one  of  the  syllables  expressed  vividly  to  the  eye  by  a 
Chinese  character,  of  the  superior's  name.  It  was  never  the  custom  to  name 
children  after  great  men,  as  we  do  after  our  national  heroes.  Formerly  the  gen- 
itive particle  no  (of)  was  used;  as  Minamoto  no  Yoritomo  means  Yoritomo  of 
the  Minamoto  family.  In  1872,  the  peasantry  were  allowed  to  have  family  as 
well  as  individual  names. 


THE  BEOINNINO   OF  MILITARY  DOMINATION.  119 

time  the  seas  swarmed  with  pirates,  who  rav^aged  the  coasts  and  were 
the  scourge  of  Corea  as  well  as  Japan.  Kiyomori,  a  boy  full  of  fire 
and  energy,  thirsting  for  fame,  asked  to  be  sent  against  the  pirates. 
At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  cruised  in  the  Sea  of  lyo,  or  the  Suwo 
Nada,  which  is  part  of  the  Inland  Sea,  a  sheet  of  water  extremely 
beautiful  in  itself,  and  worthy,  in  a  high  degree,  to  be  called  the 
Mediterranean  of  Japan.  While  on  shipboard,  he  made  himself  a 
name  by  attacking  and  capturing  a  ship  full  of  the  most  desperate 
villains,  and  by  destroying  their  lurking-place.  His  early  manhood 
was  spent  alternately  in  the  capital  and  in  service  in  the  South.  In 
1153,  at  the  age  of  thirty-six,  he  succeeded  his  father  as  minister  of 
justice.  The  two  families  of  Minamoto  and  Taira,  who  had  together 
emerged  from  comparative  obscurity  to  fame,  place,  and  honor,  had 
dwelt  peacefully  together  in  Kioto,  or  had  been  friendly  rivals  as  sol- 
diers in  a  common  cause  on  distant  battle-fields,  until  the  year  1156, 
from  which  time  they  became  implacable  enemies.  In  that  year  the 
first  battle  was  fought  between  the  adherents  of  two  rival  claimants 
of  the  throne.  The  Taira  party  was  successful,  and  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  imperial  palace,  which  gave  them  the  supreme  advantage 
and  prestige  which  have  ever  since  been  possessed  by  the  leader  or 
party  in  whose  hands  the  mikado  is.  The  whole  administration  of 
the  empire  was  now  at  Kiyomori's  disposal.  The  emperor,  who  thus 
owed  his  elevation  to  the  Taira,  made  them  the  executors  of  his  poli- 
cy. This  was  the  beginning  of  the  domination  of  the  military  classes 
that  lasted  until  1868.  The  ambition  of  Kiyomori  Avas  now  not  only 
to  advance  himself  to  the  highest  position  possible  for  a  subject  to 
occupy,  but  also  to  raise  the  influence  and  power  of  his  family  to  the 
highest  pitch.  He  further  determined  to  exterminate  the  only  rivals 
whom  he  feared  —  the  Minamoto.  Not  content  with  exercising  the 
military  power,  he  filled  the  oflfices  at  court  with  his  own  relatives, 
carrying  the  policy  of  nepotism  to  a  point  equal  to  that  of  his  rivals, 
the  Fujiwara.  In  1167,  at  the  age  of  fifty  years,  having,  by  his  ener- 
gy and  cunning,  made  himself  the  military  chief  of  the  empire,  hav- 
ing crushed  not  only  the  enemies  of  the  imperial  court,  but  also  his 
own,  and  having  tremendous  influence  with  the  emperor  and  court, 
he  received  the  appointment  of  Dai  Jo  Dai  Jin. 

Kiyomori  was  thus,  virtually,  the  ruler  of  Japan.  In  all  his  meas- 
ures he  was  assisted,  if  not  often  instigated  to  originate  them  by  the 
ex-cmperor,  Go  -  Shirakawa,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1156,  and 
abdicated  in  1159,  but  was  the  chief  manager  of  affairs  during  the 


120  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

reiiT^ns  of  his  son  and  two  grandsons.  This  mikado  was  a  very  im- 
moral man,  and  the  evident  reason  of  his  resigning  was  that  he  might 
abandon  himself  to  debauchery,  and  wield  even  more  actual  power 
than  when  on  the  throne.  In  1169,  he  abdicated,  shaved  off  his  hair, 
and  took  the  title  of  H5-o,  or  "  cloistered  emperor,"  and  became  a 
Buddhist  monk,  professing  to  retire  from  the  world.  In  industrious 
seclusion,  he  granted  the  ranks  and  titles  created  by  his  predecessor 
in  lavish  profusion.  He  thus  exercised,  as  a  monk,  even  more  influ- 
ence than  wdien  in  actual  oflSce.  The  head  of  the  Taira  hesitated  not 
to  use  all  these  rewards  for  his  own  and  his  family's  private  ends. 
In  him  several  offices  were  held  by  one  person.     He  argued  that  as 


View  uear  Hiogo,  from  near  the  Site  of  the  Taira  Palace. 

others  who  had  done  no  great  services  for  court  or  emperor  had 
held  high  offices,  he  who  had  done  so  much  should  get  all  he  could. 
Finally,  neither  court  nor  emperor  could  control  him,  and  he  banished 
kuge.,  and  even  moved  the  capital  and  court  at  his  pleasure.  In 
1168,  the  power  of  the  Taira  family  was  paramount.  Sixty  men  of 
the  house  held  high  offices  at  court,  and  the  lands  from  which  they 
enjoyed  revenue  extended  over  thirty  provinces.  They  had  splendid 
palaces  in  Kioto  and  at  Fukuwara,  where  the  modern  treaty-port  of 
Hiogo  now  stands  overlooking  the  splendid  scenery  of  the  Inland  Sea. 
Hesitating  at  nothing  that  would  add  to  his  glory  or  power,  Kiyo- 
mori,  in  llYl,  imitating  his  predecessors,  made  his  daughter  the  con- 


THE  BEOIXNINO  OF  MILITARY  DOMINATION.  121 

cubine,  and  afterward  tlie  wife,  of  the  Emperor  Takakura,  a  boy  eleven 
years  old.  Of  his  children  one  was  novv  empress,  and  his  two  sons 
were  generals  of  highest  rank.     His  cup  of  power  was  full. 

The  fortunes  of  the  Fujiwara  and  Minamoto  were  under  hopeless 
eclipse,  the  former  having  no  military  power,  the  latter  being  scat- 
tered in  exile.  Yoshitomo,  his  rival,  had  been  killed,  while  in  his  bath, 
by  Osada,  his  own  ti'aitorous  retainer,  who  was  bribed  by  Kiyomori  to 
do  the  deed.  The  head  of  Yoshitomo's  eldest  son  had  fallen  under 
the  sword  at  Kioto,  and  his  younger  sons — the  last  of  the  Minamoto, 
as  he  supposed — were  in  banishment,  or  immured  in  monasteries. 


Tatnetomo  defying  the  Taira  men,  after  sinking  tlieir  Ship.    (From  the  vignette  op 
the  greenback  national-bank  notes,  drawn  by  a  native  artist.) 

The  most  famous  archer,  Minamoto  Tametomo,  took  part  in  many 
of  the  struggles  of  the  two  rival  families.  His  great  strength,  equal 
to  that  of  many  men  (fifty,  according  to  the  legends),  and  the  fact 
that  his  right  arm  was  shorter  than  his  left,  enabled  him  to  draw  a 
bow  which  four  ordinary  warriors  could  not  bend,  and  send  a  shaft 
five  feet  long,  with  enormous  bolt -head.  The  court,  influenced  by 
the  Taira,  banished  him,  in  a  cage,  to  Idzu  (after  cutting  the  muscles 
of  his  arm),  under  a  guard.  He  escaped,  and  fled  to  the  islands  of 
Oshima  and  Hachijo,  and  the  chain  south  of  the  Bay  of  Yedo.  His 
arm  having  healed,  he  ruled  over  the  people,  ordering  them  not  to 
send  tribute  to  Idzu  or  Kioto.  A  fleet  of  boats  was  sent  against 
him,     Tametomo,  on  the  strand  of  Oshima,  sped  a  shaft  at  one  of  the 


122  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

approaching  vessels  that  pierced  the  thin  gunwale  and  sunk  it.  He 
then,  after  a  shout  of  defiance,  shut  himself  up,  set  the  house  on  fire, 
and  killed  himself.  Another  account  declares  that  he  fled  to  the  Liu 
Kiu  Islands,  ruled  over  them,  and  founded  the  family  of  Liu  Kiu 
kings,  being  the  father  of  Sunten,  the  first  historical  ruler  of  this 
group  of  islands.  A  picture  of  this  doughty  warrior  has  been  chosen 
to  adorn  the  greenback  currency  of  the  banks  of  modern  Japan. 

"  Woe  unto  thee,  0  land,  when  thy  king  is  a  child !"  The  mika- 
dos*  during  the  Taira  period  were  nearly  all  children.  Toba  began 
to  reign  at  six,  abdicating  at  seventeen  in  behalf  of  his  son  Shiutoku, 
four  years  old ;  who  at  twenty-four  resigned  in  favor  of  Konoye,  then 
four  years  old.  The  latter  died  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Go-Shirakawa,  who  abdicated  after  three  years  in  favor  of 
Nijo,  sixteen  years  old,  who  died  after  six  years,  when  Rokujo,  one 
year  old,  succeeded.  After  three  years,  Takakura,  eight  years  old, 
ruled  thirteen  years,  resigning  to  Antoku,  then  three  years  of  age. 
It  is  easily  seen  that  the  real  power  lay  nc>t  with  these  boys  and  ba- 
bies, but  with  the  august  wire-pullers  behind  the  throne. 

The  Heike  Monogatari,  or  the  "  Historic  Romance  of  the  Taira,"  is 
one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  many  classic  works  of  fiction  read  by 
all  classes  of  people  in  Japan.  In  this  book  the  chief  events  in  the 
lives,  and  even  the  manners  and  personal  appearance,  of  the  principal 
actors  of  the  times  of  the  Taira  are  seen,  so  that  they  become  more 
than  shadows  of  names,  and  seem  to  live  before  us,  men  of  yesterday. 
The  terms  Heike  and  Genji,  though  Chinese  forms  of  the  names  Taira 
and  Minamoto,  were,  from  their  brevity,  popularly  used  in  preference 
to  the  pure  native,  but  longer,  forms  of  Taira  and  Minamoto. 

*  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  following  chronological  list  of  the  sover- 
eigns of  Japan  is  here  appended.  It  is  based  on  the  list  given  in  the  Nihon  Riya- 
ku  5'7!i  (Abridgment  of  Japanese  History),  Tokio,  1874— a  book  from  which  I  have 
drawn  freely  in  this  work.  The  dates  of  their  reigns,  in  terms  of  the  Gregorian 
calendar,  are  obtained  chiefly  from  a  comparative  almanac  of  Chinese,  Japanese, 
and  Western  dates,  compiled  by  a  learned  native  scholar,  who  brings  down  this 
invaluable  chronological  harmony  to  the  third  day  of  the  Twelfth  month  of  Meiji 
(January  1st,  1874),  when  the  solar  or  Gregorian  calendar  was  adopted  in  Japan. 
The  year  dates  approximate  to  within  a  few  weeks  of  exactness.  The  names  in 
italics  denote  female  sovereigns.  In  two  instances  (37  and  39, 48  and  50),  one  em- 
press reigned  twice,  and  has  two  posthumous  titles.  I  have  put  the  name  of 
Jingu  Kogo  in  the  list,  though  the  Dai  Nihon  Shi  does  not  admit  it,  she  having 
never  been  crowned  or  formally  declared  empress  by  investiture  with  the  regalia 
of  sovereignty.  In  several  cases  the  duration  of  the  reign  was  less  than  a  year. 
The  five  "false  emperors,"  printed  in  black  spaces,  are  omitted  from  this  list. 
Only  the  posthumous  titles  under  vvhicli  the  mikados  were  apotheosized  are  here 


THE  BEGINNING   OF  MILITARY  DOMINATION. 


123 


giveu,  though  their  living  names,  and  those  of  their  parents,  are  printed  in  the 
Nihon  Eiijaku  Shi.  Including  Jingu,  there  were  123  sovereigns.  The  average 
length  of  the  reigns  of  122  was  nearly  twenty-one  years.  There  has  been  but  one 
dynasty  in  Japan.  In  comparison,  the  present  emperor  of  China  is  the  273d,  and 
the  dynasty  the  23d  or  24th. 

CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF  JAPANESE  EMPERORS. 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 


Date  of  Reign. 


Jlmmu 

Suisei , 

Anuei 

Itokn 

Kosho 

Koau 

Korei 

Kogen 

Kuaika 

Sfijin 

Siiiniu , 

Keiko 

Seiniu 

Chiiiai 

Jingu  Kogo 

Ojin 

Nintoku 

Richiu 

Haiisho 

Inkio 

Auko 

Yuriyaku... 

Seiuei 

Keiiso 

__.    Niuken 

26.  Buretsu 

27.  Keitai 

28.  I  Aukan 

29.  Seiikua 

30.  I  Kimniei 

31.  Bidatsu  — 

32.  j  Yomei 

33.  j  Sujnn 

34.  Suiko 

35.  Jomei 

36.  I  Kogioku 

37.  Kotoku 

38.  !  Saimei 

89.    Tenchi 

40.  !  Kobuu 

41.  Temmn 

Jito 

Mornmu 

Gemmid 

Gensho 

Shomu 

Koken 

4S.  [  Juiinin 

49.  !  ShbUiku 

50.  Koiiin 

51.  Kiiarama... 

62.     Heijo 

53.    Saga 

64.    Jiniwa 

55.  Nimmio 

56.  Montoku  . . . 

57.  Seiwa 

58.  Yozei 

59.  I  Koko 

60.  I  Uda 

61.  Daisro 

fi2.    shujakn 


42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 


127 

84 

57 

77 

114 

137 

128 

116 

115 

119 

141 

143 

108 

52 

100 

111 

110 

77 

60 

80 

56 

62 

41 

38 

51 

57 

82 

70 

73 

63 

48 

69 

73 

75 

49 

68 

59 

58 
25 
65 
58 
25 
61 
69 
56 
53 
33 

73 
70 
51 
67 
55 
41 
32 
31 
82 
58 
65 
46 
30 


660-585  B.o 

581-549  " 

548-611  " 

510-477  " 

475-393  " 

392-291  " 

290-215  " 

214-158  " 

157-  98  " 

97-  30  " 

B.C.  to  70  A.D. 

71-130  " 

131-191  " 

192-200  " 

201-269  " 

270-310  " 

313-399  " 

400-405  " 

406-411  " 

412-453  " 

454-456  " 

457-479  " 

480-184  " 

4S5-487  " 

488-498  " 

499-606  " 

507-531  " 

634-535  " 

53(5-539  " 

540-571  " 

572-585  " 

5S6-5S7  " 

6SS-592  " 

593-628  " 

629-641  " 

642-644  " 

645-654  " 

655-061  " 

668-672  " 

672-672  " 

673-686  " 

690-696  ■' 

697-707  " 

708-714  " 

715-723  " 

724-748  " 

749-758  " 

769-764  " 

765-769  " 

770-781  " 

782-805  " 

806-809  " 

810-823  " 

824-833  " 

834-^60  " 

851-868  " 

8.^9-876  " 

877-884  " 

885-887  " 

888-897  " 

898-930  " 

931-946  " 


63. 

64. 

66. 

66. 

67. 

68. 

69. 

70. 

71. 

72. 

73. 

74. 

75. 

76. 

77. 

78. 

79. 

80. 

81. 

82. 

83. 

84. 

85. 

80. 

87. 

88. 

89. 

90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
111. 
112. 
113. 
114. 
115. 
116. 
117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 


Murakami 

Reizei 

Euiiiu 

Kuasau 

Ichijo 

Saiijo 

G()-Icliij6 

Go-Shujaku 

Go-Reizei 

Gi)-Sanj6 

Shirakawa 

Horikawa 

Toba 

Shiutoku 

Koiioye 

Go-Shirakawa 

Nijo 

Rokujo 

Takakura 

Antoku 

Gotoba 

Tsuchimikado 

JuiUokti 

Chiukio 

Go-Horikawa 

Shijo 

Go-Saga 

Go-Fukakusa 

Kameyania 

Go-Uda 

Fushimi 

Go-Fnshimi 

Go-Nij6 

Hanazono 

Gc)-Daig() 

Go-Murakami 

Chokei 

Go-Kaiueyama.... 

Gii-Komatsu 

Shoko 

Go-Hanazono 

Go-Tsuchimikado . 
Go-Kashiwara  . ... 

Go-Nara 

5kimachi 

Goyozi'i 

Goiiilwo 

Miojd 

Go-K6mio 

Gosai 

Reigen 


Higashiyama , 

NaKanomikado 

Saknramachi , 

MomozoDo 

Go-Snkuramachi . . . 

Go-Moniozono 

Eokaku 

Niuko 

Komei 

Mutsnhiio 


Age  at 
Death. 

Date  of  Reign, 

42 

947-  967  A.D. 

62 

968-  969  " 

33 

970-  984  " 

41 

985-  986  " 

32 

987-1011  " 

43 

1012-1016  " 

29 

1017-1036  " 

37 

1037-1046  " 

44 

1047-1068  " 

40 

1069-1072  " 

77 

1073-1086  " 

29 

1087-1107  " 

55 

1108-1123  " 

40 

1124-1141  " 

17 

1142-1155  " 

66 

1156-1158  " 

23 

1159-1166  " 

13 

1106-1168  " 

21 

1109-1180  " 

8 

1181-1185  " 

60 

1184-1198  " 

37 

1199-1210  " 

46 

1211-1221  " 

17 

1222-1222  " 

23 

1222-1232  " 

12 

1233-1242  " 

53 

1243-1246  " 

62 

1247-1259  " 

57 

1260-1274  '• 

58 

1276-1287  " 

53 

1288-1298  " 

49 

1299-1301  " 

24 

1302-1307  " 

62 

1308-1318  " 

62 

1319-1338  " 

41 

1339-1367  " 

1368-1383  " 

78 

1383-1392  " 

57 

1393-1412  " 

28 

1413-1428  " 

52 

1429-1464  " 

59 

1405-1500  " 

63 

1501-1526  " 

62 

1527-1557  " 

75 

1558-1580  " 

47 

1587-1611  " 

85 

1012-1629  " 

74 

1630-1043  " 

22 

1644-1654  " 

49 

1655-1062  " 

79 

1663-1686  " 

35 

1687-1709  " 

37 

1710-1735  " 

31 

1730-1746  " 

22 

1747-1702  " 

74 

170H-17TO  " 

22 

1771-1779  " 

TO 

178(1-1816  " 

47 

1817-1846  " 

37 

1847-1866  " 

1867 

124  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XIII. 

Y0RIT03W  AND   THE  MINAMOTO  FA31ILT. 

Next  to  portraying  the  beauties  of  nature,  there  is  no  class  of  sub- 
jects in  which  the  native  artists  delight  more  than  in  the  historical 
events  related  in  their  classics.  Among  these  there  are  none  treated 
with  more  frequency  and  spirit  than  the  flight  of  Yoshitomo's  concu- 
bine, Tokiwa,  after  the  death  of  her  lord  at  the  hands  of  bribed  trai- 
tors. After  the  fight  with  the  Taira  in  Kioto,  in  1159,  he  fled  east- 
ward, and  was  killed  in  a  bath-room  by  three  hired  assassins  at  Ut- 
sumi,  in  Owari.  Tokiwa  was  a  young  peasant-girl  of  surpassing  beau- 
ty, whom  Yoshitomo  had  made  his  concubine,  and  who  bore  him  three 
children.  She  fled,  to  escape  the  minions  of  Taira.  Her  flight  was 
in  winter,  and  snow  lay  on  the  ground.  She  knew  neither  where  to 
go  nor  how  to  subsist ;  but,  clasping  her  babe  to  her  bosom,  her  two 
little  sons  on  her  right,  one  holding  his  mother's  hand,  the  other  car- 
rying his  father's  sword,  trudged  on.  That  babe  at  her  breast  was 
Yoshitsune — a  name  that  awakens  in  the  breast  of  a  Japanese  youth 
emotions  that  kindle  his  enthusiasm  to  emulate  a  character  that  was 
the  mirror  of  chivalrous  valor  and  knightly  conduct,  and  that  saddens 
him  at  the  thought  of  one  who  suflEered  cruel  death  at  the  hands  of 
a  jealous  brother.  Yoshitsune,  the  youngest  son  of  Yoshitomo,  lives, 
and  will  live,  immortal  in  the  minds  of  Japanese  youth  as  the  Bayard 
of  Japan. 

Kiyomori,  intoxicated  with  success,  conceived  the  plan  of  extermi- 
nating the  Minamoto  family  root  and  branch.  Not  knowing  where 
Tokiwa  and  her  children  had  fled,  he  seized  her  mother,  and  had  her 
brought  to  Kioto.  In  Japan,  as  in  China,  filial  piety  is  the  highest 
duty  of  man,  filial  affection  the  strongest  tie.  Kiyomori  well  knew 
that  Tokiwa's  sense  of  a  daughter's  duty  would  prevail  over  that  of 
a  mother's  love  or  womanly  fear.  He  expected  Tokiwa  to  come  to 
Kioto  to  save  her  mother. 

Meanwhile  the  daughter,  nearly  frozen  and  half  starved,  was  met  in 
her  flight  by  a  Taira  soldier,  who,  pitying  her  and  her  children,  gave 


TORITOMO  AND   THE  MINAMOTO  FAMILY.  125 

her  shelter,  and  fed  her  with  his  own  rations.  Tokiwa  heard  of  her 
mother's  durance  at  Kioto.  Then  came  the  struggle  between  mater- 
nal and  filial  love.  To  enter  the  palace  would  be  the  salvation  of  her 
mother,  but  the  death  of  her  children.  What  should  she  do?  Her 
wit  showed  her  the  way  of  escape.  Her  resolution  was  taken  to  go 
to  the  capital,  and  trust  to  her  beauty  to  melt  the  heart  of  Kiyomori. 
Thus  she  would  save  her  mother  and  the  lives  of  her  sons. 

Her  success  was  complete.  Appearing  in  the  presence  of  the 
dreaded  enemy  of  her  children,  Kiyomori  was  dazed  by  her  beauty, 
and  wished  to  make  her  his  concubine.  At  first  she  utterly  refused ; 
but  her  mother,  weeping  floods  of  tears,  represented  to  her  the  mis- 
ery of  disobedience,  and  the  happiness  in  store  for  her,  and  Tokiwa 
was  obliged  to  yield.  She  consented  on  condition  of  his  sparing  her 
offspring. 

Kiyomori's  retainers  insisted  that  these  young  Minamotos  should 
be  put  to  death ;  but  by  the  pleadings  of  the  beautiful  mother,  backed 
by  the  intercession  of  Kiyomori's  aunt,  their  lives  were  spared.  The 
babe  grew  to  be  a  healthy,  rosy-cheeked  boy,  small  in  stature,  with  a 
ruddy  face  and  slightly  protruding  teeth.  In  spirit  he  was  fiery  and 
impetuous.  All  three  of  the  boys,  when  grown,  were  sent  to  a  monas- 
tery near  Kioto,  to  be  made  priests :  their  fine  black  hair  was  shaved, 
and  they  put  on  the  robes  of  Buddhist  neophytes.  Two  of  them  re- 
mained so,  but  Yoshitsune  gave  little  promise  of  becoming  a  grave 
and  reverend  bonze,  who  would  honor  his  crape,  and  inspire  respect 
by  his  bald  crown  and  embroidered  collar.  He  refused  to  have  his 
hair  shaved  off,  and  in  the  monastery  was  irrepressibly  merry,  lively, 
and  self-willed.  The  task  of  managing  this  young  ox  (Ushi-waka,  he 
was  then  called)  gave  the  holy  brethren  much  trouble,  and  greatly 
scandalized  their  reverences.  Yoshitsune,  chafing  at  his  dull  life, 
and  longing  to  take  part  in  a  more  active  one,  and  especially  in  the 
wars  in  the  North,  of  which  he  could  not  but  hear,  determined  to  es- 
cape.    How  to  do  it  was  the  question. 

Among  the  outside  lay-folk  who  visited  the  monastery  for  trade 
or  business  was  an  iron-merchant,  who  made  frequent  journeys  from 
Kioto  to  the  north  of  Hondo.  In  those  days,  as  now,  the  mines  of 
Oshiu  were  celebrated  for  yielding  the  best  iron  for  swords  and  other 
cutting  implements.  This  iron,  being  smelted  from  the  magnetic  ox- 
ide and  reduced  by  the  use  of  charcoal  as  fuel,  gave  a  steel  of  singular 
purity  and  temper  which  has  never  been  rivaled  in  modern  times. 

Yoshitsune  begged  the  merchant  to  take  him  to  Mutsu.      He,  be- 

9 


126  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ing  afraid  of  offending  the  priest,  would  not  at  first  consent.  Yoshi- 
tsune  persuaded  him  by  saying  that  the  priests  would  be  only  too 
glad  to  be  rid  of  such  a  troublesome  boy.  The  point  was  won,  and 
Yoshitsune  went  off.  The  boy's  surmises  were  correct.  The  priest 
thought  it  excellent  riddance  to  very  bad  rubbish. 

While  in  the  East,  they  stopped  some  time  in  Kadzusa,  then  infest- 
ed with  robbers.  Here  Yoshitsune  gave  signal  proof  of  his  mettle. 
Among  other  exploits,  he,  on  one  occasion,  single-handed  and  un- 
armed, seized  a  bold  robber,  and,  on  another,  assisted  a  rich  man  to 
defend  his  house,  killing  five  of  the  ruffians  with  his  own  hand. 
Yorishige,  his  companion  and  bosom-friend,  begged  him  not  to  in- 
dulge in  any  unnecessary  displays  of  courage,  lest  the  Taira  would 
surely  hear  of  him,  and  know  he  was  a  Minamoto,  and  so  destroy  him. 
They  finally  reached  their  destination,  and  Yoshitsune  was  taken  to 
live  with  Hidehira,  a  nobleman  of  the  Fujiwara,  who  was  prince  of 
Mutsu.  Here  he  grew  to  manhood,  spending  his  time  most  conge- 
nially, in  the  chase,  in  manly  sports,  and  in  military  exercises.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-one,  he  had  won  a  reputation  as  a  soldier  of  peerless 
valor  and  consummate  skill,  and  the  exponent  of  the  loftiest  code  of 
Japanese  chivalry.  He  became  to  Yoritomo,  his  brother,  as  Ney  to 
Napoleon.  Nor  can  the  splendor  of  the  marshal's  courage  outshine 
that  of  the  young  Japanese  shogun's. 

Yoritomo,  the  third  son  of  Yoshitomo,  was  born  in  the  year  1146, 
and  consequently  was  twelve  years  old  when  his  brother  Yoshitsune 
was  a  baby.  After  the  defeat  of  his  father,  he,  in  the  retreat,  was 
separated  from  his  companions,  and  finally  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 
Taira  officer.  On  his  way  through  a  village  called  Awohaka,  in  Omi,  a 
girl,  the  child  of  the  daughter  of  the  head-man  whom  Yoshitomo  had 
once  loved,  hearing  this,  said,  "  I  will  follow  my  brother  and  die  with 
him."  Her  people  stopped  her  as  she  was  about  to  follow  Yoshitomo, 
but  she  afterward  went  out  alone  and  drowned  herself.  The  Taira 
officer  brought  his  prize  to  Kioto,  where  his  execution  was  ordered, 
and  the  day  fixed ;  but  there,  again,  woman's  tender  heart  and  suppli- 
cations saved  the  life  of  one  destined  for  greater  things.  The  boy's 
captor  had  asked  him  if  he  would  like  to  live.  He  answered,  "  Yes ; 
both  my  father  and  brother  are  dead ;  who  but  I  can  pray  for  their 
happiness  in  the  next  world  ?"  Struck  by  this  filial  answer,  the  officer 
went  to  Kiyomori's  step-mother,  who  was  a  Buddhist  nun,  having  be- 
come so  after  the  death  of  her  husband,  Tadamori.  Becoming  inter- 
ested in  him,  her  heart  was  deeply  touched ;  the  chambers  of  her 


TORITOMO  AND  THE  MINAMOTO  FAMILY.  127 

memory  were  unlocked  when  the  officer  said,  "  Yoritomo  resembles 
Prince  Uma."  She  had  borne  one  son  of  great  promise,  on  whom 
she  had  lavished  her  affection,  and  who  had  been  named  Uma.  The 
mother's  bosom  heaved  under  the  robes  of  the  nun,  and,  pitying  Yori- 
tomo, she  resolved  to  entreat  Kiyomori  to  spare  him.  After  import- 
unate pleadings,  the  reluctant  son  yielded  to  his  mother's  prayer,  but 
condemned  the  youth  to  distant  exile — a  punishment  one  degree  less 
than  death,  and  Yoritomo  was  banished  to  the  province  of  Idzu.  He 
was  advised  by  his  former  retainers  to  shave  off  his  hair,  enter  a  mon- 
astery, and  become  a  priest ;  but  Morinaga,  one  of  his  faithful  serv- 
ants, advised  him  to  keep  his  hair,  and  with  a  brave  heart  await  the 
future.  Even  the  few  that  still  called  themselves  vassals  of  Minamoto 
did  not  dare  to  hold  any  communication  with  him,  as  he  was  under 
the  charge  of  two  officers  who  were  responsible  to  the  Taira  for  the 
care  of  their  ward.  Yoritomo  was  a  shrewd,  self-reliant  boy,  gifted 
with  high  self-control,  restraining  his  feelings  so  as  to  express  neither 
joy  nor  grief  nor  anger  in  his  face,  patient,  and  capable  of  great  en- 
durance, winning  the  love  and  respect  of  all.  He  was  as  "  Prince 
Hal."  He  afterward  became  as  "  bluff  King  Harry,"  barring  the  lat- 
ter's  bad  eminence  as  a  marrier  of  many  wives. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  the  Minamoto  family.  No  longer  in 
power  and  place,  with  an  empress  and  ministers  at  court,  but  scat- 
tered, in  poverty  and  exile,  their  lives  scarcely  their  own.  Yoritomo 
was  fortunate  in  his  courtship  and  marriage,  the  story  of  which  is  one 
of  great  romantic  interest.*     His  wife,  Masago,  is  one  of  the  many  fe- 


*  Yoritomo  had  inquired  wliich  of  the  daughters  of  Hojo  Tokimasa  was  most 
beautiful.  He  was  told  the  eldest  was  most  noted  for  personal  charms,  but  the 
second,  the  child  of  a  second  wife,  was  homely.  Yoritomo,  afraid  of  a  step-moth- 
er's jealousy  (though  fearing  neither  spear  nor  sword),  deemed  it  prudent  to  pay 
his  addresses  to  the  homely  daughter,  and  thus  win  the  mother's  favor  also.  He 
sent  her  a  letter  by  the  hand  of  Morinaga,  his  retainer,  who,  however,  thought 
his  master's  affection  for  the  plain  girl  would  not  last;  so  he  destroyed  his  mas- 
ter's letter,  and,  writing  another  one  to  Masago,  the  eldest,  sent  it  to  her.  It  so 
happened  that  on  the  previous  night  the  homely  daughter  dreamed  that  a  pigeon 
came  to  her,  carrying  a  golden  box  in  her  beak.  On  awaking,  she  told  her  dream 
to  her  sister,  who  was  so  interested  in  it  that,  after  eager  consideration,  she  re- 
solved "  to  buy  her  sister's  dream,"  and,  as  a  price,  gave  her  toilet  mirror  to  her 
sister,  saying,  as  the  Japanese  always  do  on  similar  occasions,  "  The  price  I  pay 
is  little."  The  homely  sister,  perhaps  thinking  some  of  Masago's  beauty  might 
be  reflected  to  hers,  gladly  bartered  her  unsubstantial  happiness.  Scarcely  had 
she  done  this,  than  Yoritomo's  (Morinaga's)  letter  came,  asking  her  to  be  his 
bride.  It  turned  out  to  be  a  true  love-match.  Masago  was  then  twenty-one 
years  of  age — it  being  no  ungallantry  to  state  the  age  of  a  Japanese  lady,  living 


128  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

male  characters  famous  in  Japanese  history.  She  contributed  not  a 
little  to  the  success  of  her  husband  and  the  splendor  of  the  Kamakura 
court,  during  her  life,  as  wife  and  widow.  She  outlived  her  husband 
many  years.  Her  father,  Hojo  Tokimasa,  an  able  man,  in  whose  veins 
ran  imperial  blood,  made  and  fulfilled  a  solemn  oath  to  assist  Yori- 
tomo,  and  the  Hojo  family  subsequently  rose  to  be  a  leading  one  in 
Japan. 

The  tyranny  and  insolence  of  Kiyomori  at  Kioto  had  by  this  time 
(1180),  one  year  before  his  death,  become  so  galling  and  outrageous 
that  one  of  the  royal  princes,  determining  to  kill  the  usurper,  con- 
spired with  the  Minamoto  men  to  overthrow  him.  Letters  were  sent 
to  the  clansmen,  and  especially  to  Yoritomo,  who  wrote  to  Yoshitsune 
and  to  his  friends  to  join  him  and  take  up  arms.  Among  the  for- 
mer retainers  of  his  father  and  grandfather  were  many  members  of  the 
Miura  family.  Morinaga  personally  secured  the  fealty  of  many  men 
of  mark  in  the  Kuanto ;  but  among  those  who  refused  to  rise  against 
the  Taira  was  one,  Tsunetoshi,  who  laughed  scornfully,  and  said, 
"  For  an  exile  to  plot  against  the  Heishi  [Taira]  is  like  a  mouse 
plotting  against  a  cat." 

At  the  head  of  the  peninsula  of  Idzu  is  a  range  of  mountains,  the 
outjutting  spurs  of  the  chain  that  trends  upward  to  the  table-lands  of 
Shinano,  and  thus  divides  Eastern  from  Western  Japan.  This  range 
is  called  Hakone,  and  is  famous  not  only  as  classic  ground  in  history, 
but  also  as  a  casket  enshrining  the  choicest  gems  of  nature.  It  is 
well  known  to  the  foreign  residents,  who  resort  hither  in  summer  to 
enjoy  the  pure  air  of  its  altitudes.  Its  inspiring  scenery  embraces  a 
lake  of  intensely  cold  pure  water,  and  of  great  depth  and  elevation 
above  the  sea-level,  groves  of  aromatic  pines  of  colossal  size,  savage 
gorges,  sublime  mountain  heights,  overcrowned  by  cloud-excelling  Fuji, 
foaming  cataracts,  and  boiling  springs  of  intermittent  and  rhythmic 
flow,  surrounded  by  infernal  vistas  of  melted  sulphur  enveloped  in 
clouds  of  poisonous  steam,  or  incrusted  with  myriad  glistening  crys- 
tals of  the  same  mineral.  Over  these  mountains  there  is  a  narrow 
pass,  which  is  the  key  of  the  Kuanto.     Near  the  pass,  above  the  vil- 


or  dead.  Masago's  father,  on  his  way  home  from  Kioto,  not  knowing  of  the  be- 
trothal of  the  young  couple,  promised  Masago  to  Kan^taka,  a  Taira  officer.  On 
coming  home,  he  would  not  break  Mx  word,  and  so  married  her  to  Kanetaka. 
But  early  on  the  wedding  night  Masago  eloped  with  Yoritomo,  who  was  at  hand. 
Kanetaka  searched  in  vain  for  the  pair.  Tokimasa  outwardly  professed  to  be 
very  angry  with  Yoritomo,  but  really  loved  him. 


TOEITOMO  AND  THE  MINAMOTO  FAMILY.  131 

lage  of  Yumoto,  is  Ishi  Bashi  Yama  (Stone-bridge  Mountain),  and 
here  Yoritomo's  second  battle  was  fought,  and  his  first  defeat  experi- 
enced. "  Every  time  his  bowstring  twanged  an  enemy  fell,"  but  final- 
ly he  was  obliged  to  flee.  He  barely  escaped  with  his  life,  and  fort- 
unately eluded  pursuit,  secreting  himself  in  a  hollow  log,  having  first 
sent  his  father-in-law  to  call  out  all  his  retainers  and  meet  again.  He 
afterward  hid  in  the  priest's  wardrobe,  in  one  of  the  rooms  of  a  tem- 
ple. Finally,  reaching  the  sea-shore,  he  took  ship  and  sailed  across 
the  bay  to  Awa.  "At  this  time  the  sea  and  land  were  covered  with 
his  enemies."  Fortune  favored  the  brave.  Yoritomo,  defeated,  but 
not  discouraged,  while  on  the  water  met  a  company  of  soldiers,  all 
equipped,  belonging  to  the  Miura  clan,  who  became  his  friends,  and 
offered  to  assist  him.  Landing  in  Awa,  he  sent  out  letters  to  all  the 
Minamoto  adherents  to  bring  soldiers  and  join  him.  He  met  with 
encouraging  and  substantial  response,  for  many  hated  Kiyomori  and 
the  Taira ;  and  as  Yoritomo's  father  and  grandfather  had  given  pro- 
tection and  secured  quiet  in  the  Kuanto,  the  prestige  of  the  Minamoto 
party  still  remained.  The  local  military  chieftains  had  fought  under 
Yoritomo's  father,  and  were  now  glad  to  join  the  son  of  their  old 
leader.  He  chose  Kamakura  as  a  place  of  retreat  and  permanent  resi- 
dence, it  having  been  an  old  seat  of  the  Minamoto  family.  Yoriyoshi 
had,  in  1063,  built  the  shrine  of  Hachiman  at  Tsurugaoka,  near  the 
village,  in  gi'atitude  for  his  victories.  Yoritomo  now  organized  his 
troops,  appointed  his  officers,  and  made  arrangements  to  establish  a 
fixed  commissariat.  The  latter  was  a  comparatively  easy  thing  to  do 
in  a  fertile  country  covered  with  irrigated  rice-fields  and  girdled  with 
teeming  seas,  and  where  the  daily  food  of  soldier,  as  of  laborer,  was 
rice  and  fish.  Marching  up  around  the  country  at  the  head  of  the 
Bay  of  Yedo  through  Kadzusa,  Shimosa,  Musashi,  and  Sagarai,  cross- 
ing, on  his  way,  the  Sumida  River,  which  flows  through  the  modern 
Tokio,  many  men  of  rank,  with  their  followers  and  horses,  joined 
him.  His  father-in-law  also  brought  an  army  from  Kai.  In  a  few 
months  he  had  raised  large  forces,  with  many  noted  generals.  He 
awakened  new  life  in  the  Minamoto  clan,  and  completely  turned  the 
tide  of  success.  Many  courtiers  from  Kioto,  disappointed  in  their 
schemes  at  court,  or  in  any  way  chagrined  at  the  Taira,  flocked  to 
Yoritomo  as  his  power  rose,  and  thus  brought  to  him  a  fund  of  expe- 
rience and  ability  which  he  was  not  slow  to  utilize  for  his  own  bene- 
fit. Meanwhile  the  Taira  had  not  been  idle.  A  large  army  was  dis- 
patched to  the  East,  reaching  the  Fuji  River,  in  Suruga,  about  the 


132  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

same  time  that  the  Minaraoto,  headed  by  Yoritomo,  appeared  on  the 
other  side.  The  Taira  were  surprised  to  see  such  a  host  in  arms. 
Both  armies  encamped  on  opposite  banks,  and  glared  at  each  other, 
eager  for  the  fight,  but  neither  attempting  to  cross  the  torrent.  This 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  The  Fujikawa  bears  the  just  reputation  of 
being  the  swiftest  stream  in  Japan.  '  It  rises  in  the  northern  part  of 
Kai,  on  the  precipitous  side  of  the  group  of  mountains  called  Yatfeu 
dake,  or  "  eight  peaks,"  and,  winding  around  the  western  base  of 
the  lordly  Fuji,  collecting  into  its  own  volume  a  host  of  impetuous 
tributaries  born  from  the  snows  of  lofty  summits,  it  traverses  the  rich 
province  of  Suruga  in  steep  gradient,  plunging  across  the  Tokaido,  in 
arrowy  celerity  and  volcanic  force,  into  the  sea  near  the  lordly  mount- 
ain which  it  encircles.  To  cross  it  at  any  time  in  good  boats  is  a  feat 
requiring  coolness  and  skill ;  in  a  flood,  impossibility  ;  in  the  face  of  a 
hostile  attack,  sure  annihilation.  Though  supremely  eager  to  measure 
swords,  neither  party  cared  to  cross  to  the  attack,  and  the  wager  of 
battle  was  postponed.  Both  armies  retired,  the  Taira  retreating  first. 
It  is  said  that  one  of  the  Taira  men,  foreseeing  that  the  tide  would 
turn  in  favor  of  Yoritomo,  went  to  the  river  flats  at  night,  and  scared 
up  the  flocks  of  wild  fowl ;  and  the  Taira,  hearing  the  great  noise,  im- 
agined the  Minamoto  host  was  attacking  them,  and  fled,  panic-stricken. 
Yoritomo  returned  to  Kamakura,  and  began  in  earnest  to  found  a  city 
that  ultimately  rivaled  Kioto  in  magnificence,  as  it  excelled  it  in  pow- 
er. He  gathered  together  and  set  to  work  an  army  of  laborers,  car- 
penters, and  armorers.  In  a  few  months  a  city  sprung  up  where  once 
had  been  only  timbered  hills  and  valleys,  matted  with  the  perennial 
luxuriance  of  reeds  or  scrub  bamboo,  starred  and  fragrant  with  the 
tall  lilies  that  still  abound.  The  town  lay  in  a  valley  surrounded  by 
hills  on  every  side,  opening  only  on  the  glorious  sea.  The  wall  of 
hills  was  soon  breached  by  cuttings  which  served  as  gate-ways,  giving 
easy  access  to  friends,  and  safe  defense  against  enemies.  While  the 
laborers  delved  and  graded,  the  carpenters  plied  axe,  hooked  adze,  and 
chisel,  and  the  sword-makers  and  armorers  sounded  a  war  chorus  on 
their  anvils  by  day,  and  lighted  up  the  hills  by  their  forges  at  night. 
The  streets  marked  out  were  soon  lined  Avith  shops ;  and  merchants 
came  to  sell,  bringing  gold,  copper,  and  iron,  silk,  cotton,  and  hemp, 
and  raw  material  for  food  and  clothing,  war  and  display.  Store- 
houses of  rice  were  built  and  filled;  boats  were  constructed  and 
launched ;  temples  were  erected.  In  process  of  time,  the  wealth  of 
the  Kuanto  centred  at  Kamakura.     While  the  old  Taira  chief  lay  dy- 


YOEITOMO  AND  THE  MIXAMOTO  FAMILY.  133 

ing  in  Kioto,  praying  for  Yoritomo's  head  to  be  laid  on  his  new  tomb, 
this  same  head,  safely  settled  on  vigorous  shoulders,  was  devising  the 
schemes,  and  seeing  them  executed,  of  fixing  the  Minamoto  power 
permanently  at  Kamakura,  and  of  wiping  the  name  of  Taira  from  the 
earth. 

The  long  night  of  exile,  of  defeat,  and  defensive  waiting  of  the 
Minamoto  had  broken,  and  their  day  had  dawned  with  sudden  and 
unexpected  splendor.  Henceforward  they  took  the  initiative.  While 
Yoritomo  carried  on  the  enterprises  of  peace  and  the  operations  of 
war  from  his  sustained  stronghold,  his  uncle,  Yukiiye,  his  cousin, 
Yoshinaka,  and  his  brother,  Yoshitsune,  led  the  armies  in  the  field. 

Meanwhile,  in  1181,  Kiyomori  fell  sick  at  Kioto,  He  had  been  a 
monk,  as  well  as  a  prime  minister.  His  death  was  not  that  of  a  saint. 
He  did  not  pray  for  his  enemies.  The  JVihon  Guai  Shi  thus  describes 
the  scene  in  the  chamber  where  the  chief  of  the  Taira  lay  dying :  In 
the  Second  leap-month,  his  sickness  having  increased,  his  family  and 
high  officers  assembled  round  his  bedside,  and  asked  him  what  he 
would  say.  Sighing  deeply,  he  said,  "  He  that  is  born  must  necessa- 
rily die,  and  not  I  alone.  Since  the  period  of  Heiji  (1159),  I  have 
served  the  imperial  house.  I  have  ruled  under  heaven  (the  empire) 
absolutely.  I  have  attained  the  highest  rank  possible  to  a  subject. 
I  am  the  grandfather  of  the  emperor  on  his  mother's  side.  Is  there 
still  a  regret  ?  My  regret  is  only  that  I  am  dying,  and  have  not  yet 
seen  the  head  of  Yoritomo  of  the  Minamoto.  After  my  decease,  do 
not  make  offerings  to  Buddha  on  my  behalf ;  do  not  read  the  sacred 
books.  Only  cut  oS.  the  head  of  Yoritomo  of  the  Minamoto,  and 
hang  it  on  my  tomb.  Let  all  my  sons  and  grandsons,  retainers  and 
servants,  each  and  every  one,  follow  out  my  commands,  and  on  no  ac- 
count neglect  them."  So  saying,  Kiyomori  died  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
four.  His  tomb,  near  Hiogo,  is  marked  by  an  upright  monolith  and 
railing  of  granite.  Munemori,  his  son,  became  head  of  the  Taira 
house.  Strange  words  from  a  death-bed;  yet  such  as  these  were 
more  than  once  used  by  dying  Japanese  warriors.  Yoritomo's  head 
was  on  his  body  when,  eighteen  years  afterward,  in  1199,  he  died 
peacefully  in  his  bed. 

Nevertheless,  while  in  Kamakura,  his  bed-chamber  was  nightly  guard- 
ed by  chosen  warriors,  lest  treachery  might  cut  off  the  hopes  of  the 
Minamoto.  The  flames  of  war  were  now  lighted  throughout  the 
whole  empire.  From  Kamakura  forces  were  sent  into  the  provinces 
of  Hitachi,  in  the  East,  and  of  Echizen  and  Kaga,  North  and  West, 


134  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

iestroying  the  autliority  of  the  Kioto  bureaucracy.  Victory  and  in- 
crease made  the  army  of  the  rising  clan  invincible.  After  numerous 
bloody  skirmishes,  the  victors  advanced  through  Omi,  and  swooped 
on  the  chief  prize,  and  Kioto,  the  coveted  capital,  was  in  their  hands. 
The  captors  of  the  city  were  Yukiiye  and  Yoshinaka,  the  uncle  and 
cousin  of  Yoritomo  respectively.  The  Taira,  with  the  young  mikado, 
Antoku,  and  his  wife,  Kiyomori's  daughter,  fled.  Qotoba,  his  broth- 
er, was  proclaimed  mikado  in  his  stead,  and  the  estates  and  treasures 
of  the  Taira  were  confiscated,  and  divided  among  the  victors. 

Yoshinaka  was  called  the  Asahi  shogun  (Morning-sun  General),  on 
account  of  the  suddenness  and  brilliancy  of  his  rising.  Being  now  in 
command  of  a  victorious  army  at  the  capital,  swollen  with  pride,  and 
intoxicated  with  sudden  success,  and  with  the  actual  power  then  in 
his  hands,  he  seems  to  have  lost  his  head.  He  was  elevated  to  high 
rank,  and  given  the  title  and  office  of  governor  of  Echigo ;  but  hav- 
ing been  bred  in  the  country,  he  could  not  endure  the  cap  and  dress 
of  ceremony,  and  was  the  subject  of  ridicule  to  the  people  of  Kioto. 
He  became  jealous  of  his  superior,  Yoritomo,  who  was  in  Kamakura, 
two  hundred  miles  away.  He  acted  in  such  an  arbitrary  and  over- 
bearing spirit  that  the  wrath  of  the  cloistered  emperor  Goshirakawa 
was  roused  against  him.  Being  able  to  command  no  military  forces, 
he  incited  the  monks  of  the  immense  monasteries  of  Hiyeizan  and 
Miidera,  near  the  city,  to  obstruct  his  authority.  Before  they  could 
execute  any  schemes,  Yoshinaka,  with  a  military  force,  seized  them, 
put  the  ex-mikado  in  prison,  beheaded  the  abbots,  and  deprived  the 
high  officers  of  state  of  their  honors  and  titles.  He  then  wrested 
from  the  court  the  title  of  Sei-i  Shogun  (Barbarian -subjugating  Gen- 
eral). His  exercise  of  power  was  of  brief  duration,  for  Yoshitsune 
was  invested  with  the  command  of  the  forces  in  the  West,  and,  sent 
against  him,  he  was  defeated  and  killed,*  and  the  ex-mikado  was  re- 

*  The  details  of  this  straggle  are  graphically  portrayed  in  the  Nihon  Giuvi  Shi. 
Yoshinaka  had  married  the  lady  Fujiwara,  daughter  of  the  court  noble,  Motofusa. 
When  the  Kamakura  army  was  approaching  Kioto,  and  quite  near  the  city,  ht 
left  his  troops,  and  called  at  the  palace  to  take  leave  of  his  wife.  A  long  while 
having  elapsed  before  he  appeared,  and  every  moment  being  critical,  two  of  his 
samurai,  grieved  at  his  unseasonable  delay,  remonstrated  with  him,  and  then 
committed  suicide.  This  hastened  his  movements.  He  attempted  to  carry  off 
the  cloistered  emperor,  but  was  repulsed  by  Yoshitsune  in  person,  and  fled. 
His  horse,  falling  into  a  quagmire  in  a  rice-field,  fell,  and  he,  turning  around  to 
look  at  Kanehira,  his  faithful  vassal,  was  hit  by  an  arrow  in  the  forehead  and  fell 
dead.  He  was  thirty-one  years  old.  Kanehira,  having  but  eight  arrows  left  in 
his  quiver,  shot  down  eight  of  the  enemy's  horsemen;  and  then,  hearing  a  cry 


YORITOMO  AND   THE  MINAMOTO  FAMILY.  135 

leased,  and  the  reigning  emperor  set  free  from  the  terrorism  undei 
which  he  had  been  put. 

Meanwhile  the  Taira  men,  in  their  fortified  palace  at  Fukuwara, 
were  planning  to  recover  their  lost  power,  and  assembling  a  great 
army  in  the  South  and  West.  The  Minamoto,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  expending  all  their  energies  to  destroy  them.  The  bitter  ani- 
mosity of  the  two  great  families  had  reached  such  a  pitch  that  the 
extermination  of  one  or  the  other  seemed  inevitable.  In  1184,  Yoshi- 
tsune  laid  siege  to  the  Fukuwara  palace,  and,  after  a  short  time,  set  it 
on  fire.  The  son  of  Kiyomori  and  his  chief  followers  fled  to  Sanuki, 
in  Shikoku.  Thither,  as  with  the  winged  feet  of  an  avenger,  Yoshi- 
tsune  followed,  besieged  them  at  the  castle  of  Yashima,  burned  it, 
and  drove  his  enemies,  like  scattered  sheep,  to  the  Straits  of  Shimo- 
noseki. 

Both  armies  now  prepared  a  fleet  of  junks,  for  the  contest  was  to 
be  upon  the  water.  In  the  Fourth  month  of  the  year  1185,  all  was 
ready  for  the  struggle.  The  battle  was  fought  at  Dan  no  ura,  near 
the  modern  town  of  Shimonoseki,  where,  in  1863,  the  combined 
squadrons  of  England,  France,  Holland,  and  the  United  States  bom- 
barded the  batteries  of  the  Choshiu  clansmen.  In  the  latter  instance 
the  foreigner  demonstrated  the  superiority  of  his  artillery  and  disci- 
pline, and,  for  the  sake  of  trade  and  gain,  wreaked  his  vengeance  as 
savage  and  unjust  as  any  that  stains  the  record  of  native  war. 

In  1185,  nearly  seven  centuries  before,  the  contest  was  between 
men  of  a  common  country.  It  was  the  slaughter  of  brother  by  broth- 
er. The  guerdon  of  ambition  was  supremacy.  The  Taira  clan  were 
at  bay,  driven,  pursued,  and  hunted  to  the  sea-shore.  Like  a  wound- 
ed stag  that  turns  upon  its  pursuers,  the  clan  were  about  to  give  final 
battle ;  by  its  wager  they  were  to  decide  their  future  destiny — a  grave 
in  a  bloody  sea,  or  peace  under  victory.     They  had  collected  five  hun- 


among  the  enemy  that  his  lord  was  dead,  said,  "My  business  is  done,"  und,  put- 
ting his  sword  in  his  mouth,  fell  skillfully  from  his  horse  so  that  the  blade  should 
pierce  him,  and  died.  His  beautiful  sister,  Tomoye,  was  a  concubine  of  Toshi- 
naka;  and  being  of  great  personal  strength,  constantly  followed  her  lord  in  bat- 
tle, sheathed  in  armor  and  riding  a  swift  horse.  In  this  last  battle  she  fought  In 
the  van,  and,  among  other  exploits,  cut  off  the  head  of  lyeyoshi,  one  of  Yoshi- 
tsune's  best  men.  When  her  lord  fled,  she  asked  to  be  allowed  to  die  with  him. 
He  refused  to  allow  her,  and,  in  spite  of  her  tears,  persisted  in  his  refusal.  Doff- 
ing her  armor,  she  reached  Shinano  by  private  paths,  and  thence  retired  into 
Echigo,  shaved  off  her  hair,  became  a  nun,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  her  life 
praying  for  the  eternal  hapiiiuess  of  Yoshinaka. 


136 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


dred  vessels.  They  liurried  on  board  their  aged  fathers  and  mothers, 
their  wives  and  children.  Among  them  were  gentle  ladies  from  the 
palace,  whose  silken  robes  seemed  sadly  out  of  place  in  the  crowded 
junks.  There  were  mothers,  with  babes  at  breast,  and  little  children, 
too  young  to  know  the  awful  passions  that  kindle  man  against  man. 
Among  the  crowd  were  the  widow  and  daughter  of  Kiyomori,  the 
former  a  nun,  the  latter  the  empress-dowager,  with  the  dethroned  mi- 
kado, a  child  six  years  old.  With  them  were  the  sacred  insignia  of 
imperial  power,  the  sword  and  ball. 

The  Minamoto  host  was  almost  entirely  composed  of  men,  unin- 
cumbered with  women  or  families.     They  had  seven  hundred  junks. 

Both  fleets  were  gayly 
fluttering  with  flags  and 
streamers.  The  Taira  pen- 
nant was  red,  the  Minamo- 
to white,  with  two  black 
bars  near  the  top.  The 
junks,  though  clumsy, 
were  excellent  vessels  for 
fighting  purposes  —  fully 
equal  to  the  old  war-gal- 
leys of  Actium, 

On  one  side  were  brave 
men  flushed  with  victory, 
with  passions  kindled  by 
hate  and  the  memory  of 
awful  wrongs.  On  the 
other  side  were  brave 
men  nerved  with  the  cour- 
age of  despair,  resolved  to  die  only  in  honor,  scorning  life  and  country, 
wounds  and  death. 

The  battle  began.  With  impetuosity  and  despair,  the  Taira  drove 
their  junks  hard  against  the  Minamoto,  and  gained  a  temporary  ad- 
vantage by  the  suddenness  of  their  onset.  Seeing  this,  Yoshitsune, 
ever  fearless,  cried  out  and  encouraged  his  soldiers.  Then  came  a 
lull  in  the  combat.  AVada,  a  noted  archer  of  the  Minamoto,  shot  an 
arrow,  and  struck  the  junk  of  a  Taira  leader.  "  Shoot  it  back !"  cried 
the  chief.  An  archer  immediately  plucked  it  out  of  the  gunwale,  and, 
fitting  it  to  his  bow  before  the  gaze  of  the  crews  of  the  hostile  fleet, 
let  fly.     The  arrow  sped.     It  grazed  the  helmet  of  one,  and  pierced 


A  Japanese  Wai-junk  of  the  Twelfih  Century. 
(Vignette  illustration  on  the  national  bank-notes.) 


YORITOMO  AND   THE  AIINAMOTO  FAIHLY.  137 

another  warrior.  The  Minamoto  were  ashamed.  "  Shoot  it  back !" 
thundered  Yoshitsune.  The  archer,  phicking  it  out  and  coolly  ex- 
amining it,  said,  "  It  is  short  and  weak."  Drawing  from  his  quiver  an 
arrow  of  fourteen  fists'  length,  and  fitting  it  to  the  string,  he  shot  it. 
The  five-feet  length  of  shaft  leaped  through  the  air,  and,  piercing  the 
armor  and  flesh  of  the  Taira  bowman  who  reshot  the  first  arrow,  fell, 
spent,  into  the  sea  beyond.  Elated  with  the  lucky  stroke,  Yoshitsune 
emptied  his  quiver,  shooting  with  such  celerity  and  skill  that  many 
Taira  fell.  The  Minamoto,  encouraged,  and  roused  to  the  highest 
pitch  of  enthusiasm,  redoubled  their  exertions  with  oar  and  arrow, 
and  the  tide  of  victory  turned.  The  white  flag  triumphed.  Yet  the 
Taira  might  have  won  the  day  had  not  treachery  aided  the  foe.  The 
pages  of  Japanese  history  teem  with  instances  of  the  destruction  of 
friends  by  traitors.  Perhaps  the  annals  of  no  other  country  are  richer 
in  the  recitals  of  results  gained  by  treachery.  The  Arnold  of  the  Taira 
army  was  Shigeyoshi,  friend  to  Yoshitsune.  He  had  agreed  upon  a 
signal,  by  which  the  prize  could  be  seen,  and  when  seen  could  be  sur- 
rounded and  captured.  Yoshitsune,  eagerly  scanning  the  Taira  fleet, 
finally  caught  sight  of  the  preconcerted  signal,  and  ordered  the  cap- 
tains of  a  number  of  his  junks  to  surround  the  particular  one  of  the 
Taira.  In  a  trice  the  junks  of  the  white  pennant  shot  along-side  the 
devoted  ship,  and  her  decks  were  boarded  by  armed  men.  Seeing 
this,  a  Taira  man  leaped  from  his  own  boat  to  kill  Yoshitsune  in  close 
combat.  Yoshitsune  jumped  into  another  junk.  His  enemy,  thus 
foiled,  drowned  himself.  In  the  hand-to-hand  fight  with  swords,  To- 
momori  and  six  other  Taira  leaders  were  slain. 

Seeing  the  hopeless  state  of  affairs,  and  resolving  not  to  be  capt- 
ured alive,  the  nun,  Kiyomori's  widow,  holding  her  grandson,  the 
child  emperor,  in  her  arms,  leaped  into  the  sea.  Taigo,  the  emperor's 
mother,  vainly  tried  to  save  her  child.  Both  were  drowned.  Mune- 
mori,  head  of  the  Taira  house,  and  many  nobles,  gentlemen,  and 
ladies,  were  made  prisoners. 

The  combat  deepened.  The  Minamoto  loved  fighting.  The  Taira 
scorned  to  surrender.  Revenge  lent  its  maddening  intoxication. 
Life,  robbed  of  all  its  charms,  gladly  welcomed  glorious  death.  The 
whizzing  of  arrows,  the  clash  of  two-handed  swords,  the  clanging  of 
armor,  the  sweep  of  churning  oars,  the  crash  of  colliding  junks,  the 
wild  song  of  the  rowers,  the  shouts  of  the  warriors,  made  the  storm- 
chorus  of  battle.  One  after  another  the  Taira  ships,  crushed  by  the 
prows  of  their  opponents,  or  scuttled  by  the  iron  bolt-heads  of  the 


138  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Minamoto  archers,  sunk  beneath  the  bubbling  waters,  leaving  red  whirl- 
pools of  blood.  Those  that  were  boarded  were  swept  with  sword  and 
spear  of  thei'"  human  freight.  The  dead  bodies  clogged  the  decks,  on 
which  the  mimic  tides  of  blood  ebbed  and  flowed  and  splashed  with 
the  motion  of  the  waves,  while  the  scuppers  ran  red  like  the  spouts 
of  an  abattoir.  The  warriors  who  leaped  into  the  sea  became  tar- 
gets for  the  avenger's  arrows.  Noble  and  peasant,  woman  and  babe, 
rower  and  archer,  lifting  imploring  arms,  or  sullenly  spurning  mercy, 
perished  by  hundreds. 

That  May  morning  looked  upon  a  blue  sea  laughing  with  unnum- 
bered ripples,  and  glinting  with  the  steel  of  warriors  decked  in  all 
the  glory  of  battle-array,  and  flaunting  with  the  gay  pennants  of  the 
fleet  which  it  seemed  proud  to  bear.  At  night,  heaving  crimson  like 
the  vat  of  a  dyer,  defiled  by  floating  corpses,  and  spewing  its  foul  cor- 
ruption for  miles  along  the  strand,  it  bore  awful  though  transient 
witness  to  the  hate  of  man. 

The  Taira,  driven  ofi  the  face  of  the  earth,  were  buried  with  war's 
red  burial  beneath  the  sea,  that  soon  forgot  its  stain,  and  laughed 
again  in  purity  of  golden  gleam  and  deep-blue  wave.  The  humble 
fisherman  casting  his  nets,  or  trudging  along  the  shore,  in  astonish- 
ment saw  the  delicate  corpses  of  the  court  lady  and  the  tiny  babe, 
and  the  sun-bronzed  bodies  of  rowers,  cast  upon  the  shore.  The  child 
who  waded  in  the  surf  to  pick  up  shells  was  frightened  at  the  wave- 
rolled  carcass  of  the  dead  warrior,  from  whose  breast  the  feathered  ar- 
row or  the  broken  spear-stock  protruded.  The  peasant,  for  many  a 
day  after,  burned  or  consigned  to  the  burial  flames  many  a  fair  child 
whose  silken  dress  and  light  skin  told  of  higher  birth  and  gentler 
blood  than  their  own  rude  brood. 

Among  a  superstitious  people  dwelling  by  and  on  the  sea,  such  an 
awful  ingulfing  of  human  life  made  a  profound  impression.  The 
presence  of  so  many  thousand  souls  of  dead  heroes  was  overpowering. 
For  years,  nay,  for  centuries  afterward,  the  ghosts  of  the  Taira  found 
naught  but  unrest  in  the  sea  in  which  their  mortal  bodies  sunk.  The 
sailor  by  day  hurried  with  bated  breath  past  the  scene  of  slaughter 
and  unsubstantial  life.  The  mariner  by  night,  unable  to  anchor,  and 
driven  by  wind,  spent  the  hours  of  darkness  in  prayer,  while  his  vivid 
imagination  converted  the  dancing  phosphorescence  into  the  white 
hosts  of  the  Taira  dead.  Even  to-day  the  Choshiu  peasant  fancies  he 
sees  the  ghostly  armies  baling  out  the  sea  with  bottomless  dippers, 
condemned  thus  to  cleanse  the  ocean  of  the  stain  of  centuries  ago. 


YORITOMO  AND   THE  MINAMOTO  FAMILY.  139 

A  few  of  the  Taira  escaped  and  fled  to  Kiushiu.  There,  seckided 
in  the  fastnesses  of  deep  valleys  and  high  mountains,  their  descend- 
ants, who  have  kept  themselves  apart  from  their  countrymen  for  near- 
ly seven  hundred  years,  a  few  hundred  in  number,  still  live  in  poverty 
and  pride.  Their  lurking-place  was  discovered  only  within  the  last 
century.  Of  the  women  spared  from  the  massacre,  some  married 
their  conquerors,  some  killed  themselves,  and  others  kept  life  in  their 
defiled  bodies  by  plying  the  trade  in  which  beauty  ever  finds  ready 
customers.  At  the  present  day,  in  Shiraonoseki,*  the  courtesans  de- 
scended from  the  Taira  ladies  claim,  and  are  accorded,  special  pi'ivi- 
leges. 

The  vengeance  of  the  Minamoto  did  not  stop  at  the  sea.  They 
searched  every  hill  and  valley  to  exterminate  every  male  of  the  doom- 
ed clan.  In  Kioto  many  boys  and  infant  sons  of  the  Taira  family 
were  living.  All  that  were  found  were  put  to  death.  The  Herod  of 
Karaakura  sent  his  father-in-law  to  attend  to  the  bloody  business. 

In  the  Fourth  month  the  army  of  Kamakura  returned  to  Kioto,  en- 
joying a  public  triumph,  with  their  spoils  and  prisoners,  retainers  of 
the  Taira.  They  had  also  recovered  the  sacred  emblems.  For  days 
the  streets  of  the  capital  were  gay  with  processions  and  festivals,  and 
the  coffers  of  the  temples  were  enriched  with  the  pious  offerings  of 
the  victors,  and  their  walls  with  votive  tablets  of  gratitude. 

Munemori  was  sent  to  Kamakura,  where  he  saw  the  man  whose 
head  his  father  had  charged  him  on  his  death-bed  to  cut  off  and  hang 
on  his  tomb.  His  own  head  was  shortly  afterward  severed  from  his 
body  by  the  guards  who  were  conducting  him  to  Kioto. 

*  Shimonos^ki  is  a  town  of  great  commercial  importance,  from  its  position  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Inland  Sea.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  long  street  of  two 
miles,  at  the  base  of  a  range  of  low  steep  hills.  It  lies  four  miles  from  the  west- 
ern entrance  of  Hayato  no  s^to,  or  strait  of  Shimonos^ki.  The  strait  is  from 
two  thousand  to  five  thousand  feet  wide,  and  about  seven  miles  long.  Mutsure 
Island  (incorrectly  printed  as  "Rockuren"  on  foreign  charts)  lies  near  the  en- 
trance. On  Hiku  Island,  and  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  strait,  are  light-houses 
equipped  according  to  modern  scientific  requirements.  Four  beacons,  also,  light 
the  passage  at  night.  The  current  is  very  strong.  A  submarine  telegraphic  ca- 
ble now  connects  the  electric  wires  of  Nagasaki,  from  Siberia  to  St.  Petersburg; 
and  of  Shanghae  (China)  to  London  and  New  York,  with  those  of  Tokio  and  Ha- 
kodate On  a  ledge  of  rocks  in  the  channel  is  a  monument  in  honor  of  Antoku, 
the  young  emperor  who  perished  here  in  the  arms  of  his  grandmother,  Tokiko, 
the  Nil  no  ama^  a  title  composed  of  iVii,  noble  of  the  second  rank,  and  ama.,  nun, 
equal  to  "  the  noble  nun  of  the  second  rank." 


140  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XIV. 

CREATION  OF  THE  DUAL  SYSTEM  OF  GOVERNMENT. 

Meanwhile  Yoritomo  was  strengthening  his  power  at  Kamakura 
and  initiating  that  dual  system  of  government  which  has  puzzled  sc 
many  modern  writers  on  Japan,  and  has  given  rise  to  the  supposition 
that  Japan  had  "  two  emperors,  one  temporal,  the  other  spiritual." 

The  country  at  this  time  was  distracted  with  the  disturbances  of 
the  past  few  years ;  robbers  were  numerous,  and  the  Buddhist  mon- 
asteries were  often  nests  of  soldiers.  Possessed  of  wealth,  arms,  ana 
military  equipments,  the  bonzes  were  ever  ready  to  side  with  the  par- 
ty that  pleased  them.  The  presence  of  such  men  and  institutions 
rendered  it  difficult  for  any  one  ruler  to  preserve  tranquillity,  since  it 
was  never  known  at  what  moment  these  professedly  peaceful  men 
would  turn  out  as  trained  bands  of  military  warriors.  To  restore  or- 
der, prosperity,  revenue,  and  firm  government  was  now  the  professed 
wish  of  Yoritomo.  He  left  the  name  and  honor  of  government  at 
Kioto.  He  kept  the  reality  in  Kamakura  in  his  own  hands,  and  for 
nis  own  family. 

In  1184,  while  his  capital  was  rapidly  becoming  a  magnificent  city, 
he  created  the  Mandokoro,  or  Council  of  State,  at  which  all  the  gov- 
ernment affairs  of  the  Kuanto  were  discussed,  and  through  which  the 
administration  of  the  government  was  carried  on.  The  officers  of  the 
Internal  Revenue  Department  in  Kioto,  seeing  which  way  the  tide  of 
power  was  flowing,  had  previously  come  to  Kamakura  bringing  the 
records  of  the  department,  and  became  subject  to  Yoritomo's  orders. 
Thus  the  first  necessity,  revenue,  was  obtained.  A  criminal  tribunal 
was  also  established,  especially  for  the  trial  of  the  numerous  robbers, 
as  well  as  for  ordinary  cases.  He  permitted  all  who  had  objections 
to  make  or  improvements  to  suggest  to  send  in  their  petitions.  He 
requested  permission  of  the  mikado  to  reward  all  who  had  performed 
meritorious  actions,  and  to  disarm  the  priests,  and  to  confiscate  their 
war  materials.  These  requests,  urged  on  the  emperor  in  the  interest 
of  good  government,  were  no  sooner  granted,  and  the  plans  executed. 


CREATION  OF  TEE  DUAL  SYSTEM  OF  GOVERNMENT.        141 

than  the  news  of  the  destruction  of  the  Taira  family  at  Dan  no  ura 
was  received.  Then  Yoritomo  prayed  the  mikado  that  five  men  of 
his  family  name  might  be  made  governors  of  provinces.  The  peti- 
tion was  granted,  and  Yoshitsune  was  made  governor  of  lyo  by  spe- 
cial decree. 

Here  may  be  distinctly  seen  the  first  great  step  toward  the  military 
government  that  lasted  nearly  seven  centuries. 

The  name  of  the  shogun's  government,  and  used  especially  by  its 
opposers,  was  bakufu — literally,  curtain  government,  because  anciently 
in  China,  as  in  Japan,  a  curtain  (baku)  surrounded  the  tent  or  head- 
quarters of  the  commanding  general.  Bakufu,  like  most  technical 
military  terms  in  Japan,  is  a  Chinese  word. 

The  appointing  of  five  military  men  as  governors  of  provinces  was 
a  profound  innovation  in  Japanese  governmental  affairs.  Hitherto  it 
had  been  the  custom  to  appoint  only  civilians  from  the  court  to  those 
offices.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  Yoritomo  at  first  intended 
to  seize  the  military  control  of  the  whole  empire ;  but  his  chief  min- 
ister, Oye  no  Hiromoto,  president  of  the  Council  of  State,  conceived 
another  plan  which,  when  carried  out,  as  it  afterward  was,  threw  all 
real  power  in  Yoritomo's  hands.  As  the  Kuanto  was  tranquil  and 
prosperous  under  \dgorous  government,  and  as  the  Kuanto  troops 
were  used  to  put  down  rebels  elsewhere,  he  proposed  that  in  all  the 
circuits  and  provinces  of  the  empire  a  special  tax  should  be  levied 
for  the  support  of  troops  in  those  places.  By  this  means  a  permanent 
force  could  be  kept,  by  which  the  peace  of  the  empire  could  be  main- 
tained without  the  expense  and  trouble  of  calling  out  the  Eastern 
army.  Also — and  here  w^as  another  step  to  military  government  and 
feudalism — that  a  shiugo — a  military  chief,  should  be  placed  in  each 
province,  dividing  the  authority  with  the  kokushiu,  or  civil  governor, 
and  Sijito,  to  be  appointed  from  Kamakura,  should  rule  jointly  with 
rulers  of  small  districts,  called  shoyen.  Still  further  —  another  step 
in  feudalism — he  proposed  that  his  otvn  relations  who  had  perform- 
ed meritorious  service  in  battle  should  fill  these  ofiices,  and  that  they 
should  all  be  under  his  control  from  Kamakura.  This  was  done,  and 
Yoritomo  thus  acquired  the  governing  power  of  all  Japan. 

It  seems,  at  first  sight,  strange  that  the  mikado  and  his  court  should 
grant  these  propositions ;  yet  they  did  so.  They  saw  the  Kuanto — 
half  the  empire — tranquil  under  the  strong  military  government  of 
Yoritomo.  Hojo,  his  father-in-law,  was  commanding  the  garrison  at 
Kioto.     The  mikado,  Gotoba,  may  be  said  to  have  owed  his  throne  to 

10 


142  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Yoritomo,  whose  ancestors  had  conquered,  almost  added  to  the  reahii, 
all  the  extreme  Northern  and  Eastern  parts  of  Japan.  This  portion, 
merely  tributary  before,  was  now  actually  settled  and  governed  like 
the  older  parts  of  the  empire. 

In  1180,  Yoritomo  made  a  campaign  in  that  part  of  Japan  north  of 
the  thirty-seventh  parallel,  then  called  Mutsu  and  Dewa.  On  his  re- 
turn, being  now  all  -  victorious,  he  visited  the  court  at  Kioto,  The 
quondam  exile  was  now  the  foremost  subject  in  the  empire.  His  re- 
ception and  treatment  by  the  reigning  and  cloistered  emperors  were  in 
the  highest  possible  scale  of  magnificence.  The  splendor  of  his  own 
retinue  astonished  even  the  old  courtiers,  accustomed  to  the  gay  pag- 
eants of  the  capital.  They  could  scarcely  believe  that  such  wealth  ex- 
isted and  such  knowledge  of  the  art  of  display  was  cultivated  in  the 
Kuanto.  Military  shows,  athletic  games,  and  banquets  were  held  for 
many  days,  and  the  costliest  presents  exchanged,  many  of  which  are 
still  shown  at  Kamakura  and  Kioto.  Yoritomo  returned,  clothed 
with  the  highest  honor,  and  with  vastly  greater  jurisdiction  than  had 
ever  been  intrusted  to  a  subject.  With  all  the  civil  functions  ever 
held  by  the  once  rival  Fujiwara,  he  united  in  himself  more  military 
power  than  a  Taira  had  ever  wielded. 

In  1192,  he  attained  to  the  climax  of  honor,  when  the  mikado  ap- 
pointed him  Sei-i  Tai  Shdgun  (Barbarian-subjugating  Great  General),  a 
title  and  office  that  existed  until  1868.  Henceforth  the  term  shogun 
came  to  have  a  new  significance.  Anciently  all  generals  were  called 
shoguns ;  but,  with  new  emphasis  added  to  the  name,  the  shogun  ac- 
quired more  and  more  power,  until  foreigners  supposed  him  to  be  a 
sovereign.  Yet  this  subordinate  from  first  to  last — from  1194  until 
1868  —  was  a  general  only,  and  a  military  vassal  of  the  emperor. 
Though  he  governed  the  country  with  a  strong  military  hand,  he  did 
it  as  a  vassal,  in  the  name  and  for  the  sake  of  the  mikado  at  Kioto. 

Peace  now  reigned  in  Japan.  The  soldier-ruler  at  Kamakura  spent 
the  prime  of  his  life  in  consolidating  his  power,  expecting  to  found  a 
family  that  should  rule  for  many  generations.  He  encouraged  hunt- 
ing on  Mount  Fuji,  and  sports  calculated  to  foster  a  martial  spirit  in 
the  enervating  times  of  peace.  In  1195,  he  made  another  visit  to 
Kioto,  staying  four  months.  Toward  the  end  of  1198,  he  had  a  fall 
from  his  horse,  and  died  early  in  1199.  He  was  fifty -three  years  old, 
and  had  ruled  fifteen  years. 

Yoritomo  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  ablest  rulers  and  greatest 
generals  that  ever  lived  in  Japan.     Yet,  while  all  acknowledge  hi? 


CREATION  OF  THE  DUAL  FORM  OF  GOVERNMENT.  143 

consummate  ability,  many  regard  him  as  a  cruel  tyrant,  and  a  heart- 
less and  selfish  man.  His  treatment  of  his  two  brothers,  Noriyon 
and  Yoshitsune,  are  evidences  that  this  opinion  is  too  well  founded. 
Certain  it  is  that  the  splendor  of  Yoritomo's  career  has  never  blinded 
the  minds  of  posterity  to  his  selfishness  and  cruelty ;  and  though,  like 
Napoleon,  he  has  had  his  eulogists,  yet  the  example  held  up  for  the 
imitation  of  youth  is  that  of  Yoshitsune,  and  not  Yoritomo.  Mori 
says  of  the  latter :  "  He  encouraged  each  of  his  followers  to  believe 
himself  the  sole  confidant  of  his  leader's  schemes,  and  in  this  cunning 
manner  separated  their  interests,  and  made  them  his  own.  Nearly  all 
of  those  around  him  who  became  possible  rivals  in  power  or  populari- 
ty were  cruelly  handled  when  he  had  exhausted  the  benefit  of  their 
service."  His  simple  tomb  stands  at  the  top  of  a  knoll  on  the  slope 
of  hills  a  few  hundred  yards  distant  from  the  great  temple  at  Kama- 
kura,  overlooking  the  fields  on  which  a  mighty  city  once  rose,  when 
called  into  being  by  his  genius  and  energy,  which  flourished  for  cent- 
uries, and  disappeared,  to  allow  luxuriant  Nature  to  again  assert  her 
sway.  The  rice-swamps  and  the  millet-fields  now  cover  the  former 
sites  of  his  proudest  palaces.  Where  metropolitan  splendor  and  lux- 
ury once  predominated,  the  irreverent  tourist  bandies  his  jests,  or  the 
toiling  farmer  stands  knee-deep  in  the  fertile  ooze,  to  win  from  classic 
soil  his  taxes  and  his  daily  food. 

The  victory  over  the  Taira  was  even  greater  than  Yoritomo  had 
supposed  possible.  Though  exulting  in  the  results,  he  burned  with 
jealousy  that  Yoshitsune  had  the  real  claim  to  the  honor  of  victory. 
While  in  this  mood,  there  were  not  wanting  men  to  poison  his  mind, 
and  fan  the  suspicions  into  fires  of  hate.  There  was  one  Kajiwara, 
who  had  been  a  military  adviser  to  the  expedition  to  destroy  the  Taira. 
On  one  occasion,  Yoshitsune  advised  a  night  attack  in  full  force  on 
the  enemy.  Kajiwara  opposed  the  project,  and  hindered  it.  Yoshi- 
tsune, with  only  fifty  men,  carried  out  his  plan,  and,  to  the  chagrin 
and  disgrace  of  Kajiwara,  he  won  a  brilliant  victory.  This  man,  in- 
censed at  his  rival,  and  consuming  with  wrath,  hied  to  Yoritomo  with 
tales  and  slanders,  which  the  jealous  brother  too  willingly  believed. 
Yoshitsune,  returning  as  a  victor,  and  with  the  spoils  for  liis  brother, 
received  peremptory  orders  not  to  enter  Kamakura,  but  to  remain 
in  the  village  of  Koshigoye,  opposite  the  isle  of  Enoshima.  While 
there,  he  wrote  a  touching  letter,  recounting  all  his  toils  and  dangers 
while  pursuing  the  Taira,  and  appealing  for  clearance  of  his  name 
from  slander  and  suspicion.     It  was  sent  to  Oye  no  Hiromoto,  chief 


144  THE  MIKADO'S  EltlFIBE. 

councilor  of  Yoritomo,  whom  Yoshitsune  begged  to  intercede  to  his 
brother  for  him.  This  letter,  still  extant,  and  considered  a  model  of 
filial  and  fraternal  affection,  is  taught  by  parents  to  their  children.  It 
is  among  the  most  pathetic  writings  in  Japanese  literature,  and  is 
found  in  one  of  the  many  popular  collections  of  famous  letters. 

Wearying  of  waiting  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  Yoshitsune  went  to 
Kioto.  Yoritomo's  troops,  obeying  orders,  attacked  his  house  to  kill 
him.  He  fled,  with  sixteen  retainers,  into  Yamato.  There  he  was 
again  attacked,  but  escaped  and  fled.  He  now  determined  to  go  to 
Oshiu,  to  his  old  friend  Hidehira.  He  took  the  route  along  the  west 
coast,  through  Echizen,  Kaga,  and  Echigo,  and  found  a  refuge,  as  he 
supposed,  with  Hidehira.  The  spies  of  his  brother  soon  discovered 
his  lurking-place,  and  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death.  The  son  of 
Hidehira  attacked  him.  According  to  popular  belief,  Yoshitsune,  aft- 
er killing  his  wife  and  children  with  his  own  hands,  committed  hara- 
kiri.     His  head,  preserved  in  sake,  was  sent  to  Kamakura. 

The  exact  truth  concerning  the  death  of  Yoshitsune  is  by  no  means 
yet  ascertained.  It  is  declared  by  some  that  he  escaped  and  fled  to 
Yezo,  where  he  lived  among  the  Ainos  for  many  years,  and  died 
among  them,  either  naturally  or  by  hara-kiri.  The  Ainos  have  a 
great  reverence  for  his  deeds,  and  to  this  day  Avorship  his  spirit,  and 
over  his  grave  in  Hitaka  they  have  erected  a  shrine.  Others  assert 
that  he  fled  to  Asia,  and  became  the  great  conqueror,  Genghis  Khan.* 
Concerning  this  last,  a  Japanese  student  once  remarked,  "  Nothing 
but  the  extraordinary  vanity  of  the  Japanese  people  could  originate 
such  a  report." 

*  In  a  Chinese  book  called  Seppu,  a  collection  of  legends  and  historical  mis- 
cellanies, published  in  China,  it  is  stated  that  Genghis  Khan  was  one  Yoshitsu- 
ne, who  came  from  Japan.  The  Chinese  form  of  Minamoto  Yoshitsune  is  Gen 
Gik^.  He  was  also  called,  after  his  reputed  death,  Temujin  (or  Tenjin).  As  is 
well  known,  the  Mongol  conqueror's  name  was  originally,  on  his  first  appear- 
ance, Temujin.  The  Japanese  Ainos  have  also  apotheosized  Yoshitsund  under 
the  title  Hanguan  Dai  Mio  Jin  —  Great  Illustrious  Lawgiver.  Yoshitsund  was 
born  in  1159 ;  he  was  thirty  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  reputed  death.  Genghis 
Khan  was  born,  according  to  the  usually  received  data,  in  IIGO,  and  died  1227.  If 
Gen  Gike  and  Genghis  Khan,  or  Gengis  Kan,  were  identical,  the  hero  had  thirty- 
eight  years  for  his  achievements.  Genghis  Khan  was  born,  it  is  said,  with  his 
hand  full  of  blood.  Obeying  the  words  of  a  shaman  (inspired  seer),  he  took  the 
name  Genghis  (greatest),  and  called  his  people  Mongols  (bold).  The  conquest  of 
the  whole  earth  was  promised  him.  He  and  his  sons  subjugated  China  and  Co- 
rea,  overthrew  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad,  and  extended  the  Mongolian  empire  as 
far  as  the  Oder  and  the  Danube.  They  attempted  to  conquer  Japan,  as  we  shall 
see  in  the  chapter  headed  "  The  Invasion  of  the  Mongol  Tartars." 


CREATION  OF  THE  DUAL  FORM  OF  GOVERNMENT.         145 

Nevertheless,  the  immortality  of  Yoshitsune  is  secured.  Worshiped 
as  a  god  by  the  Ainos,  honored  and  beloved  by  every  Japanese  youth 
as  an  ideal  hero  of  chivalry,  his  features  pictured  on  boys'  kites,  his 
mien  and  form  represented  in  household  effigies  displayed  annually 
at  the  boys'  great  festival  of  flags,  glorified  in  art,  song,  and  story, 
Yoshitsune,  the  hero  warrior  and  martyr,  will  live  in  unfading  memo- 
ry so  long  as  the  ideals  of  the  warlike  Japanese  stand  unshattered  or 
their  traditions  are  preserved.* 

*  The  struggles  of  the  rival  houses  of  Gen  and  Hei  form  an  inexhaustible  mine 
of  incidents  to  the  playwright,  author,  poet,  and  artist.  I  can  not  resist  the 
temptation  of  giving  one  of  these  m  this  place.  Tlie  artist's  representation  of 
it  adorns  many  a  Japanese  house.  At  the  siege  of  Ichiuotani,  a  famous  captain, 
named  Naozane,  who  fought  under  the  white  flag,  while  in  camp  one  day  invest- 
ing the  Taira  forces,  saw  a  boat  approach  the  beach  fronting  the  fort.  Shortly 
after,  a  Taira  soldier  rode  out  of  the  castle-gate  into  the  waves  to  embark.  Nao- 
zane saw,  by  the  splendid  crimson  armor  and  golden  helmet  of  the  rider,  that  he 
was  a  Taira  noble.  Here  was  a  prize  indeed,  the  capture  of  which  would  make 
the  Kuanto  captain  a  general.  Naozane  thundered  out  the  challenge:  "Do  my 
eyes  deceive  me?  Is  he  a  Taira  leader;  and  is  he  such  a  coward  that  he  shows 
Ills  back  to  the  eye  of  his  enemy?  Come  back  and  flght!"  The  rider  was  in- 
deed a  Taira  noble,  young  Atsumori,  only  sixteen  years  of  age,  of  high  and  gen- 
tle birth,  and  had  been  reared  in  the  palace.  Naozane  was  a  bronzed  veteran  of 
forty  years.  Both  charged  each  other  on  horseback,  with  swords  drawn.  After 
a  few  passes,  Naozane  flung  away  his  sword,  and,  unarmed,  rushed  to  grasp  his 
foe.  Not  yet  to  be  outdone  in  gallantry,  Atsumori  did  the  same.  Both  clinched 
while  in  the  saddle,  and  fell  to  the  sand,  the  old  campaigner  uppermost.  He 
tore  off  the  golden  helmet,  and,  to  his  amazement,  saw  the  pale,  smooth  face  and 
noble  mien  of  a  noble  boy  that  looked  just  like  his  own  beloved  son  of  the  same 
age.  The  father  was  more  than  the  soldier.  The  victor  trembled  with  emotion. 
"  How  wretched  the  life  of  a  warrior  to  have  to  kill  such  a  lovely  boy !  How 
miserable  will  those  parents  be  who  find  their  darling  is  in  an  enemy's  hand  ! 
Wretched  me,  that  I  thought  to  destroy  this  life  for  the  sake  of  reward !"  He 
then  resolved  to  let  his  enemy  go  secretly  away,  and  make  his  escape.  At  that 
moment  a  loud  voice  shouted  angrily,  "  Naozane  is  double-hearted  :  he  captures 
an  enemy,  and  then  thinks  to  let  him  escape."  Thus  compelled,  Naozane  steeled 
his  heart,  took  up  his  sword,  and  cut  off  Atsumori's  head.  He  carried  the  bloody 
trophy  to  Yoshitsune,  and,  while  all  stood  admiring  and  ready  to  applaud,  Nao- 
zane refused  all  reward,  and,  to  the  amazement  of  his  chief  and  the  whole  camp, 
begged  leave  to  resign.  DoflSng  helmet,  armor,  and  sword,  he  shaved  off  his 
hair,  and  became  a  disciple  of  the  holy  bonze  Honen,  learned  the  doctrines  of 
Buddha,  and,  becoming  profoundly  versed  in  the  sacred  lore,  he  resolved  to  spend 
the  remnant  of  his  days  in  a  monastery.  He  set  out  for  the  Kuanto,  riding  with 
his  face  to  the  tail  of  the  animal,  but  in  the  direction  of  paradise.  Some  one 
asked  him  why  he  rode  thus.    He  replied, 

"In  the  Clear  Land,  perchance  they're  me  reputing 
A  warrior  brave, 
Because  I  turn  my  back,  refusing 

Fame,  once  so  dear." 


146  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XV. 

THE  OLORT  AND  THE  FALL   OF  THE  HO  JO  FAMILY. 

Though  there  may  be  some  slight  justification  of  Yoritomo's  set 
ting  up  a  dual  system  of  government  to  control  and  check  the  in- 
trigues of  courtiers  at  Kioto,  yet  at  best  it  was  a  usurpation  of  the 
power  belonging  only  to  the  mikado.  The  creation  of  a  duarchy  was 
the  swift  and  sure  result  of  Japan  having  no  foreign  enemies. 

So  long  as  the  peace  or  existence  of  the  empire  was  threatened  by 
the  savages  on  the  frontier,  or  by  invading  fleets  on  the  sea-coast, 
there  was  an  hnpelling  cause  to  bind  together  the  throne  and  people ; 
but  when  the  barbarians  were  tranquilized,  China  and  Corea  gave  no 
signs  of  war ;  and  especially  when  the  nobility  were  divided  into  the 
civil  and  military  classes,  and  the  mikado  was  no  longer  a  man  of 
physical  and  mental  vigor,  a  division  of  the  governing  power  natural- 
ly arose. 

From  the  opening  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  course  of  Japanese 
history  flows  in  two  streams.  There  were  now  two  capitals,  Kioto 
and  Kamakura,  and  two  centres  of  authority :  one,  the  lawful  but 
overawed  emperor  and  the  imperial  court ;  the  other,  the  military  vas- 
sal, and  a  government  based  on  the  power  of  arms.  It  must  never  be 
forgotten,  however,  that  the  fountain  of  authority  was  in  Kioto,  the 
ultimate  seat  of  power  in  the  ancient  constitution.  Throughout  the 
centuries  the  prestige  of  the  mikado's  person  never  declined.  The 
only  conditions  under  which  it  was  possible  for  this  division  of  po- 
litical power  to  exist  was  the  absence  of  foreigners  from  the  soil  of 
Japan.  So  soon  as  Japan  entered  into  political  relations  Avith  outside 
nations,  which  would  naturally  seek  the  real  source  of  power,  the  du- 
archy was  doomed. 

When  Yoritomo  died,  all  men  wondered  whether  the  power  would 
remain  at  Kamakura,  the  country  rest  peaceful,  and  his  successors 
reign  with  ability.  The  Japanese  have  a  proverb  conveying  a  bitter 
truth,  learned  from  oft-repeated  experience,  ^^Taisho  ni  tane  ga  nashV 
(The  general  has  no  child,  or,  There  is  no  seed  to  a  great  man).     The 


THE  GLORY  AND  FALL   OF  THE  HOJO  FA3IILY.  147 

spectacle  of  a  great  house  decaying  through  the  inanity  or  supineness 
of  sons  is  constantly  repeated  in  their  history.  The  theme  also  forms 
the  basis  of  their  standard  novels.  Yoritomo's  sons,  not  inheriting 
their  father's  ability,  failed  to  wield  his  personal  power  of  administra- 
tion. From  the  day  of  his  death,  it  may  be  said  that  the  glory  of 
the  Minamoto  family  declined,  while  that  of  the  Hojo  began. 

Yet  it  seemed  strange  that  the  proverb  should  be  verified  in  this 
case.  Yoritomo  had  married  no  ordinary  female.  His  wife,  Masago, 
was  a  woman  of  uncommon  intellectual  ability,  who  had  borne  him  a 
son,  Yoriiye.  This  young  man,  who  was  eighteen  years  old  at  his 
father's  death,  was  immediately  appointed  chief  of  all  the  military 
officers  in  the  empire,  and  it  was  expected  he  would  equal  his  father 
in  military  prowess  and  administrative  skill.  His  mother,  Masago, 
though  a  shorn  nun,  who  had  professed  retirement  from  the  world, 
continued  to  take  a  very  active  part  in  the  government. 

The  parental  authority  and  influence  in  Japan,  as  in  China,  is  often 
far  greater  than  that  of  any  other.  Not  even  death  or  the  marriage 
relation  weakens,  to  any  great  extent,  the  hold  of  a  father  on  a  child. 
With  affection  on  the  one  hand,  and  cunning  on  the  other,  an  un- 
scrupulous father  may  do  what  he  wdll.  We  have  seen  how  the  Fuji- 
wara  and  Taira  families  controlled  court,  throne,  and  emperor,  by  mar- 
rying their  daughters  to  infant  or  boy  mikados.  We  shall  now  find 
the  Hojo  dispensing  the  power  at  Kamakura  by  means  of  a  crafty 
woman  willing  to  minister  to  her  father's  rather  than  to  her  son's 
aggrandizement. 

Hojo  Tokimasa  was  the  father  of  Masago,  wife  of  Yoritomo.  The 
latter  always  had  great  confidence  in  and  respect  for  the  abilities  of 
his  father-in-law.  At  his  death,  Tokimasa  became  chief  of  the  coun- 
cil of  state.  Instead  of  assisting  and  training  Yoriiye  in  government 
affairs,  giving  him  the  benefit  of  his  experience,  and  thus  enabling 
the  son  to  tread  in  his  father's  footsteps,  he  would  not  allow  Yori  iye 
to  hear  cases  in  person,  or  to  take  active  share  in  public  business. 
^ATien  the  youth  plunged  into  dissipation  and  idleness,  which  termi- 
nated in  a  \dcious  course  of  life,  his  mother  often  reproved  him, 
while  Tokimasa,  doubtless  rejoicing  over  the  fact,  pretended  to  know 
nothing  of  the  matter.  All  this  time,  however,  he  was  filling  the  of- 
fices of  government,  not  with  the  Minamoto  adherents,  but  with  his 
own  kindred  and  partisans.  Nepotism  in  Japan  is  a  science;  but 
cursed  as  the  Japanese  have  been,  probably  none  exceeded  in  this 
subtle  craft  the  master,  Tokimasa ;  though  Yoriiye,  receiving  his  fa- 


148  THE  MIKADO'S  S^fPIRK 

ther's  office,  had  been  appointed  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun,  with  the  rank  ju- 
ni-i  (second  division  of  the  second  rank),  his  grandfather  still  kept 
the  real  power.  When  twenty-two  years  of  age,  while  he  was  suffer- 
ing from  sickness  —  probably  the  result  of  his  manner  of  life  —  his 
mother  and  Tokimasa,  who  instigated  her,  attempted  to  compel  him 
to  resign  his  office,  and  to  give  the  superintendency  of  the  provincial 
o-overnors  to  his  infant  son,  and  set  over  the  Kuansei,  or  Western 
Japan,  his  younger  brother,  aged  twelve  years.  This  was  the  old 
trick  of  setting  up  boys  and  babies  on  the  nominal  seat  of  power,  in 
order  that  crafty  subordinates  might  rule. 

Yoriiye  heard  of  this  plan,  and  resolved  to  avert  its  execution.  He 
failed,  and,  as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  was  compelled  to  shave  off  his 
hair,  as  a  sign  that  his  interest  in  political  affairs  had  ceased.  He 
was  exiled  to  a  temple  in  Idzu.  Tliere  he  was  strangled,  while  in  his 
bath,  by  the  hired  assassins  sent  by  Tokimasa. 

Sanetomo,  brother  of  Yoriiye,  succeeded  in  office.  The  boy  was 
but  twelve  years  old,  and  very  unlike  his  father.  He  cared  nothing 
for  hunting  or  military  exercises.  His  chief  occupation  was  in  play- 
ing foot-ball  —  a  very  mild  game,  compared  with  that  played  in  this 
country — and  composing  poetry.  His  time  was  spent  with  fair  girls 
and  women,  of  whom  he  had  as  many  as  he  wished.  All  this  was  in 
accordance  with  the  desire  and  plans  of  the  Ho  jo  family,  who  mean- 
while wielded  all  power.  Sanetomo  lived  his  luxuriant  life  in  the 
harem,  the  bath,  and  the  garden,  until  twenty-eight  years  old.  Mean- 
while, Kugio,  the  son  of  Yoriiye,  who  had  been  made  a  priest,  grew 
up,  and  had  always  looked  upon  Sanetomo,  instead  of  Tokimasa,  as 
his  father's  murderer.  One  night  as  Sanetomo  was  returning  from 
worship  at  the  famous  shrine  of  Tsurugaoka  —  the  unusual  hour  of 
nine  having  been  chosen  by  the  diviners — Kugio  leaped  out  from  be- 
hind a  staircase,  cut  off  Sanetomo's  head,  and  made  off  with  it,  but 
was  himself  beheaded  by  a  soldier  sent  after  him.  The  main  line  of 
the  Minamoto  family  was  now  extinct.  Thus,  in  the  very  origin  and 
foundation  of  the  line  of  shoguns,  the  same  fate  befell  them  as  in 
the  case  of  the  emperors — the  power  wielded  by  an  illustrious  ances- 
tor, when  transferred  to  descendants,  was  lost.  A  nominal  ruler  sat 
on  the  throne,  while  a  wire-puller  behind  directed  every  movement. 
This  is  the  history  of  every  line  of  shoguns  that  ruled  from  the  first, 
in  1196,  until  the  last,  in  1868. 

The  usurpation  of  the  Hojo  was  a  double  usurpation.     Properly, 
they  were  vassals  of  the  shogun,  who  was  himself  a  vassal  of  the  mi- 


THE  GLORT  AND  FALL   OF  THE  HO  JO  FAMILY.  149 

kado.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  emperor  at  Kioto  calmly 
looked  on,  caring  for  none  of  these  things  at  Kamakura.  The  meshes 
of  the  Minamoto  had  been  woven  completely  round  the  imperial  au- 
thority. Now  the  Hojo,  like  a  new  spider,  was  spinning  a  more  fatal 
thread,  sucking  from  the  emperor,  as  from  a  helpless  fly,  the  life- 
blood  of  power. 

The  Hojo  family  traced  their  descent  from  the  mikado  Kuammu 
(782-805)  through  Sadamori,  a  Taira  noble,  from  whom  Tokimasa 
was  the  seventh  in  descent.  Their  ancestors  had  settled  at  Hojo,  in 
Idzu,  whence  they  took  their  name.  While  the  Minamoto  rose  to 
power,  the  Hojo  assisted  them,  and,  by  intermarriage,  the  two  clans 
had  become  closely  attached  to  each  other. 

The  names  of  the  twelve  rulers,  usually  reckoned  as  seven  genera- 
tions, were :  Tokimasa,  Yoshitoki,  Yasutoki,  Tsunetoki,  Tokiyori,  Masa- 
toki,  Tokimune,  Sadatoki,  Morotoki,  Hirotoki,  Takatoki,  and  Moritoki. 
Of  these,  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  were  the  ablest,  and  most  de- 
voted to  public  business.  It  was  on  the  strength  of  their  merit  and 
fame  that  their  successors  were  so  long  able  to  hold  power.  Yasu- 
toki established  two  councils,  the  one  with  legislative  and  executive, 
and  the  other  with  judicial  powers.  Both  were  representative  of  the 
wishes  of  the  people.  He  promulgated  sixty  regulations  in  respect  to 
the  method  of  judicature.  This  judicial  record  is  of  great  value  to 
the  historian;  and  long  afterward,  in  1534,  an  edition  of  Yasuto- 
ki's  laws,  in  one  volume,  with  a  commentary,  was  published.  In  later 
times  it  has  been  in  popular  use  as  a  copy-book  for  children.  He 
also  took  an  oath  before  the  assembly  to  maintain  the  same  wdth 
equity,  swearing  by  the  gods  of  Japan,  saying,  "  We  stand  as  judges 
of  the  whole  country ;  if  we  be  partial  in  our  judgments,  may  the 
Heavenly  Gods  punish  us."  In  his  private  life  he  was  self-abnegative 
and  benevolent,  a  polite  and  accomplished  scholar,  loving  the  society 
of  the  learned.  Tsunetoki  faithfully  executed  the  laws,  and  carried 
out  the  policy  of  his  predecessor.  Tokiyori,  before  he  became  regent, 
traveled,  usually  in  disguise,  all  over  the  empire,  to  examine  into  the 
details  of  local  administration,  and  to  pick  out  able  men,  so  as  to  put 
them  in  office  when  he  should  need  their  services.  In  his  choice  he 
made  no  distinction  of  rank.  Among  the  upright  men  he  elevated  to 
the  judges'  bench  was  the  Awodo,  who,  for  conscientious  reasons,  never 
wore  silk  garments,  nor  a  lacquered  scabbard  to  his  sword,  nor  ever 
held  a  bribe  in  his  hand.  He  was  the  terror  of  venal  oflBcials,  injustice 
and  bribery  being  known  to  him  as  if  by  sorcery ;  while  every  detected 


150  THE  MIKADO'S  E3IPIRE. 

culprit  was  sure  to  be  disgracefully  cashiered.  H5jo  Akitoki  estab- 
lished a  library,  consisting  of  Chinese,  Confucian,  Buddhistic,  and  na- 
tive literature,  at  Kanazawa,  in  Sagami.  Here  scholars  gathered, 
^nd  students  flocked,  to  hear  their  lectures  and  to  study  the  classics, 
or  the  tenets  of  the  faith,  nearly  all  the  learned  men  of  this  period 
being  priests.  While  the  writer  of  the  Guai  Shi  attacks  the  Hojo  for 
their  usurpations,  he  applauds  them  for  their  abilities  and  excellent 
administration. 

The  line  of  shoguns  who  nominally  ruled  from  1199  to  1333  were 
merely  their  creatures ;  and  that  period  of  one  hundred  and  forty 
years,  including  seven  generations,  may  be  called  the  period  of  the 
Hojo.  The  political  history  of  these  years  is  but  that  of  a  monoto- 
nous recurrence  of  the  exaltation  of  boys  and  babies  of  noble  blood, 
to  whom  was  given  the  semblance  of  power,  who  were  sprinkled  with 
titles,  and  deposed  as  soon  as  they  were  old  enough  to  be  trouble- 
some. None  of  the  Hojo  ever  seized  the  office  of  Shogun,  but  in 
reality  they  wielded  all  and  more  of  the  power  attaching  to  the  office, 
under  the  title  of  shikken.  It  was  an  august  game  of  state-craft,  in 
which  little  children  with  colossal  names  were  set  up  like  nine-pins, 
and  bowled  down  as  suited  the  playful  fancies  of  subordinates  who 
declined  name  and  titles,  and  kept  the  reality  of  power.  The  count- 
ers were  neglected,  while  the  prize  was  won. 

After  the  line  of  Yoritomo  became  extinct,  Yoritomo's  widow.  Ma- 
sago,  requested  of  the  imperial  court  at  Kioto  that  Yoritsune,  a  Fuji- 
wara  baby  two  years  old,  should  be  made  shogun.  The  Fujiwara  no- 
bles were  glad  to  have  even  a  child  of  their  blood  elevated  to"  a  posi- 
tion in  which,  when  grown,  he  might  have  power.  The  baby  came 
to  Kamakura.  He  cast  the  shadow  of  authority  twenty-five  years, 
when  he  was  made  to  resign,  in  1244,  in  favor  of  his  own  baby  boy, 
Yoshitsugu,  six  years  old.  This  boy-shogun  when  fourteen  years  old, 
in  1252,  was  deposed  by  Hojo  Tokiyori,  and  sent  back  to  Kioto. 
Tired  of  the  Fujiwara  scions,  the  latter  then  obtained  as  shogun  a 
more  august  victim,  the  boy  Munetaka,  a  son  of  the  emperor  Go-Saga, 
who  after  fourteen  years  fell  ill,  in  1266,  with  that  very  common  Jap- 
anese disease — official  illness.  He  was  probably  compelled  to  feign 
disease.  His  infant  son,  three  years  of  age,  was  then  set  up,  and, 
when  twenty-three  years  of  age  (1289),  was  bowled  down  by  Hojo 
Sadatoki,  who  sent  him  in  disgrace,  heels  upward,  in  a  palanquin  to 
Kioto.  Hisaakira,  the  third  son  of  the  emperor  Go-Fukakusa,  was 
set  up  as  shogun  in  1289.     The  Hojo  bowled  down  this  fresh  dum- 


THE  GLORY  AND  FALL   OF  THE  HOJO  FAMILY.  15i 

my  in  1308,  and  put  up  Morikuni,  his  eldest  son.  This  was  the  last  sho- 
gun  of  imperial  blood.     The  game  of  the  players  was  now  nearly  over. 

The  ex-emperor,  Gotoba,  made  a  desperate  effort  to  drive  the  usurp- 
ing Ho  jo  from  power.  A  small  and  gallant  army  was  raised ;  fighting 
took  place ;  but  the  handful  of  imperial  troops  was  defeated  by  the 
overwhelming  hosts  sent  from  Kamakura.  Their  victory  riveted  the 
chains  upon  the  imperial  family.  To  the  arrogant  insolence  of  the 
usurper  was  now  added  the  cruelty  of  the  conscious  tyrant. 

Never  before  had  such  outrageous  deeds  been  committed,  or  such, 
insults  been  heaped  upon  the  sovereigns  as  were  done  by  these  up- 
starts at  Kamakura.  Drunk  with  blood  and  exultation,  the  Hoj5 
wreaked  their  vengeance  on  sovereign  and  subject  alike.  Banish- 
ment and  confiscation  were  the  order  of  their  day.  The  ex-emperor 
was  compelled  to  shave  off  his  hair,  and  was  exiled  to  the  island  of 
Oki.  The  reigning  mikado  was  deposed,  and  sent  to  Sado.  Two 
princes  of  the  blood  were  banished  to  Tajima  and  Bizen.  The  ex-em- 
peror Tsuchimikado  —  there  were  now  three  living  emperors — not 
willing  to  dwell  in  palace  luxury  while  his  brethren  were  in  exile,  ex- 
pressed a  wish  to  share  their  fate.  He  was  sent  to  Awa.  To  com- 
plete the  victory  and  the  theft  of  power,  the  Hojo  chief  Yasutoki 
confiscated  the  estates  of  all  who  had  fought  on  the  emperor's  side, 
and  distributed  them  among  his  own  minions.  Over  three  thousand 
fiefs  were  thus  disposed  of.  No  camp-followers  ever  stripped  a  dead 
hero's  body  worse  than  these  human  vultures  tore  from  the  lawful 
sovereign  the  last  fragment  of  authority.  All  over  Japan  the  patriots 
heard,  with  groans  of  despair,  the  slaughter  of  the  loyal  army,  and  the 
pitiful  fate  of  their  emperors.  The  imperial  exile  died  in  Sado  of  a 
broken  heart.  A  nominal  mikado  at  Kioto,  and  a  nominal  shogun  at 
Kamakura,  were  set  up,  but  the  Hojo  were  the  keepers  of  both. 

The  later  days  of  the  Hojo  present  a  spectacle  of  tyranny  and  mis- 
government  such  as  would  disgrace  the  worst  Asiatic  bureaucracy. 
The  distinguished  and  able  men  such  as  at  first  shed  lustre  on  the 
name  of  this  family  were  no  more.  The  last  of  them  were  given  to 
luxury  and  carousal,  and  the  neglect  of  public  business.  A  horde  of 
rapacious  officials  sucked  the  life-blood  and  paralyzed  the  energies  of 
the  people.  To  obtain  means  to  support  themselves  in  luxury,  they 
increased  the  weight  of  taxes,  that  ever  crushes  the  spirit  of  the  Asi- 
atic peasant.  Their  triple  oppression,  of  mikado,  shogun,  and  people, 
became  intolerable.  The  handwriting  was  on  the  wall.  Their  day* 
were  numbered. 


152  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIBE. 

In  1327,  Moriyoslii,  son  of  the  Emperor  Go-Daigo,  began  to  mature 
plans  for  the  recovery  of  imperial  power.  By  means  of  the  ubiqui- 
tous spies,  and  through  treachery,  his  schemes  were  revealed,  and  he 
was  only  saved  from  punishment  from  Hojo  by  being  ordered  by  his 
father  to  retire  into  a  Buddhist  monastery.  This  was  ostensibly  to 
show  that  he  had  given  up  all  interest  in  worldly  affairs.  In  reality, 
however,  he  assisted  his  father  in  planning  the  destruction  of  Hojo. 
He  lived  at  Oto,  and  was  called,  by  the  people,  Oto  no  miya.  The 
Emperor  Go-Daigo,  though  himself  put  on  the  throne  by  the  king- 
makers at  Kamakura,  chafed  under  the  galling  dictatorship  of  those 
who  were  by  right  his  vassals.  He  resolved  to  risk  life,  and  all  that 
was  dear  to  him,  to  overthrow  the  dual  system,  and  establish  the  orig- 
inal splendor  and  prestige  of  the  mikadoate.  He  knew  the  reverence 
of  the  people  for  the  throne  would  sustain  him,  could  he  but  raise  suf- 
ficient military  force  to  reduce  the  Hojo. 

He  secured  the  aid  of  the  Buddhist  priests  and,  in,  1330,  fortified 
Kasagi,  in  Yamato.  Kusunoki  Masashige  about  the  same  time  arose 
in  Kawachi,  making  it  the  aim  of  his  life  to  restore  the  mikadoate. 
The  next  year  Hojo  sent  an  army  against  Kasagi,  attacked  and  burned 
it.  The  emperor  was  taken  prisoner,  and  banished  to  Oki.  Ku- 
sunoki, though  twice  besieged,  escaped,  and  lived  to  win  immortal 
fame. 

Connected  with  this  mikado's  sad  fate  is  one  incident  of  great 
dramatic  interest,  which  has  been  enshrined  in  Japanese  art,  besides 
finding  worthy  record  in  history.  While  Go-Daigo  was  on  his  way 
to  banishment,  borne  in  a  palanquin,  under  guard  of  the  soldiers 
of  Hojo,  Kojima  Takanori  attempted  to  rescue  his  sovereign.  This 
young  nobleman  was  the  third  son  of  the  lord  of  Bingo,  who  occupied 
his  hereditary  possessions  in  Bizen.  Setting  out  with  a  band  of  re- 
tainers to  intercept  the  convoy  and  to  release  the  imperial  prisoner,  at 
the  hill  of  Funasaka  he  waited  patiently  for  the  train  to  approach, 
finding,  when  too  late,  that  he  had  occupied  the  wrong  pass.  Has- 
tening to  the  rear  range  of  hills,  they  learned  that  the  objects  of  their 
search  had  already  gone  by.  Kojima's  followers,  being  now  disheart- 
ened, returned,  leaving  him  alone.  He,  however,  cautious,  followed 
on,  and  for  several  days  attempted  in  vain  to  approach  the  palanquin 
and  whisper  a  word  of  hope  in  the  ear  of  the  imperial  exile.  The 
vigilance  of  the  H5j6  vassals  rendering  all  succor  hopeless,  Kojima 
hit  upon  a  plan  that  baffled  his  enemies  and  lighted  hope  in  the  bosom 
of  the  captive.     Secretly  entering  the  garden  of  the  inn  at  which  the 


THE  GLORY  AND  FALL   OF  THE  HO  JO  FAMILY. 


153 


party  was  resting  at  night,  Kojima  scraped  off  the  hai'k  of  a  cherry- 
tree,  and  wrote  in  ink,  on  the  inner  white  membrane,  this  poetic  stanza, 


"Tbi  Kosen  wo  hordbom  nakare 
Toki  7ii  Hanrei  naki  ni  shimo  aradzu.'' 

(0  Heaven !  destroy  not  Kosen, 
While  Hanrei  still  lives.) 


The  allusion,  couched  in  delicate  phrase,  is  to  Kosen,  an  ancient  king 
in  China,  who  was  dethroned  and  made  prisoner,  but  was  afterward 
restored  to  honor  and  power  by  the  faithfulness  and  valor  of  his  re- 
tainer, Hanrei, 


if 

11'  ^:    ^r 


Kojima  Writing  on  the  Cherry-tree.    (Vignette  upon  the  greenback  national-buuk  notes.) 


The  next  morning,  the  attention  of  the  soldiers  was  excited  by  the 
fresh  handwriting  on  the  tree.  As  none  of  them  were  able  to  read, 
they  showed  it  to  the  Emperor  Go-Daigo,  who  read  the  writing,  and  its 
significance,  in  a  moment.  Concealing  his  joy,  he  went  to  banish- 
ment, keeping  hope  alive  during  his  loneliness.  He  knew  that  he 
was  not  forgotten  by  his  faithful  vassals.  Kojima  afterward  fought  to 
restore  the  mikado,  and  perished  on  the  battle-field.  The  illustration 
given  above  is  borrowed  from  a  picture  by  a  native  artist,  which  now 
adorns  the  national-bank  notes  issued  under  the  reign  of  the  present 
mikado. 


154  THE  MIKADO'S  EirPIRE. 

This  darkest  hour  of  the  mikado's  fortune  preceded  the  dawn. 
Already  a  hero  was  emerging  from  obscurity  who  was  destined  to  be 
the  destroyer  of  Kamakura  and  the  Hojo,  This  was  Nitta  Yoshisada, 
The  third  son  of  Minamoto  Yoshi-iye,  born  a.d.  1057,  had  two 
sons.  The  elder  son  succeeded  his  father  to  the  fief  of  Nitta,  in  the 
province  of  Kodzuke.  The  second  inherited  from  his  adopted  father 
Tawara,  the  fief  of  Ashikaga,  in  Shimotsuke.  Both  these  sons  found- 
ed families  which  took  their  name  from  their  place  of  hereditary  pos- 
session. At  this  period,  four  hundred  years  later,  their  illustrious  de- 
scendants became  conspicuous.  Nitta  Yoshisada,  a  captain  in  the 
army  of  Hoj5,  had  been  sent  to  besiege  Kusunoki,  one  of  the  mika- 
do's faithful  vassals ;  but,  refusing  to  fight  against  the  imperial  forces, 
Nitta  deserted  with  his  command.  He  sent  his  retainer  to  Oto  no 
miya,  son  of  the  emperor,  then  hiding  in  the  mountains,  who  gave 
him  a  commission  in  the  name  of  his  exiled  father.  Nitta  immediate- 
ly returned  to  his  native  place,  collected  all  his  retainers,  and  before 
the  shrine  of  the  village  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  against  Hojo. 
His  banner  was  a  long  white  pennant,  crossed  near  the  top  by  two 
black  bars,  beneath  which  was  a  circle  bisected  with  a  black  zone. 
Adopting  the  plan  of  attack  proposed  by  his  brother,  and  marching 
down  into  Sagami,  he  appeared  at  Inamura  Saki,  on  the  outskirts  of 
Kamakura,  in  thirteen  days  after  raising  his  banner  as  the  mikado's 
vassal. 

At  this  point,  where  the  road  from  Kamakura  to  Enoshima  strikes 
the  beach,  a  splendid  panorama  breaks  upon  the  vision  of  the  be- 
holder. In  front  is  the  ocean,  with  its  rolling  waves  and  refreshing 
salt  brcQze.  To  the  south,  in  imposing  proportions,  and  clothed  in 
the  blue  of  distance,  is  the  island  of  Oshiraa;  and  farther  on  are  the 
mountains  of  the  peninsula  of  Idzu.  To  the  right  emerges,  fair  and 
■  lovely,  in  perpetual  green,  the  island  of  Enoshima.  Landward  is  the 
peak  of  Oyama,  with  its  satellites ;  but,  above  all,  in  full  magnificence 
of  proportion,  stands  Fuji,  the  lordly  mountain.  Here  Nitta  perform- 
ed an  act  that  has  become  immortal  in  song  and  poem,  and  the  artist's 
colors. 

On  the  eve  before  the  attack,  Nitta,  assembling  his  host  at  the 
edge  of  the  strand,  and  removing  his  helmet,  thus  addressed  his  war- 
riors :  "  Our  heavenly  son  (mikado)  has  been  deposed  by  his  traitor- 
ous subject,  and  is  now  in  distant  exile  in  the  Western  Sea.  I,  Yoshi- 
sada, being  unable  to  look  upon  this  act  unmoved,  have  raised  an 
army  to  punish  the  thieves  yonder.     I  humbly  pray  thee,  0  God  of 


THE  OLORY  AND  FALL   OF  THE  HO  JO  FAMILY.  155 

the  Sea,  to  look  into  my  loyal  heart ;  command  the  tide  to  ebb  and 
open  a  path."  Thus  saying,  he  bowed  reverently,  and  then,  as  Rai 
says,  with  his  head  bare  (though  the  artist  has  overlooked  the  state- 
ment), and  in  the  sight  of  heaven  cast  his  sword  into  the  waves  as  a 
prayer-offering  to  the  gods  that  the  waves  might  recede,  in  token  of 
their  righteous  favor.  The  golden  hilt  gleamed  for  a  moment  in  the 
air,  and  the  sword  sunk  from  sight.  The  next  morning  the  tide  had 
ebbed,  the  strand  was  dry,  and  the  army,  headed  by  the  chief  whom 
the  soldiers  now  looked  upon  as  the  chosen  favorite  of  Heaven,  marched 


Nitta  Yoehisada  casting  the  Sword  into  the  Sea.     (Vignette  from  the  national -bank 

notes.) 

resistlessly  on.  Kamakura  was  attacked  from  three  sides.  The  fight- 
ing was  severe  and  bloody,  but  victory  everywhere  deserted  the  ban- 
ners of  the  traitors,  and  rested  upon  the  pennons  of  the  loyal.  Nitta, 
after  performing  great  feats  of  valor  in  person,  finally  set  the  city  on 
fire,  and  in  a  few  hours  Kamakura  was  a  waste  of  ashes. 

Just  before  the  final  destruction  of  the  city,  a  noble  named  Ando, 
vassal  of  the  house  of  Hojo,  on  seeing  the  ruin  around  him,  the  sol- 
diers slaughtered,  and  the  palaces  burned,  remarking  that  for  a  hun- 
dred years  no  instance  of  a  retainer  dying  for  his  lord  had  been 
known,  resolved  to  commit  hara-kiri.  The  wife  of  Nitta  was  his 
niece.     Just  as  he  was  about  to  plunge  his  dirk  into  his  body,  a  serv- 


156  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ant  handed  him  a  letter  from  her,  begging  him  to  surrender.  The  old 
man  indignantly  exclaimed :  "  My  niece  is  the  daughter  of  a  samurai 
house.  Why  did  she  make  so  shameless  a  request  ?  And  Nitta,  her 
husband,  is  a  samurai.  Why  did  he  allow  her  to  do  so  ?"  He  then 
took  the  letter,  wrapped  it  round  his  sword,  which  he  plunged  into 
his  body,  and  died.     A  great  number  of  vassals  of  Hojo  did  likewise. 

While  Nitta  was  fighting  at  Kamakura,  and  thus  overthrowing  the 
H5jo  power  in  the  East,  Ashikaga  Takauji  had  drawn  sword  in  Kioto, 
and  with  Kusunoki  re-established  the  imperial  rule  in  the  West.  The 
number  of  the  doomed  clan  who  were  slain  in  battle,  or  who  commit- 
ted hara-kiri,  as  defeated  soldiers,  in  accordance  with  the  code  of  honor 
already  established,  is  set  down  at  six  thousand  eight  hundred. 

All  over  the  empire  the  people  rose  up  against  their  oppressors  and 
massacred  them.  The  Hojo  domination,  which  had  been  paramount 
for  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  was  utterly  broken. 

From  A.D.  1219  until  1333,  the  mikados  at  Kioto  were: 

Juntoku 1211-1231 

Chiukio  (reigned  four  months) 1222 

Go-Horikawa 1222-1232 

Shijo 1233-1242 

Go-Saga 1243-1246 

Go-Fukakusa 1247-1259 

Kameyama 1260-1274 

Go-Uda 1275-1287 

Fushirai 1288-1298 

Go-Fushimi 1299-1301 

Go-Nijo 1302-1307 

Hanazono 1308-1318 

Go-Daigo 1319-1338 

From  the  establishment  of  Kamakura  as  military  capital,  the  she 
guns  were : 

MINAMOTO. 

Toritomo 1185-1199 

Tori-iy(5 1201-1203 

San^torao 1203-1219 

FUJIWABA. 

Yoritsun^ 1220-1243 

Toritsugu 1244-1251 

emperor's  sons. 

Mun^taka 1252-1265 

Kor^yasu 1266-1289 

Hisaakira 1289-1307 

Morikuni 1308-1333 


THE  GLORY  AND  FALL   OF  THE  HO  JO  FAMILY.  157 

The  Hojo  have  never  been  forgiven  for  their  arbitrary  treatment 
of  the  mikados.  The  author  of  the  Nikon  Guai  Shi  terms  them 
"  serpents,  fiends,  beasts,"  etc.  To  this  day,  historian,  dramatist,  novel- 
ist, and  story-teller  delight  to  load  them  with  vilest  obloquy.  Even 
the  peasants  keep  alive  the  memory  of  the  past.  One  of  the  most 
voracious  and  destructive  insects  is  still  called  the  "  Hojo  bug."  A 
great  annual  ceremony  of  extermination  of  these  pests  keeps  alive  the 
hated  recollection  of  their  human  namesakes.  The  memory  of  the 
wrongs  suffered  by  the  imperial  family  goaded  on  the  soldiers  in  the 
revolution  of  1868,  who  wreaked  their  vengeance  on  the  Tokusfawas, 
as  successors  of  the  Hojo.  In  fighting  to  abolish  forever  the  hated 
usurpation  of  six  hundred  years,  and  to  restore  the  mikado  to  his  an- 
cient rightful  and  supreme  authority,  they  remembered  well  the  deeds 
of  the  Hojo,  which  the  Nihon  Guai  Shi  so  eloquently  told.  In  1873, 
envoys  sent  out  from  the  imperial  court  in  Tokio,  proceeded  to  the 
island  of  Sado,  and  solemnly  removing  the  remains  of  the  banished 
emperor,  who  had  died  of  a  broken  heart,  buried  them,  with  due  pomp, 
in  the  sacred  soil  of  Yamato,  where  sleep  so  many  of  the  dead  mikados. 

I  have  given  a  picture  of  the  Hojo  rule  and  rulers,  which  is  but  the 
reflection  of  the  Japanese  popular  sentiment,  and  the  opinion  of  na- 
tive scholars.  There  is,  however,  another  side  to  the  story.  It  must 
be  conceded  that  the  Hojo  were  able  rulers,  and  kept  order  and  peace 
in  the  empire  for  over  a  century.  They  encouraged  literature,  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  During  their  period,  the  re- 
sources of  the  country  were  developed,  and  some  branches  of  useful 
handicraft  and  fine  arts  were  brought  to  a  perfection  never  since  sur- 
passed. To  this  time  belong  the  famous  image-carver,  sculptor,  and 
architect,  Unkei,  and  the  lacquer-artists,  who  are  the  "old  masters" 
in  this  branch  of  art.  The  military  spirit  of  the  people  was  kepi 
alive,  tactics  were  improved,  and  the  methods  of  governmental  admin- 
istration simplified.  During  this  period  of  splendid  temples,  monaster- 
ies, pagodas,  colossal  images,  and  other  monuments  of  holy  zeal,  Hojo 
Sadatoki  erected  a  monument  over  the  grave  of  Kiyomori  at  Hiogo. 
Hojo  Tokimune  raised  and  kept  in  readiness  a  permanent  war-fund, 
so  that  the  military  expenses  might  not  interfere  with  the  revenue 
reserved  for  ordinary  government  expenses.  To  his  invincible  cour- 
age, patriotic  pride,  and  indomitable  energy  are  due  the  vindication 
of  the  national  honor  and  the  repulse  of  the  Tartar  invasion. 

11 


168  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XVI. 

BTJBDHISM  IN  JAPAN. 

The  religion  founded  by  Buddha,  wliicli  is  older  by  six  centuries 
than  that  founded  by  Christ,  which  is  professed  by  nearly  one-third 
of  the  human  race,  which  has  a  literature  perhaps  larger  than  all  other 
religious  literatures  combined,  I  shall  not  attempt  to  treat  of  except  in 
the  broadest  terms.  My  object  in  this  chapter  is  to  portray  the  en- 
trance and  development  of  Buddhism  in  Japan,  to  outline  its  rise  and 
progress,  and  to  show  its  status  in  that  now  fermenting  nation  in 
which  its  latest  fruits  are  found. 

Christians  must  surely  be  interested  in  knowing  of  the  faith  they 
are  endeavoring  to  destroy,  or,  at  least,  to  displace.  When  it  is  con- 
sidered that  Buddhist  temples  are  already  erected  upon  American  soil, 
that  a  new  development  of  this  ancient  faith  may  yet  set  itself  up  as 
a  rival  of  Christianity  in  the  Western  part  of  our  country,  that  it  has 
already  won  admirers,  if  not  professors,  in  Boston,  London,  and  Ber- 
lin, the  subject  will  be  seen  to  possess  an  immediate  interest. 

Buddhism  originated  as  a  pure  atheistic  humanitarianism,  with  a 
lofty  philosophy  and  a  code  of.  morals  higher,  perhaps,  than  any 
heathen  religion  had  reached  before,  or  has  since  attained.  Its  three 
great  distinguishing  characteristics  are  atheism,  metempsychosis,  and 
absence  of  caste.  First  preached  in  a  land  accursed  by  secular  and 
spiritual  oppression,  it  acknowledged  no  caste,  and  declared  all  men 
equally  sinful  and  miserable,  and  all  equally  capable  of  being  freed 
from  sin  and  misery  through  knowledge.  It  taught  that  the  souls  of 
all  men  had  lived  in  a  previous  state  of  existence,  and  that  all  the  sor- 
rows of  this  life  are  punishments  for  sins  committed  in  a  previous 
state.  Each  human  soul  has  whirled  through  countless  eddies  of  ex- 
istence, and  has  still  to  pass  through  a  long  succession  of  birth,  pain, 
and  death.  All  is  fleeting.  Nothing  is  real.  This  life  is  all  a  de- 
lusion. After  death,  the  soul  must  migrate  for  ages  through  stages 
of  life,  inferior  or  superior,  until,  perchance,  it  arrives  at  last  in  Nir- 
vana, or  absorption  in  Buddha. 


BUDDHISM  IN  JAPAN.  159 

The  total  extinction  of  being,  personality,  and  consciousness  is  the 
aspiration  of  the  vast  majority  of  true  believers,  as  it  should  be  of 
every  suffering  soul,  i.  e.,  of  all  mankind.  The  true  estate  of  the  hu- 
man soul,  according  to  the  Buddhist  of  the  Buddhists,  is  blissful  an- 
nihilation. The  morals  of  Buddhism  are  superior  to  its  metaphysics. 
Its  commandments  are  the  dictates  of  the  most  refined  moralitv. 
Besides  the  cardinal  prohibitions  against  murder,  stealing,  adultery, 
lying,  drunkenness,  and  unchastity,  "  every  shade  of  vice,  hypocrisy, 
anger,  pride,  suspicion,  greediness,  gossiping,  cruelty  to  animals,  is 
guarded  against  by  special  precepts.  Among  the  virtues  recommend- 
ed, we  find  not  only  reverence  of  parents,  care  of  children,  submission 
to  authority,  gratitude,  moderation  in  time  of  prosperity,  submission 
in  time  of  trial,  equanimity  at  all  times ;  but  virtues  such  as  the  duty 
of  forgiving  insults,  and  not  rewarding  evil  with  evil."  Whatever  the 
practice  of  the  people  may  be,  they  are  taught,  as  laid  down  in  their 
sacred  books,  the  rules  thus  summarized  above. 

Such,  we  may  glean,  was  Buddhism  in  its  early  purity.  Besides  its 
moral  code  and  philosophical  doctrines,  it  had  almost  nothing.  An 
"  ecclesiastical  system  "  it  was  not  in  any  sense.  Its  progress  was 
rapid  and  remarkable.  Though  finally  driven  out  of  India,  it  swept 
through  Burmah,  Siam,  China,  Thibet,  Manchuria,  Corea,  Siberia, 
and  finally,  after  twelve  centuries,  entered  Japan.  By  this  time  the 
bare  and  bald  original  doctrines  of  Shaka  (Buddha)  were  glorious  in 
the  apparel  with  which  Asiatic  imagination  and  priestly  necessity  had 
clothed  and  adorned  them.  The  ideas  of  Shaka  had  been  expanded 
into  a  complete  theological  system,  with  all  the  appurtenances  of  a 
stock  religion.  It  had  a  vast  and  complicated  ecclesiastical  and  mo- 
nastic machinery,  a  geographical  and  sensuous  paradise,  definitely  lo- 
cated hells  and  purgatories,  populated  with  a  hierarchy  of  titled  de- 
mons, and  furnished  after  the  most  approved  theological  fashion.  Of 
these  the  priests  kept  the  keys,  regulated  the  thermometers,  and  timed 
or  graded  the  torture  or  bliss.  The  system  had,  even  thus  early,  a 
minutely  catalogued  hagiology.  Its  eschatology  was  well  outlined, 
and  the  hierarchs  claimed  to  be  as  expert  in  questions  of  casuistry  as 
they  were  at  their  commercial  system  of  masses  still  in  vogue.  Gen- 
eral councils  had  been  held,  decrees  had  been  issued,  dogmas  defined 
or  abolished ;  Buddhism  had  emerged  from  philosophy  into  relio-ion. 
The  Buddhist  missionaries  entered  Japan  having  a  mechanism  perfect- 
ly fitted  to  play  upon  the  fears  and  hopes  of  an  ignorant  people,  and 
to  bring  them  into  obedience  to  the  new  and  aggressive  faith. 


160  THE  MIKADQ'S  EMPIRE. 

If  there  was  one  country  in  which  the  success  of  Buddhism  as  a 
popular  rehgion  seemed  foreordained,  that  country  was  Japan.  It 
was  virgin  soil  for  any  thing  that  could  be  called  a  religion.  Before 
Buddhism  came,  very  little  worthy  of  the  name  existed.  Day  by 
day,  each  nev/  ray  of  the  light  of  research  that  now  falls  upon  that 
gray  dawn  of  Japanese  history  shows  that  Shinto  was  a  pale  and 
shadowy  cult,  that  consisted  essentially  of  sacrificing  to  the  spirits  of 
departed  heroes  and  ancestors,  with  ceremonies  of  bodily  purification, 
and  that  the  coming  of  Buddhism  quickened  it,  by  the  force  of  oppo- 
sition, into  something  approaching  a  religious  system.  Swarms  of 
petty  deities,  who  have  human  passions,  and  are  but  apotheosized  his- 
torical heroes,  fill  the  pantheon  of  Shinto.  The  end  and  aim  of  even 
its  most  sincere  adherents  and  teachers  is  political.  Strike  out  the 
dogma  of  the  divinity  of  the  mikado  and  the  duty  of  all  Japanese  to 
obey  him  implicity,  and  almost  nothing  is  left  of  modern  Shinto  bur 
Chinese  cosmogony,  local  myth,  and  Confucian  morals.* 

If  the  heart  of  the  ancient  Japanese  longed  after  a  solution  of  the 
questions  whence?  whither?  why? — if  it  yearned  for  religious  truth, 
as  the  hearts  of  all  men  doubtless  do — it  must  have  been  ready  to  wel- 
come something  more  certain,  tangible,  and  dogmatic  than  the  bland 
emptiness  of  Shinto.  Buddhism  came  to  touch  the  heart,  to  fire  the 
imagination,  to  feed  the  intellect,  to  oflEer  a  code  of  lofty  morals,  to 
point  out  a  pure  life  through  self-denial,  to  awe  the  ignorant,  and  to 
terrify  the  doubting.     A  well  fed  and  clothed  Anglo-Saxon,  to  whom 


*  "  I  have  long  endeavored  to  find  out  what  there  is  in  Shinto,  but  have  long 
given  it  up,  unable  to  find  any  thing  to  revrard  my  labor,  excepting  a  small  book 
of  Shinto  prayers,  in  which  man  was  recognized  as  guilty  of  the  commission  of 
sin,  and  in  need  of  cleansing." — J.  C.  Hepburn,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  American,  seventeen 
years  resident  in  Japan,  author  of  the  '■'■  Japanese- English  atid  English- Japanese  Dic- 
tionary.'''' 

"Shinto  is  in  no  proper  sense  of  the  term  a  religion."  "It  is  difiicult  to  see 
how  it  could  ever  have  been  denominated  a  religion."  "  It  has  rather  tlie  look 
of  an  original  Japanese  invention." — Kev.  S.  R.  Brown,  D.D.,  American,  author 
of  "4  Grammar  of  Colloquial  Japanese,^''  seventeen  years  resident  in  Japan. 

My  own  impressions  of  Shinto,  given  in  an  article  in  The  Independent  in  1871, 
remain  unaltered  after  five  years'  further  study  and  comparison  of  opinions,  pro 
and  con:  "In  its  higher  forms,  Shinto  is  simply  a  cultured  and  intellectual  athe- 
ism. In  its  lower  forms,  it  is  blind  obedience  to  governmental  and  priestly  dic- 
tates." The  united  verdict  given  rae  by  native  scholars,  and  even  Shinto  officials, 
in  Fukui  and  Tokio,  was,  "  Shinto  is  not  a  religion  :  it  is  a  system  of  government 
regulations,  very  good  to  keep  alive  patriotism  among  the  people."  The  effect- 
ual, and  quite  justifiable,  use  made  of  this  tremendous  political  engine  will  be 
seen  in  the  last  chapter  of  Book  I.,  entitled  "  The  Recent  Revolutions  in  Japan." 


BUDDHISM  IN  JAPAN.  161 

conscious  existence  seems  tlie  very  rapture  of  joy,  and  whose  soul 
yearns  for  an  eternity  of  life,  may  not  understand  how  a  human  soul 
could  ever  long  for  utter  absorption  of  being  and  personality,  even  in 
God,  much  less  for  total  annihilation. 

But,  among  the  Asiatic  poor,  where  ceaseless  drudgery  is  often  the 
lot  for  life,  where  a  vegetable  diet  keeps  the  vital  force  low,  where 
the  tax-gatherer  is  the  chief  representative  of  government,  where  the 
earthquake  and  the  typhoon  are  so  frequent  and  dreadful,  and  where 
the  forces  of  nature  are  feared  as  malignant  intelligences,  life  does 
not  wear  such  charms  as  to  lead  the  human  soul  to  long  for  an  eterni- 
ty of  it.  No  normal  Japanese  would  thrill  when  he  heard  the  unex- 
plained announcement,  "  The  gift  of  God  is  eternal  life,"  or,  "  Whoso- 
ever believeth  on  me,  though  he  wei"e  dead,  yet  shall  he  live."  Such 
words  would  be  painful  to  him,  announcing  only  a  fateful  fact.  To 
him  life  is  to  be  dreaded ;  not  because  death  lies  at  the  end  of  it,  but 
because  birth  and  life  again  follow  death,  and  both  are  but  links  in  an 
almost  endless  chain.  Herein  lies  the  power  of  Buddhist  preaching : 
"  Believe  in  the  true  doctrine,  and  live  the  true  believer's  life,"  says 
the  bonze,  "  and  you  will  be  born  again  into  higher  states  of  existence, 
thence  into  higher  and  higher  heavens,  until  from  paradise  you  rise 
as  a  purified  and  saintly  soul,  to  be  absorbed  in  the  bosom  of  holy 
Buddha.  Reject  the  truth,  or  believe  false  doctrine  {e.  ^.,  Christiani- 
ty), and  you  will  be  born  again  thousands  of  times,  only  to  suffer 
sickness  and  pain  and  grief,  to  die  or  be  killed  a  thousand  times,  and, 
finally,  to  sink  into  lower  and  lower  hells,  before  you  can  regain  the 
opportunity  to  rise  higher."  This  is  really  the  popular  form  of 
Shaka's  doctrine  of  metempsychosis.  The  popular  Buddhism  of  Ja- 
pan, at  least,  is  not  the  bare  scheme  of  philosophy  which  foreign 
writers  seem  to  think  it  is.  It  is  a  genuine  religion  in  its  hold  on 
man.  It  is  a  vinculum  that  binds  him  to  the  gods  of  his  fathers. 
This  form  of  Buddhism  commended  itself  to  both  the  Japanese  sage 
and  the  ignorant  boor,  to  whom  thought  is  misery,  by  reason  of  its 
definiteness,  its  morals,  its  rewards,  and  its  punishments. 

Buddhism  has  a  cosmogony'  and  a  theory  of  both  the  microcosm 
and  the  macrocosm.  It  has  fully  as  much,  if  not  more,  "  science  "  in 
it  than  our  mediaeval  theologians  found  in  the  Bible.  Its  high  intel- 
lectuality made  noble  souls  yearn  to  win  its  secrets,  and  to  attain  the 
conquests  over  their  lusts  and  passions,  by  knowledge. 

Among  the  various  sects  of  Buddhism,  however,  the  understanding 
of  the  doctrine  of  Nirvana  varies  greatly.      Some  believe  in  the  total 


162  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

nonentity  of  the  human  soul,  the  utter  annihilation  of  consciousness ; 
while  others,  on  the  contrary,  hold  that,  as  part  of  the  divine  whole, 
the  human  soul  enjoys  a  measure  of  conscious  personality. 

Persecution  and  opposition  at  first  united  together  the  adherents  of 
the  new  faith,  but  success  and  prosperity  gave  rise  to  schisms.  New 
sects  were  founded  in  Japan,  while  many  priests  traveled  abroad  to 
Corea  and  China,  and  came  back  as  new  lights  and  reformers,  to  found 
new  schools  of  thought  and  worship.  Of  these  the  most  illustrious 
was  Kobo,  famed  not  only  as  a  scholar  in  Pali,  Sanskrit,  and  Chinese, 


Kobo  Daishi,  Inventor  of  the  Japanese  Syllabary.    (From  a  photograph,  taken  from  a 
wooden  statue  in  a  temple  at  Kioto.) 

but  as  an  eminently  holy  bonze,  and  the  compiler  of  the  Japanese  al- 
phabet, or  syllabary,  ?',  ro,  ha,  ni,  ho,  he,  to,  etc.,  in  all  forty-seven  char- 
acters, which,  with  diacritical  points,  may  be  increased  to  the  number 
of  seventy.  The  katagana  is  the  square,  the  hiragana  is  the  script 
form.  Kobo  was  born  a.d.  YY4  ;  and  died  a.d.  835.  He  foimded  a 
temple,  and  the  sect  called  Shin  Gon  (True  Words).  Eight  sects 
were  in  existence  in  his  time,  of  which  only  two  now  survive. 

The  thirteenth  of  the  Christian  era  is  the  golden  century  of  Japa- 
nese Buddhism ;  for  then  were  developed  those  phases  of  thought 
peculiar  to  it,  and  sects  were  founded,  most  of  them  in  Kioto,  which 
are  still  the  most  flourishing  in  Japan.  Among  these  were,  in  1202, 
the  Zen  (Contemplation);  in  1211,  the  Jodo  (Heavenly  Road);  in 
1262,  the  Shin  (New)  ;  in  1282,  the  Nichiren.     In  various  decades  of 


BUDDHISM  IN  JAPAN.  163 

the  same  century  several  other  important  sects  originated,  and  the 
number  of  brilliant  intellects  that  adorned  the  priesthood  at  this  pe- 
riod is  remarkable.  Of  these,  only  two  can  be  noticed,  for  lack  of 
space. 

In  A.D.  1222,  there  was  born,  in  a  suburb  of  the  town  of  Kominato, 
in  Awa,  a  child  who  was  destined  to  influence  the  faith  of  millions, 
and  to  leave  the  impress  of  his  character  and  intellect  indelibly  upon 
the  minds  of  his  countrymen.  He  was  to  found  a  new  sect  of 
Buddhism,  which  should  grow  to  be  one  of  the  largest,  wealthiest, 
and  most  influential  in  Japan,  and  to  excel  them  all  in  proselyting 
zeal,  polemic  bitterness,  sectarian  bigotry,  and  intolerant  arrogance. 
The  Nichiren  sect  of  Buddhists,  in  its  six  centuries  of  history,  has 
probably  furnished  a  greater  number  of  brilliant  intellects,  uncompro- 
mising zealots,  unquailing  martyrs,  and  relentless  persecutors  than 
any  other  in  Japan.  No  other  sect  is  so  fond  of  controversy.  The 
bonzes  of  none  other  can  excel  those  of  the  Nichiren  shiu  (sect)  in 
proselyting  zeal,  in  the  bitterness  of  their  theological  arguments,  in 
the  venom  of  their  revilings,  or  the  force  Avith  which  they  hurl  their 
epithets  at  those  who  differ  in  opinion  or  practice  from  them.  In 
their  view,  all  other  sects  than  theirs  are  useless.  According  to  their 
vocabulary,  the  adherents  of  Shin  Gon  are  "  not  patriots ;"  those  of 
Ritsu  are  "thieves  and  rascals;"  of  Zen,  are  "furies;"  while  those  of 
certain  other  sects  are  sure  and  without  doubt  to  go  to  hell.  Among 
the  Nichirenites  are  to  be  found  more  prayer-books,  drums,  and  other 
noisy  accompaniments  of  revivals,  than  in  any  other  sect.  They  ex- 
cel in  the  number  of  pilgrims,  and  in  the  use  of  charms,  spells,  and 
amulets.  Their  priests  are  celibates,  and  must  abstain  from  wine,  fish, 
and  all  flesh.  They  are  the  Ranters  of  Buddhism.  To  this  day,  a  re- 
vival-meeting in  one  of  their  temples  is  a  scene  that  often  beggars  de- 
scription, and  may  deafen  weak  ears.  What  with  prayers  incessantly 
repeated,  drums  beaten  unceasingly,  the  shouting  of  devotees  who 
work  themselves  into  an  excitement  that  often  ends  in  insanity,  and 
sometimes  in  death,  and  the  frantic  exhortation  of  the  priests,  the 
wildest  excesses  that  seek  the  mantle  of  religion  in  other  lands  are  by 
them  equaled,  if  not  excelled.  To  this  sect  belonged  Kato  Kiyomasa, 
the  bloody  persecutor  of  the  Christians  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
"  vir  ter  execrandus  "  of  the  Jesuits,  but  who  is  now  a  holy  saint  in 
the  calendar  of  canonized  Buddhists. 

Nichiren  (sun-lotus)  was  so  named  by  his  mother,  who  at  concep- 
tion had  dreamed  that  the  sun  {nichi)  had  entered  her  body.     This 


164  THE  MIE ADO'S  EMPIRE. 

story  is  also  told  of  other  mothers  of  Japanese  great  men,  and  seems 
to  be  a  favorite  stock-belief  concerning  the  women  Avho  bear  children 
that  afterward  become  men  of  renown  or  exalted  holiness.  The  boy 
grew  up  surrounded  by  the  glorious  scenery  of  mountain,  wave,  shore, 
and  with  the  infinity  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  before  him.  He  was  a 
dreamy,  meditative  child.  He  was  early  put  under  the  care  of  a  holy 
bonze,  but  when  grown  to  manhood  discarded  many  of  the  old  doc- 
trines, and,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  other  sects,  resolved  to  found 
one,  the  followers  of  which  should  be  the  holders  and  exemplars  of 
the  pure  truth. 

Nichiren  was  a  profound  student  of  the  Buddhist  classics,  or  sutras, 
brought  from  India,  and  written  in  Sanskrit  and  Chinese,  for  the  en- 
tire canon  of  Buddhist  holy  books  has  at  various  times  been  brought 
from  India  or  China,  and  translated  into  Chinese  in  Japan.  Here- 
tofore, the  common  prayer  of  all  the  Japanese  Buddhists  had  been 
^^Namu,  Amida  Butsu  "  (Hail,  Amida  Buddha !  or,  Save  us.  Eternal 
Buddha!).  Nichiren  taught  that  the  true  invocation  was  '^JVamu 
mio  ho  ren  ge  hio  "  (Glory  to  the  salvation-bringing  book  of  the  law ; 
or,  literally,  Hail,  the  true  way  of  salvation,  the  blossom  of  doctrine). 
This  is  still  the  distinctive  prayer  of  the  Nichiren  sect.  It  is  inscribed 
on  the  temple  curtains,  on  their  tombstones  and  wayside  shrines,  and 
was  emblazoned  on  the  banners  carried  aloft  by  the  great  warriors  on 
sea  and  land  who  belonged  to  the  sect.  The  words  are  the  Chinese 
translation  of  Mamah  Saddharma-pundarika-sutra,  one  of  the  chief 
canonical  books  of  the  Buddhist  Scriptures,  and  in  use  by  all  the  sects. 
Nichiren  professed  to  find  in  it  the  true  and  only  w^ay  of  salvation, 
which  the  other  expounders  of  Shaka's  doctrine  had  not  properly 
taught.  He  declared  that  the  way  as  taught  by  him  was  the  true 
and  only  one. 

Nichiren  founded  numerous  temples,  and  was  busy  during  the 
whole  of  his  life,  when  not  in  exile,  in  teaching,  preaching,  and  itin- 
erating. He  published  a  book  called  Ankoku  Ron  ("An  Argument  to 
tranquilize  the  Country  ").  The  bitterness  with  which  he  attacked  oth- 
er sects  roused  up  a  host  of  enemies  against  him,  who  complained  to 
Hojo  Tokiyori,  the  shikken,  or  holder  of  the  power,  at  Kamakura,  and 
prayed  to  have  him  silenced,  as  a  destroyer  of  the  public  peace,  as  in- 
deed the  holy  man  was.  The  title  of  his  book  was  by  no  means  an 
exponent  of  its  tone  or  style. 

Nichiren  was  banished  to  Cape  Ito,  in  Idzu,  where  he  remained 
three  years.     On  his  release,  instead  of  holding  his  tongue,  he  allowed 


BUDDHISM  IN  JAPAN.  165 

it  to  run  more  violently  than  ever  against  other  sects,  especially  de- 
crying the  great  and  learned  priests  of  previous  generations.  Hojo 
Tokiyori  again  arrested  him,  confined  him  in  a  dungeon  below 
ground,  and  condemned  him  to  death. 

The  following  story  is  told,  and  devoutly  believed,  by  his  followers : 
On  a  certain  day  he  was  taken  out  to  a  village  on  the  strand  of  the 
bay  beyond  Kamakura,  and  in  front  of  the  lovely  island  of  Enoshiraa. 
This  village  is  called  Koshigoye.  At  this  time  Nichiren  was  forty- 
three  years  old.  Kneeling  down  upon  the  strand,  the  saintly  bonze 
calmly  uttered  his  prayers,  and  repeated  "iVamw  mio  ho  ren  ge  kio  " 
upon  his  rosary.  The  swordsman  lifted  his  blade,  and,  with  all  his 
might,  made  the  downward  stroke.  Suddenly  a  flood  of  blinding 
light  burst  from  the  sky,  and  smote  upon  the  executioner  and  the  offi- 
cial inspector  deputed  to  witness  the  severed  head.  The  sword-blade 
was  broken  in  pieces,  while  the  holy  man  was  unharmed.  At  the 
same  moment,  Hojo,  the  Lord  of  Kamakura,  was  startled  at  his  revels 
in  the  palace  by  the  sound  of  rattling  thunder  and  the  flash  of  light- 
ning, though  there  was  not  a  cloud  in  the  sky.  Dazed  by  the  awful 
signs  of  Heaven's  displeasure,  Hojo  Tokiyori,  divining  that  it  was  on 
account  of  the  holy  victim,  instantly  dispatched  a  fleet  messenger  to 
stay  the  executioner's  hand  and  reprieve  the  victim.  Simultaneously 
the  oflScial  inspector  at  the  still  unstained  blood-pit  sent  a  courier  to 
beg  reprieve  for  the  saint  whom  the  sword  could  not  touch.  The 
two  men,  coming  from  opposite  directions,  met  at  the  small  stream 
which  the  tourist  still  crosses  on  the  way  from  Kamakura  to  Enoshi- 
ma,  and  it  was  thereafter  called  Yukiai  (meeting  on  the  way)  River,  a 
name  which  it  retains  to  this  day.  Through  the  pitiful  clemency  and 
intercession  of  Hojo  Tokimune,  son  of  the  Lord  of  Kamakura,  Nichi- 
ren was  sent  to  Sado  Island.  He  was  afterward  released  by  his  bene- 
factor in  a  general  amnesty.  Nichiren  founded  his  sect  at  Kioto,  and 
it  greatly  flourished  under  the  care  of  his  disciple,  his  reverence  Ni- 
chizo.  After  a  busy  and  holy  life,  the  great  saint  died  at  Ikegami,  a 
little  to  north-west  of  the  Kawasaki  railroad  station,  between  Yokoha 
ma  and  Tokio,  where  the  scream  of  the  locomotive  and  the  rumble  of 
the  railway  car  are  but  faintly  heard  in  its  solemn  shades.  There  are 
to  be  seen  gorgeous  temples,  pagodas,  shrines,  magnificent  groves  and 
cemeteries.  The  dying  presence  of  Nichiren  has  lent  this  place  pecul- 
iar sanctity ;  but  his  bones  rest  on  Mount  Minobu,  in  the  province  of 
Kai,  where  was  one  of  his  homes  when  in  the  flesh.     See  Frontispiece. 

While  in  Japan,  I  made  special  visits  to  many  of  the  places  rendered 


166  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

most  famous  by  Nichiren,  of  his  birth,  labors,  triumph,  and  death,  and 
there  formed  the  impressions  of  his  work  and  followers  which  I  have 
in  this  chapter  set  forth.  So  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  none  of  the 
native  theologians  has  stamped  his  impress  more  deeply  on  the  relig- 
ious intellect  of  Japan  than  has  Nichiren.  It  may  be  vain  prophecy, 
but  I  believe  that  Christianity  in  Japan  will  find  its  most  vigorous 
and  persistent  opposers  among  this  sect,  and  that  it  will  be  the  last  to 
yield  to  the  now  triumphing  faith  that  seems  clasping  the  girdle  of 
world-victory  in  Japan. 

Their  astonishing  success  and  tremendous  power,  and  their  intoler- 
ance and  bigotry,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  same  cause — the  precision, 
distinctness,  and  exclusiveness  of  the  teachings  of  their  master.  In 
their  sacred  books,  and  in  the  sermons  of  their  bonzes,  the  Nichirenites 
are  exhorted  to  reflect  diligently  upon  the  peculiar  blessings  vouch- 
safed to  them  as  a  chosen  sect,  and  to  understand  that  they  are  fa- 
vored above  all  others  in  privilege,  that  their  doctrines  are  the  only 
true  ones,  and  that  perfect  salvation  is  attainable  by  no  other  method 
or  system.  It  is  next  to  impossible  for  them  to  fraternize  with  other 
Buddhists,  and  they  themselves  declare  that,  though  all  the  other  sects 
may  combine  into  one,  yet  they  must  remain  apart,  unless  their  tenets 
be  adopted.  The  proscription  of  other  sects,  and  the  employment  of 
reviling  and  abuse  as  a  means  of  propagation  introduced  by  Nichiren, 
was  a  comparatively  new  thing  in  Japan.  It  stirred  up  persecution 
against  the  new  faith  and  its  followers ;  and  this,  coupled  with  the  in- 
vincible fortitude  and  zeal  of  the  latter,  were  together  as  soil  and  seed. 

The  era  and  developments  of  Nichiren  may  be  called  the  second 
revival  of  Buddhism  in  Japan,  since  it  infused  into  that  great  religion, 
which  had,  at  the  opening  of  the  thirteenth  century,  reached  a  stage 
of  passive  quiescence,  the  spirit  of  proselytism  which  was  necessary  to 
keep  it  from  stagnant  impurity  and  heartless  formality. 

Though  the  success  of  Nichiren  inaugurated  an  era  of  zeal  and  big- 
otry, it  also  awoke  fresh  life  into  that  power  which  is  the  best  repre- 
sentative of  the  religious  life  of  the  nation.  Whether  we  call  Bud- 
dhism a  false  or  a  true  religion,  even  the  most  shallow  student  of  the 
Japanese  people  must  acknowledge  that  the  pure  religious,  as  well  as 
the  superstitious,  character  of  the  masses  of  the  Japanese  people  has 
been  fostered  and  developed  more  by  Buddhism  than  by  any  and  all 
other  influences. 

Some  of  the  superstitions  of  the  Nichirenites  are  gross  and  revolt- 
ing, but  among  their  beliefs  and  customs  is  the  nagare  kanjo  (flowing 


BVDDHISM  IN  JAPAN.  169 

invocation).  I  shall  call  it  "  the  mother's  memorial."  It  is  practiced 
chiefly  by  the  followers  of  Nichiren,  though  it  is  sometimes  employed 
by  other  sects. 

A  sight  not  often  met  with  in  the  cities,  but  in  the  suburbs  and 
country  places  frequent  as  the  cause  of  it  requires,  is  the  nagare 
kanjo  (flowing  invocation).  A  piece  of  cotton  cloth  is  suspended  by 
its  four  corners  to  stakes  set  in  the  ground  near  a  brook,  rivulet,  or, 
if  in  the  city,  at  the  side  of  the  water-course  which  fronts  the  houses 
of  the  better  classes.  Behind  it  rises  a  higher,  lath-like  board,  notched 
several  times  near  the  top,  and  inscribed  with  a  brief  legend.  Rest- 
ing on  the  cloth  at  the  brookside,  or,  if  in  the  cj.ty,  in  a  pail  of  water, 
is  a  wooden  dipper.  Perhaps  upon  the  four  corners,  in  the  upright 
bamboo,  may  be  set  bouquets  of  flowers.  A  careless  stranger  may 
not  notice  the  odd  thing,  but  a  little  study  of  its  parts  reveals  the 
symbolism  of  death.  The  tall  lath  tablet  is  the  same  as  that  set  be- 
hind graves  and  tombs.  The  ominous  Sanskrit  letters  betoken  death. 
Even  the  flowers  in  their  bloom  call  to  mind  the  tributes  of  affection- 
ate remembrance  which  loving  survivors  set  in  the  sockets  of  the  mon 
uments  in  the  grave-yards.  On  the  cloth  is  written  a  name  such  as 
is  given  to  persons  after  death,  and  the  prayer,  "iVamw  mio  ho  ren 
ge  kid  "  (Glory  to  the  salvation-bringing  Scriptures).  Waiting  long 
enough,  perchance  but  a  few  minutes,  there  may  be  seen  a  passer-by 
who  pauses,  and,  devoutly  offering  a  prayer  with  the  aid  of  his  rosary, 
reverently  dips  a  ladleful  of  water,  pours  it  upon  the  cloth,  and  waits 
patiently  until  it  has  strained  through,  before  moving  on. 

All  this,  when  the  significance  is  understood,  is  very  touching.  It 
is  the  story  of  vicarious  suffering,  of  sorrow  from  the  brink  of  joy,  of 
one  dying  that  another  may  live.  It  tells  of  mother-love  and  mother- 
woe.  It  is  a  mute  appeal  to  every  passer-by,  by  the  love  of  Heaven, 
to  shorten  the  penalties  of  a  soul  in  pain. 

The  Japanese  (Buddhists)  believe  that  all  calamity  is  the  result  of 
sin  either  in  this  or  a  previous  state  of  existence.  The  mother  who 
dies  in  childbed  suffers,  by  such  a  death,  for  some  awful  transgression, 
it  may  be  in  a  cycle  of  existence  long  since  passed.  For  it  she  must 
leave  her  new-born  infant,  in  the  full  raptures  of  mother-joy,  and  sink 
into  the  darkness  of  Hades,  to  wallow  in  a  lake  of  blood.  There 
must  she  groan  and  suffer  until  the  "  flowing  invocation  "  ceases,  by 
the  wearing-out  of  the  symbolic  cloth.  Allien  this  is  so  utterly  worn 
that  the  water  no  longer  drains,  but  falls  through  at  once,  the  freed 
spirit  of  the  mother,  purged  of  her  sin,  rises  to  resurrection  among 


170  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  exalted  beings  of  a  higher  cycle  of  existence.  Devout  men,  as 
they  pass  by,  reverently  pour  a  ladleful  of  water.  Women,  especial- 
ly those  who  have  felt  mother-pains,  and  who  rejoice  in  life  and  lov- 
ing offspring,  repeat  the  expiatory  act  with  deeper  feeling;  but  the 
depths  of  sympathy  are  fathomed  only  by  those  who,  being  mothers, 
are  yet  bereaved.  Yet,  as  in  presence  of  nature's  awful  glories  the 
reverent  gazer  is  shocked  by  the  noisy  importunity  of  the  beggar,  so 
before  this  sad  and  touching  memorial  the  proofs  of  sordid  priest- 
craft chill  the  warm  sympathy  which  the  sight  even  from  the  heart 
of  an  alien  might  evoke. 

The  cotton  cloth  inscribed  with  the  prayer  and  the  name  of  the  de- 
ceased, to  be  efficacious,  can  be  purchased  only  at  the  temples.  I  have 
been  told,  and  it  is  no  secret,  that  rich  people  are  able  to  secure  a 
napkin  which,  when  stretched  but  a  few  days,  will  rupture,  and  let  the 
water  pass  through  at  once.  The  poor  man  can  get  only  the  stout- 
est and  most  closely  woven  fabric.  The  limit  of  purgatorial  penance 
is  thus  fixed  by  warp  and  woof,  and  warp  and  woof  are  gauged  by 
money.  The  rich  man's  napkin  is  scraped  thin  in  the  middle.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  poor  mother  secures  a  richer  tribute  of  sympathy  from 
her  humble  people ;  for  in  Japan,  as  in  other  lands,  poverty  has  many 
children,  while  wealth  mourns  for  heirs ;  and  in  the  lowly  walks  of 
life  are  more  pitiful  women  who  have  felt  the  woe  and  the  joy  of 
motherhood  than  in  the  mansions  of  the  rich. 

In  Echizen,  especially  in  the  country  towns  and  villages,  the  custom 
is  rigidly  observed ;  but  though  I  often  looked  for  the  nagare  kanjo 
in  Tokio,  I  never  saw  one.  I  am  told,  however,  that  they  may  be 
seen  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city.  The  drawing  of  one  seen  near  Ta- 
kefu,  in  Echizen,  was  made  for  me  by  my  artist-friend  Ozawa,  a  num- 
ber of  whose  sketches  appear  in  this  work. 

The  Protestants  of  Japanese  Buddhism  are  the  followers  of  Shin 
shiu,  founded  by  his  reverence  Shinran,  in  1262.  Shinran  was  a 
pupil  of  Honen,  who  founded  the  Jodo  shiu,  and  was  of  noble  de- 
scent. While  in  Kioto,  at  thirty  years  of  age,  he  married  a  lady  of 
noble  blood,  named  Tamayori  hime,  the  daughter  of  the  Kuambaku. 
He  thus  taught  by  example,  as  well  as  by  precept,  that  marriage  was 
honorable,  and  that  celibacy  was  an  invention  of  the  priests,  not  war- 
ranted by  pure  Buddhism.  Penance,  fasting,  prescribed  diet,  pil- 
grimages, isolation  from  society,  whether  as  hermits  or  in  the  cloister, 
and  generally  amulets  and  charms,  are  all  tabooed  by  this  sect.  Nun- 
neries and  monasteries  are   unknown   within   its  pale.     The  family 


Belfry  of  a  Baddliiat  Temple  iu  (Jzuka. 


BUDDHISM  IX  JAPAN.  173 

takes  the  place  of  monkish  seclusion.  Devout  prayer,  purity,  and 
earnestness  of  life,  and  trust  in  Buddha  himself  as  the  only  worker  of 
perfect  righteousness,  are  insisted  upon.  Other  sects  teach  the  doc- 
trine of  salvation  by  works.  Shinran  taught  that  it  is  faith  in  Buddha 
that  accomplishes  the  salvation  of  the  believer. 

Buddhism  seems  to  most  foreigners  who  have  studied  it  but  Roman 
Catholicism  without  Christ,  and  in  Asiatic  form.  The  Shin  sect  hold 
a  form  of  the  Protestant  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  believing 
in  Buddha  instead  of  Jesus.  Singleness  of  purpose  characterizes  this 
sect.  Outsiders  call  it  Ikk5,  from  the  initial  word  of  a  text  in  their 
chief  book,  Murioju  Kid  ("  Book  of  Constant  Life  ").  By  others  it 
is  spoken  of  as  Monto  (gate-followers),  in  reference  to  their  unity  of 
organization.  The  Scriptures  of  other  sects  are  written  in  Sanskrit 
and  Chinese,  which  only  the  learned  are  able  to  read. 

Those  of  Monto  are  in  the  vernacular  Japanese  writing  and  idiom. 
Other  sects  build  temples  in  sequestered  places  among  the  hills.  The 
Shin  -  shiuists  erect  theirs  in  the  heart  of  cities,  on  main  streets,  in 
the  centres  of  population.  They  endeavor,  by  every  means  in  their 
power,  to  induce  the  people  to  come  to  them.  In  Fukui  their  twin 
temples  stood  in  the  most  frequented  thoroughfares.  In  Tokio,  Oza- 
ka,  Kioto,  Nagasaki,  and  other  cities,  the  same  system  of  having  twin 
temples  in  the  heart  of  the  city  is  pursued,  and  the  largest  and  finest 
ecclesiastical  structures  are  the  duplicates  of  this  sect.  The  altars  are 
on  a  scale  of  imposing  magnificence,  and  gorgeous  in  detail.  A  com- 
mon saying  is,  "  As  handsome  as  a  Monto  altar."  The  priests  marry, 
rear  families,  and  their  sons  succeed  them  to  the  care  of  the  temples. 
In  default  of  male  issue,  the  husband  of  the  daughter  of  the  priest, 
should  he  have  one,  takes  the  oflfice  of  his  father-in-law.  Many  mem- 
bers of  the  priesthood  and  their  families  are  highly  educated,  perhaps 
more  so  than  the  bonzes  of  any  other  sect.  Personal  acquaintance 
with  several  of  the  Monto  priests  enables  me  to  substantiate  this  fact 
asserted  of  them. 

The  followers  of  Shinran  have  ever  held  a  high  position,  and  have 
wielded  vast  influence  in  the  religious  development  of  the  people. 
Both  for  good  and  evil  they  have  been  among  the  foremost  of  active 
workers  in  the  cause  of  religion.  In  time  of  war  the  Monto  bonzes 
put  on  armor,  and,  with  their  families  and  adherents,  have  in  numer- 
ous instances  formed  themselves  into  military  battalions.  We  shall 
hear  more  of  their  martial  performances  in  succeeding  chapters. 

After  the  death  of  Shinran,  Rennio,  who  died  in  1500,  became  the 

12 


1Y4  THE  MIKADO'S  EilPIRE. 

revivalist  of  Monto,  and  wrote  tlie  Ofumi,  or  sacred  writings,  which 
are  now  daily  read  by  the  disciples  of  this  denomination.  With  the 
characteristic  object  of  reaching  the  masses,  they  are  written  in  the 
common  script  hiragana  writing,  which  all  the  people  of  both  sexes 
can  read.  Though  greatly  persecuted  by  other  sectaries,  they  have 
continually  increased  in  numbers,  wealth,  and  power,  and  now  lead  ajl 
in  intelligence  and  influence.  To  the  charges  of  uncleanness  which 
others  bring  against  them,  because  they  marry  wives,  eat  and  drink 
and  live  so  much  like  unclerical  men,  they  calmly  answer,  the  bright 
rays  of  the  sun  shine  on  all  things  alike,  and  that  it  is  not  for  them  to 
call  things  unclean  which  have  evidently  been  created  for  man's  use ; 
that  righteousness  consists  neither  in  eating  nor  drinking,  nor  in  absti- 
nence from  the  blessings  vouchsafed  to  mortals  in  this  vale  of  woe ; 
and  that  the  maxims  and  narrow-minded  doctrines,  with  the  neglect 
of  which  they  are  reproached,  can  only  have  proceeded  from  the  folly 
or  vanity  of  men.  They  claim  that  priests  with  families  are  purer 
men  than  celibates  in  monasteries,  and  that  the  purity  of  society  is 
best  maintained  by  a  married  priesthood.  Within  the  last  two  decades 
they  were  the  first  to  organize  their  theological  schools  on  the  model 
of  foreign  countries,  that  their  young  men  might  be  trained  to  resist 
Shinto  or  Christianity,  or  to  measure  the  truth  in  either.  The  last 
new  charge  urged  against  them  by  their  rivals  is  that  they  are  so 
much  like  Christians,  that  they  might  as  well  be  such  out  and  out. 
Liberty  of  thought  and  action,  an  incoercible  desire  to  be  free  from 
governmental,  traditional,  ultra-ecclesiastical,  or  Shinto  influence  —  in 
a  word.  Protestantism  in  its  pure  sense,  is  characteristic  of  the  great 
sect  founded  by  Shinran. 

To  treat  of  the  doctrinal  difference  and  various  customs  of  the  dif- 
ferent denominations  would  require  a  volume.  Japanese  Buddhism 
richly  deserves  thorough  study,  and  a  scholarly  treatise  by  itself.*   The 

*  It  is  a  question  worthy  the  deepest  research  and  fullest  inquiry,  as  to  the 
time  occupied  in  converting  the  Japanese  people  to  the  Buddhist  faith.  It  is 
not  probable,  as  some  foreigners  believe,  that  Wani  (see  page  76)  brought  the 
knowledge  of  the  Indian  religion  to  Japan.  The  Mhongi  gives  the  year  552  as 
that  in  which  Buddhist  books,  images,  rosaries,  altar  furniture,  vestments,  etc., 
were  bestowed  as  presents  at  the  imperial  palace,  and  deposited  in  the  court  of 
ceremony.  The  imported  books  were  diligently  studied  by  a  few  court  nobles, 
and  in  584  several  of  them  openly  professed  the  new  faith.  In  585,  a  frightful  pes- 
tilence that  broke  out  was  ascribed  by  the  patriotic  opponents  of  the  foreign  faith 
to  the  anger  of  the  gods  against  the  new  religion.  A  long  and  bitter  dispute  fol- 
lowed, and  some  of  the  new  temples  and  idols  were  destroyed.  In  spite  of  patri- 
otism and  conservative  zeal,  the  worship  and  ritual  were  established  in  the  pal- 


B  UDDHISM  IN  JAPAN.  175 

part  played  by  the  great  Buddhist  sects  in  the  national  drama  of  histo- 
ry in  later  centuries  will  be  seen  as  we  proceed  in  our  narrative. 

ace,  new  missionaries  were  invited  from  Corea,  and  in  624  two  bonzes  were  given 
oflBcial  rank,  as  primate  and  vice-primate.  Temples  were  erected,  and,  at  the 
deatli  of  a  bonze,  in  700,  his  body  was  disposed  of  by  cremation — a  new  thing  in 
Japan.  In  741,  an  imperial  decree,  ordering  the  erection  of  two  temples  and  a 
Beven-storied  pagoda  in  each  province,  was  promulgated.  In  765,  a  priest  became 
Dai  Jo  Dai  Jin.  In  837,  a  precious  relic — one  of  Shaka's  (Buddha's)  bones — was 
deposited  in  the  palace.  The  masterstroke  of  theological  dexterity  was  made 
early  in  the  ninth  century,  when  Kobo,  who  had  studied  three  years  in  China, 
achieved  the  reconciliation  of  the  native  belief  and  the  foreign  religion,  made 
patriotism  and  piety  one,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  permanent  and  univer- 
sal success  of  Buddhism  in  Japan.  This  Japanese  Philo  taught  that  the  Shinto 
deities,  or  gods,  of  Japan  were  manifestations,  or  transmigrations,  of  Buddha  in 
that  country,  and,  by  his  scheme  of  dogmatic  theology,  secured  the  ascendency 
of  Buddhism  over  Shinto  and  Confucianism.  Until  near  the  fourteenth  century, 
however.  Buddhism  continued  to  be  the  religion  of  the  official,  military,  and  edu- 
cated classes,  but  not  of  the  people  at  large.  Its  adoption  by  all  classes  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  missionary  labors  of  Shinran  and  Nichiren,  whose  banishment 
to  the  North  and  East  made  them  itinerant  apostles.  Shinran  traveled  on  foot 
through  every  one  of  the  provinces  north  and  east  of  Kioto,  glorying  in  his  exile, 
everywhere  preaching,  teaching,  and  making  new  disciples.  It  may  be  safely 
said  that  it  required  nine  hundred  years  to  convert  the  Japanese  people  from 
fetichism  and  Shinto  to  Buddhism. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  get  accurate  statistics  relating  to  Japanese  Bud- 
dhism. The  following  table  was  compiled  for  me  by  a  learned  bonze  of  the  Shin 
denomination,  in  the  temple  of  Nishi  Honguanji,  in  Tsukiji,  Tokio.  I  have  com- 
pared it  with  data  furnished  by  an  ex-priest  in  Fukui,  and  various  laymen. 

The  ecclesiastical  centre  of  Japan  has  always  been  at  Kioto.  The  chief  temples 
and  monasteries  of  each  sect  were  located  there. 


Chief  SecU  (Shiu). 


TABULAR   LIST   OF   BUDDHIST   SECTS   IN   JAPAH. 

Total  Number 
of  Temples. 

I.  Tendai.    Founded  by  Chisha,  in  Chiua :  3  sub-sects 6,391 

II.  Shingou.    Fonuded  by  Kobo,  in  Japan,  a.d.  813:  3  snb-sects 15,503 

in.  Zen.    Founded  by  Darraa,  in  Japan  :  6  snb-sects 21,547 

IV.  Jodo.    Founded  by  Hoiien,  in  Japan,  1173 :  2  sub-sects 9,819 

V.  Shin.    Founded  by  Shinran,  in  Japan,  1213 :  5  sub-sects 13,718 

VI.  Nichiren.    Fonnded  by  Nichiren,  in  Japan,  1262:  2  snb-sects 

VII.  Ji.    Founded  by  Ippen,  in  Japan,  1288 586 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  twenty-one  "irregular,"  "local,"  or  "independ- 
ent" sects,  which  act  apart  from  the  others,  and  in  some  cases  have  no  temples 
or  monasteries.  A  number  of  other  sects  have  originated  in  Japan,  flourished  for 
a  time,  decayed,  and  passed  out  of  existence.  According  to  the  census  of  1872, 
there  were  in  Japan  211,846  Buddhist  religieux  of  both  sexes  and  all  grades  and 
orders.  Of  these,  75,925  Avere  priests,  abbots,  or  monks,  9  abbesses;  37,327  were 
reckoned  as  novices  or  students,  and  98,585  were  in  monasteries  or  families 
(mostly  of  Shin  sect) ;  151,677  were  males,  60,1.59  were  females,  and  9,621  were 
nuns.  By  the  census  of  1875,  the  returns  gave  207,669  Buddhist  religieux,  of 
whom  148,807  were  males,  and  58,862  females. 


176  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XVII. 

THE  INVASION  OF  THE  MONGOL  TARTARS. 

During  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  friendly  intercourse 
was  regularly  kept  up  between  Japan  and  China.  Embassies  were 
dispatched  to  and  fro  on  various  missions,  but  chiefly  with  the  mutual 
object  of  bearing  the  congratulations  to  an  emperor  upon  his  accession 
to  the  throne.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  "  Gazetteer  of  Echizen  "  {Echi- 
zen  Koku  Met  Seiki  Ko)  that  embassadors  from  China,  with  a  retinue 
and  crew  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-eight  persons,  came  to  Japan 
A.D.  Y76,  to  bear  congratulations  to  the  mikado,  Konin  Tenno.  The 
vessel  was  wrecked  in  a  typhoon  off  the  coast  of  Echizen,  and  but 
forty-six  of  the  company  were  saved.  They  were  fed  and  sheltered  in 
Echizen.  In  a.d.  779,  the  Japanese  embassy,  returning  from  China, 
landed  at  Mikuni,  the  sea -port  of  Fukui.  In  883,  orders  were  sent 
from  Ki5to  to  the  provinces  north  of  the  capital  to  repair  the  bridges 
and  roads,  bury  the  dead  bodies,  and  remove  all  obstacles,  because  the 
envoys  of  China  were  coming  that  way.  The  civil  disorders  in  both 
countries  interrupted  these  friendly  relations  in  the  twelfth  century, 
and  communications  ceased  until  they  were  renewed  again  in  the  time 
of  the  Hojo,  in  the  manner  now  to  be  described. 

In  China,  the  Mongol  Tartars  had  overthrown  the  Sung  dynasty, 
and  had  conquered  the  adjacent  countries.  Through  the  Coreans,  the 
Mongol  emperor,  Kublai  Khan,  at  whose  court  Marco  Polo  and  his 
uncles  were  then  residing,  sent  letters  demanding  tribute  and  hom- 
age from  Japan.  Chinese  envoys  came  to  Kamakura,  but  Hojo  Toki- 
mune,  enraged  at  the  insolent  demands,  dismissed  them  in  disgrace. 
Six  embassies  were  sent,  and  six  times  rejected. 

An  expedition  from  China,  consisting  of  ten  thousand  men,  was 
sent  against  Japan.  They  landed  at  Tsushima  and  Iki.  They  were 
bravely  attacked,  and  their  commander  slain.  All  Kiushiu  having 
roused  to  arms,  the  expedition  returned,  having  accomplished  nothing. 
The  Chinese  emperor  now  sent  nine  envoys,  who  announced  their  pur- 
pose to  remain  until  a  definite  answer  was  returned  to  their  master. 
They  were  called  to  Kamakura,  and  the  Japanese  reply  was  given  by 


THE  INVASION  OF  THE  MONGOL   TARTARS.  177 

cutting  off  their  heads  at  the  village  of  Tatsu  no  kuchi  (Mouth  of  the 
Dragon),  near  the  city.  The  Japanese  now  girded  themselves  for  the 
war  they  knew  was  imminent.  Troops  from  the  East  were  sent  to 
guard  Kioto.  Munitions  of  war  were  prepared,  magazines  stored,  cas- 
tles repaired,  and  new  armies  levied  and  drilled.  Boats  and  junks 
were  built  to  meet  the  enemy  on  the  sea.  Once  more  Chinese  en- 
voys came  to  demand  tribute.  Again  the  sword  gave  the  answer,  and 
their  heads  fell  at  Daizaifu,  in  Kiushiu,  in  1279. 

Meanwhile  the  armada  was  preparing.  Great  China  was  coming  to 
crush  the  little  strip  of  land  that  refused  homage  to  the  invincible  con- 
queror. The  army  numbered  one  hundred  thousand  Chinese  and  Tar- 
tars, and  seven  thousand  Coreans,  in  ships  that  whitened  the  sea  as 
the  snowy  herons  whiten  the  islands  of  Lake  Biwa.  They  numbered 
thirty -five  hundred  in  all.  In  the  Seventh  month  of  the  year  1281, 
the  tasseled  prows  and  fluted  sails  of  the  Chinese  junks  greeted  the 
straining  eyes  of  watchers  on  the  hills  of  Daizaifu.  The  armada 
sailed  gallantly  up,  and  ranged  itself  off  the  castled  city.  Many  of 
the  junks  were  of  immense  proportions,  larger  than  the  natives  of 
Japan  had  ever  seen,  and  armed  with  the  engines  of  European  war 
fare,  which  their  Venetian  guests  had  taught  the  Mongols  to  con 
struct  and  work.  The  Japanese  had  small  chance  of  success  on  the 
water ;  as,  although  their  boats,  being  swifter  and  lighter,  were  more 
easily  managed,  yet  many  of  them  were  sunk  by  the  darts  and  huge 
stones  hurled  by  the  catapults  mounted  on  their  enemy's  decks.  In 
personal  prowess  the  natives  of  Nippon  were  superior.  Swimming 
out  to  the  fleet,  a  party  of  thirty  boarded  a  junk,  and  cut  off  the 
heads  of  the  crew ;  but  another  company  attempting  to  do  so,  were 
all  killed  by  the  now  wary  Tartars.  One  captain,  Kusanojiro,  with  a 
picked  crew,  in  broad  daylight,  sculled  rapidly  out  to  an  outlying  junk, 
and,  in  spite  of  a  shower  of  darts,  one  of  which  took  off  his  left  arm, 
ran  his  boat  along-side  a  Chinese  junk,  and,  letting  down  the  masts, 
boarded  the  decks.  A  hand-to-hand  fight  ensued,  and,  before  the  ene- 
my's fleet  could  assist,  the  daring  assailants  set  the  ship  on  fire  and 
were  off,  carrying  away  twenty-one  heads.  The  fleet  now  ranged  it- 
self in  a  cordon,  linking  each  vessel  to  the  other  with  an  iron  chain. 
They  hoped  thus  to  foil  the  cutting-out  parties.  Besides  the  cata- 
pults, immense  bow-guns  shooting  heavy  darts  were  mounted  on  their 
decks,  so  as  to  sink  all  attacking  boats.  By  these  means  many  of  the 
latter  were  destroyed,  and  more  than  one  company  of  Japanese  who 
expected  victory  lost  their  lives.     Still,  the  enemy  could  not  effect  a 


178  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

landing  in  force.  Their  small  detacliraents  were  cut  off  or  driven  into 
the  sea  as  soon  as  they  reached  the  shore,  and  over  two  thousand 
heads  were  among  the  trophies  of  the  defenders  in  the  skirmishes.  A 
line  of  fortifications  many  miles  long,  consisting  of  earth -works  and 
heavy  palisading  of  planks,  was  now  erected  along-shore.  Behind 
these  the  defenders  watched  the  invaders,  and  challenged  them  to 
land. 

There  was  a  Japanese  captain,  Michiari,  who  had  long  hoped  for 
this  invasion.  He  had  prayed  often  to  the  gods  that  he  might  have 
opportunity  to  fight  the  Mongols.  He  had  written  his  prayers  on  pa- 
per, and,  learning  them,  had  solemnly  swallowed  the  ashes.  He  was 
now  overjoyed  at  the  prospect  of  a  combat.  Sallying  out  from  be- 
hind the  breastwork,  he  defied  the  enemy  to  fight.  Shortly  after,  he 
filled  two  boats  with  brave  fellows  and  pushed  out,  apparently  un 
armed,  to  the  fleet.  "  He  is  mad,"  cried  the  spectators  on  shore. 
"  How  bold,"  said  the  men  on  the  fleet,  "  for  two  little  boats  to  attack 
thousands  of  great  ships !  Surely  he  is  coming  to  surrender  himself." 
Supposing  this  to  be  his  object,  they  refrained  froin  shooting.  When 
within  a  few  oars-lengths,  the  Japanese,  flinging  out  ropes  with  grap- 
pling-hooks,  leaped  on  the  Tartar  junk.  The  bows  and  spears  of  the 
latter  were  no  match  for  the  two-handed  razor-like  swords  of  the  Jap- 
anese. The  issue,  though  for  a  while  doubtful,  was  a  swift  and  com- 
plete A-ictory  for  the  men  who  were  fighting  for  their  native  land. 
Burning  the  junk,  the  surviving  victors  left  before  the  surrounding 
ships  could  cut  them  off.  Among  the  captured  was  one  of  the  high- 
est officers  in  the  Mongol  fleet. 

The  whole  nation  was  now  roused.  Re -enforcements  poured  in 
from  all  quarters  to  swell  the  host  of  defenders.  From  the  monas- 
teries and  temples  all  over  the  country  went  up  unceasing  prayer  to 
the  gods  to  ruin  their  enemies  and  save  the  land  of  Japan.  The  em- 
peror and  ex-emperor  went  in  solemn  state  to  the  chief  priest  of  Shin- 
to, and,  writing  out  their  petitions  to  the  gods,  sent  him  as  a  messen- 
ger to  the  shrines  at  Ise.  It  is  recorded,  as  a  miraculous  fact,  that  at 
the  hour  of  noon,  as  the  sacred  envoy  arrived  at  the  shrine  and  offered 
the  prayer — the  day  being  perfectly  clear — a  streak  of  cloud  appeared 
in  the  sky,  which  soon  overspread  the  heavens,  until  the  dense  masses 
portended  a  storm  of  awful  violence. 

One  of  those  cyclones,  called  by  the  Japanese  tai-fu,  or  oJcaze,  of 
appalling  velocity  and  resistless  force,  such  as  whirl  along  the  coasts 
of  Japan  and  China  during  late  summer  and  early  fall  of  every  year. 


THE  INVASION  OF  THE  MONGOL   TARTARS.  181 

burst  upon  the  Chinese  fleet.  Nothing  can  withstand  these  maelstroms 
of  the  air.  We  call  them  typhoons ;  the  Japanese  say  tai-fu,  or  okaze 
(orreat  wind).  Iron  steamships  of  thousands  of  horse -power  are  al- 
most unmanageable  in  them.  Junks  are  helpless :  the  Chinese  ships 
were  these  only.  They  were  butted  together  like  mad  bulls.  They 
were  impaled  on  the  rocks,  dashed  against  the  cliffs,  or  tossed  on  land 
like  corks  from  the  spray.  They  were  blown  over  till  they  careened 
and  filled.  Heavily  freighted  with  human  beings,  they  sunk  by  hun- 
dreds. The  corpses  were  piled  on  the  shore,  or  floating  on  the  water 
so  thickly  that  it  seemed  almost  possible  to  walk  thereon.  Those 
driven  out  to  sea  may  have  reached  the  main-land,  but  were  probably 
overwhelmed.  The  vessels  of  the  survivors,  in  large  numbers,  drifted  to 
or  were  wrecked  upon  Taka  Island,  where  they  established  themselves, 
and,  cutting  down  trees,  began  building  boats  to  reach  Corea.  Here 
they  were  attacked  by  the  Japanese,  and,  after  a  bloody  struggle,  all  the 
fiercer  for  the  despair  on  the  one  side  and  the  exultation  on  the  other, 
were  all  slain  or  driven  into  the  sea  to  be  drowned,  except  three,  who 
were  sent  back  to  tell  their  emperor  how  the  gods  of  Japan  had  de- 
stroyed their  armada.  The  Japanese  exult  in  the  boast  that  their  gods 
and  their  heaven  prevailed  over  the  gods  and  the  heaven  of  the  Chinese. 

This  was  the  last  time  that  China  ever  attempted  to  conquer  Japan, 
whose  people  boast  that  their  land  has  never  been  defiled  by  an  invad- 
ing army.  They  have  ever  ascribed  the  glory  of  the  destruction  of 
the  Tartar  fleet  to  the  interposition  of  the  gods  at  Ise,  who  thereafter 
received  special  and  grateful  adoration  as  the  guardian  of  the  seas  and 
winds.  Great  credit  and  praise  were  given  to  the  lord  of  Kamakura, 
Hojo  Tokimune,  for  his  energy,  ability,  and  valor.  The  author  of 
the  Guai  Shi  says,  "The  repulse  of  the  Tartar  barbarians  by  Toki- 
mune, and  his  preserving  the  dominions  of  our  Son  of  Heaven,  were 
suflacient  to  atone  for  the  crimes  of  his  ancestors." 

Nearly  six  centuries  afterward,  when  "  the  barbarian  "  Perry  anchor- 
ed his  fleet  in  the  Bay  of  Yedo,  in  the  words  of  the  native  annalist, 
"  Orders  were  sent  by  the  imperial  court  to  the  Shinto  priests  at  Ise 
to  offer  up  prayers  for  the  sweeping-away  of  the  barbarians."  Mill- 
ions of  earnest  hearts  put  up  the  same  prayers  as  their  fathers  had 
offered,  fully  expecting  the  same  result. 

To  this  day  the  Japanese  mother  in  Kiushiu  hushes  her  fretful  in- 
fant by  the  question,  "Do  you  think  the  Mogu  (Mongols)  are  com- 
ing ?"  This  is  the  only  serious  attempt  at  invasion  ever  made  by  any 
nation  upon  the  shores  of  Japan. 


182  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XVIII. 

TEE  TEMPORARY  MIKADO  ATE. 

The  first  step  taken  after  the  overthrow  of  the  military  usurpation 
at  Kamakura  was  to  recall  the  mikado  Go-Daigo  from  exile.  With 
the  sovereign  again  in  full  power,  it  seemed  as  though  the  ancient  and 
rightful  government  was  to  be  permanently  restored.  The  military  or 
dual  system  had  lasted  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  patriots 
now  hoped  to  see  the  country  rightly  governed,  without  intervention 
between  the  throne  and  the  people.  The  rewarding  of  the  victors 
who  had  fought  for  him  was  the  first  duty  awaiting  the  restored  exile. 
The  methods  and  procedure  of  feudalism  were  now  so  fixed  in  the 
general  policy  of  the  Government,  that  Go-Daigo,  falling  into  the 
ways  of  the  Minamoto  and  Hojo,  apportioned  military  fiefs  as  guer- 
dons to  his  vassals.  Among  them  was  Ashikaga  Takauji,  to  whom 
was  awarded  the  greatest  prize,  consisting  of  the  rich  provinces  of 
Hitachi,  Musashi,  and  Shimosa.  To  Kusunoki  Masashige  were  given 
Settsu  and  Kawachi;  and  to  Nitta,  Kodzuke  and  Harima,  besides 
smaller  fiefs  to  many  others. 

This  unfair  distribution  of  spoils  astounded  the  patriots,  who  ex- 
pected to  see  high  rank  and  power  conferred  upon  Nitta  and  Kusuno- 
ki, the  chief  leaders  in  the  war  for  the  restoration,  and  both  very  able 
men.  It  would  have  been  well  had  the  emperor  seen  the  importance 
of  disregarding  the  claims  and  privileges  of  caste,  and  exalted  to  high- 
est rank  the  faithful  men  who  were  desirous  of  maintaining  the  dig- 
nity of  the  throne,  and  whose  chief  fear  was  that  the  duarchy  would 
again  arise.  Such  a  fear  was  by  no  means  groundless,  for  Ashikaga, 
elated  at  such  unexpected  favor,  became  inflamed  with  a  still  higher 
ambition,  and  already  meditated  refounding  the  shogunate  at  Kama- 
kura, and  placing  his  own  family  upon  the  military  throne.  Being  of 
Minamoto  stock,  he  knew  that  he  had  prestige  and  popularity  in  his 
favor,  should  he  attempt  the  re-erection  of  the  shogunate.  Most  of 
the  common  soldiers  had  fought  rather  against  Hoj5  than  against  du- 
archy.    The  emperor  was  warned  against  this  man  by  his  ministers; 


THE  TEMPORABT  MIKADO  ATE.  183 

but  in  this  case  a  woman's  smiles  and  caresses  and  importunate  words 
were  more  powerful  than  the  advice  of  sages.  Ashikaga  had  bribed 
the  mikado's  concubine  Kadoko,  and  had  so  won  her  favor  that  she 
persuaded  her  imperial  lord  to  bestow  excessive  and  undeserved  honor 
on  the  traitor. 

The  distribution  of  spoils  excited  discontent  among  the  soldiers, 
who  now  began  to  lose  all  interest  in  the  cause  for  which  they  had 
fought,  and  to  murmur  privately  among  themselves.  "  Should  such 
an  unjust  government  continue,"  said  they,  "  then  are  we  all  servants 
of  concubines  and  dancing  -  girls  and  singing -boys.  Rather  than  be 
the  puppets  of  the  mikado's  amusers,  we  would  prefer  a  shogun  again, 
and  become  his  vassals."  Many  of  the  captains  and  smaller  clan-leaders 
were  also  in  bad  humor  over  their  own  small  shares.  Ashikaga  Taka- 
uji  took  advantage  of  this  feeling  to  make  himself  popular  among  the 
disaffected,  especially  those  who  clung  to  arms  as  a  profession  and 
wished  to  remain  soldiers,  preferring  war  to  peace.  Of  such  inflamma- 
ble material  the  latent  traitor  was  not  slow  to  avail  himself  when  it 
suited  him  to  light  the  flames  of  war. 

Had  the  mikado  listened  to  his  wise  counselor,  and  also  placed  Ku- 
sunoki  in  an  office  commensurate  with  his  commanding  abilities,  and 
rewarded  Nitta  as  he  deserved,  the  century  of  anarchy  and  bloodshed 
which  followed  might  have  been  spared  to  Japan. 

Go-Daigo,  who  in  the  early  years  of  his  former  reign  had  been  a 
man  of  indomitable  courage  and  energy,  seems  to  have  lost  the  best 
traits  of  his  character  in  his  exile,  retaining  only  his  imperious  will 
and  susceptibility  to  flattery.  To  this  degenerate  Samson  a  Delilah 
was  not  wanting.  He  fell  an  easy  victim  to  the  wiles  of  one  man, 
though  the  shears  by  which  his  strength  was  shorn  were  held  by  a 
woman.  Ashikaga  was  a  consummate  master  of  the  arts  of  adulation 
and  political  craft.  He  was  now  to  further  prove  his  skill,  and  to 
verify  the  warnings  of  Nitta  and  the  ministers.  The  emperor  made 
Moriyoshi,  his  own  son,  shogun.  Ashikaga,  jealous  of  the  appoint- 
ment, and  having  too  ready  access  to  the  infatuated  fathei-'s  ear,  told 
him  that  his  son  was  plotting  to  get  possession  of  the  throne.  Mori- 
yoshi, hating  the  flatterer,  and  stung  to  rage  by  the  base  slander, 
marched  against  him.  Ashikaga  now  succeeded  by  means  of  his  ally 
in  the  imperial  bed  in  making  himself,  in  the  eyes  of  the  mikado,  the 
first  victim  to  the  conspiracies  of  the  prince.  So  great  was  his  power 
over  the  emperor  that  he  obtained  from  the  imperial  hand  a  decree  to 
punish  his  enemy  Moriyoshi  as  a  choteki,  or  rebel,  against  the  mikado. 


"184  THE  MIKADO' S  EMPIRE. 

Here  we  have  a  striking  instance  of  what,  in  the  game  of  Japanese 
state-craft,  may  be  called  the  checkmate  move,  or,  in  the  native  idiom, 
Ote,  "  king's  hand."  It  is  difficult  for  a  foreigner  to  fully  appreciate 
the  prestige  attaching  to  the  mikado's  person — a  prestige  never  dimin- 
ishing. No  matter  how  low  his  actual  measure  of  power,  the  meanness 
of  his  character,  or  the  insignificance  of  his  personal  abilities,  he  was 
the  Son  of  Heaven,  his  word  was  law,  his  command  omnipotent.  He 
was  the  fountain  of  all  rank  and  authority.  No  military  leader,  how- 
ever great  his  resources  or  ability,  could  win  the  popular  heart  or 
hope  for  ultimate  success  unless  appointed  by  the  emperor.  He  who 
held  the  Son  of  Heaven  in  his  power  was  master.  Hence  it  was  the 
constant  aim  of  all  the  military  leaders,  even  down  to  1868,  to  obtain 
control  of  the  imperial  person.  However  wicked  or  villainous  the 
keeper  of  the  mikado,  he  was  master  of  the  situation.  His  enemies 
were  ckoteki,  or  rebels  against  the  Son  of  Heaven ;  his  own  soldiers 
were  the  kuan-gun,  or  loyal  army.  Even  might  could  not  make  right. 
Possession  of  the  divine  person  was  more  than  nine-tenths — it  was 
the  whole — of  the  law. 

Moriyoshi,  then,  being  ckoteki,  was  doomed.  Ashikaga,  having  the 
imperial  order,  had  the  kuan-gun,  and  was  destined  to  win.  The  sad 
fate  of  the  emperor's  son  awakens  the  saddest  feelings,  and  brings 
tears  to  the  eyes  of  the  Japanese  reader  even  at  the  present  day.  He 
was  seized,  deposed,  sent  to  Kamakura,  and  murdered  in  a  subter- 
ranean dungeon  in  the  Seventh  month  of  the  year  1335. 

His  child  in  exile,  the  heart  of  the  emperor  relented.  The  scales 
fell  from  his  eyes.  He  saw  that  he  had  wrongly  suspected  his  son, 
and  that  the  real  traitor  was  Ashikaga.  The  latter,  noticing  the 
change  that  had  come  over  his  master,  left  Kioto  secretly,  followed  by 
thousands  of  the  disaffected  soldiery,  and  fled  to  Kamakura,  which  he 
had  rebuilt,  and  began  to  consolidate  his  forces  with  a  view  of  again 
erecting  the  Eastern  capital,  and  seizing  the  power  formerly  held  by 
the  Hoj5.  Nitta  had  also  been  accused  by  Ashikaga,  but,  having 
cleared  himself  in  a  petition  to  the  mikado,  he  received  the  imperial 
commission  to  chastise  his  rival.  In  the  campaign  which  followed, 
the  imperial  forces  were  so  hopelessly  defeated  that  the  quondam  im- 
perial exile  now  became  a  fugitive.  With  his  loyal  followers  he  left 
Kioto,  carrying  with  him  the  sacred  emblems  of  authority. 

Ashikaga,  though  a  triumphant  victor,  occupied  a  critical  position. 
He  was  a  ckoteki.  As  such  he  could  never  win  final  success.  He 
had  power  and  resources,  but,  unlike  others  equally  usurpers,  was  not 


THE  TEMPORARY  MIKADO  ATE. 


185 


clothed  with  authority.  He  was,  in  popular  estimation,  a  rebel  of  the 
deepest  dye.  In  such  a  predicament  he  could  not  safely  remain  a 
day.  The  people  would  take  the  side  of  the  emperor.  What  should 
he  do ;  His  vigor,  acuteness,  and  villainy  were  equal.  The  Hojo  had 
deposed  and  set  up  emperors.  It  was  Ashikaga  who  divided  the  alle- 
giance of  the  people,  gave  Japan  a  War  of  the  Roses  (or  Chrysanthe- 
mums), tilled  the  soil  for  feudalism,  and  lighted  the  flames  of  war 
that  made  Kioto  a  cock-pit,  abandoned  the  land  for  nearly  two  cent- 
uries and  a  half  to  slaughter,  ignorance,  and  paralysis  of  national  prog- 
ress. To  clothe  his  acts  with  right,  he  made  a  new  Son  of  Heaven, 
He  declared  Kogen,  who  was  of  the  royal  family,  emperor.  In  1336, 
this  new  Son  of  Heaven  gave  Ashikaga  the  title  of  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun. 
Kamakura  again  became  the  military  capital.  The  duarchy  was  re- 
stored, and  the  War  of  the  Northern  and  the  Southern  Dynasties  be- 
gan, which  lasted  fifty-six  years. 


Ashikaga  Takanji,  Sei-i  Tai  Shognn.    (Prom  a  photograph  taken  from  a  wooden  statne 
in  a  temple  iu  Kioto.) 

The  period  1333-1336,  though  including  little  more  than  two 
years  of  time,  is  of  great  significance  as  marking  the  existence  of  a 
temporary  mikadoate.  The  fact  that  it  lasted  so  short  a  time,  and 
that  the  duarchy  was  again  set  up  on  its  ruins,  has  furnished  both  na- 
tives and  foreigners  with  the  absurd  and  specious,  but  strongly  urged, 
argument  that  the  Government  of  Japan,  by  a  single  ruler  from  a  sin- 
gle centre,  is  an  impossibility,  and  that  the  creation  of  a  dual  sys- 
tem with  a  "  spiritual "  or  nominal  sovereign  in  one  part  of  the  em- 
pire, and  a  military  or  "  secular "  ruler  in  another,  is  a  necessity. 


186  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

During  the  agitation  of  the  question  concerning  the  abolition  of  the 
dual  system,  and  the  restoration  of  the  mikado  in  1860-1868,  one  of 
the  chief  arguments  of  the  adherents  of  the  shogunate  against  the 
scheme  of  the  agitators,  was  the  assertion  that  the  events  of  the  period 
1333-1336  proved  that  the  mikado  could  not  alone  govern  the  coun- 
try, and  that  it  must  have  duarchy.  Even  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
''Tycoon"  in  1868,  foreigners,  as  well  as  natives,  who  had  studied 
Japanese  history,  fully  believed  and  expected  that  in  a  year  or  two 
the  present  mikado's  Government  would  be  overthrown,  and  the  "  Ty- 
coon "  return  to  power,  basing  their  belief  on  the  fact  that  the  mika- 
doate  of  1333-1336  did  not  last.  Whatever  force  such  an  argu- 
ment might  have  had  when  Japan  had  no  foreign  relations,  and  no 
aliens  on  her  soil  to  disturb  the  balance  between  Kioto  and  Kama- 
kura,  it  is  certain  that  it  counts  for  naught  when,  under  altered  condi- 
tions, more  than  the  united  front  of  the  whole  empire*  is  now  re- 
quired to  cope  with  the  political  pressure  from  without. 

*  Certain  writers,  and  one  as  late  as  1873,  dispute  the  right  of  Japan  to  be 
called  an  "empire,"  and  the  mikados  to  be  styled  "emperor,"  "inasmuch  as  they 
[the  miliados]  sent  tribute  to  the  Emperor  of  China."  As  matter  of  fact,  none 
of  the  mikados  ever  did  this,  though  one  shogun  (Ashilcaga  Yoshimitsu,  page  195) 
did.  Chinese  books,  and  even  the  official  gazettes  of  Peking,  speak  of  all  nations 
— even  England,  France,  and  the  United  States — as  "paying  tribute"  to  China, 
and  their  envoys  as  "tribute-bearers."  Japan  has  always  remained  in  total  polit- 
ical independence  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  and  her  Hwang  Ti.  That  Japan  is  an 
"empire,"  the  absolutism  of  the  mikado,  the  diversity  other  forms  of  govern- 
mental administration,  differing  in  Liu  Kiu  (having  its  lord,  or  feudal  vassal), 
Tezo  (territory  governed  by  a  special  department),  and  in  the  main  body  of  the 
empire,  besides  its  varied  nationalities — Japanese,  Liu  Kiuans,  and  Ainos.  This 
expression  of  sovereignty  is  graphically  conveyed  in  the  two  Chinese  characters, 
pronounced,  in  Japanese,  Ko  tel  (page  39,  note),  and  Hwang  Ti  in  Chinese.  The 
Japanese  rulers,  borrowing  their  notions  of  government  and  imperialism  from 
China,  as  those  of  modern  Europe  have  from  Rome,  adopted  the  title  for  the 
mikado,  who  has  ever  ruled,  not  only  over  his  own  subjects  of  like  blood,  but 
over  ebisu,  or  barbarians,  and  tributary  people.  When  the  character  Ko  is  joined 
to  Koku  (country),  we  get  Ko  Koku  (which  is  stamped  on  the  outside  of  this 
volume),  or  "The  Mikado's  Empire,"  the  idea  emphasized  being  personal,  or 
that  of  the  mikado  as  government  personified.  When  Tei  is  joined  to  Koku  (Tei 
Koku  Nihon,  the  blazon,  or  distinctive  tablet,  inscribed  with  four  Chinese  char- 
acters over  the  Japanese  section  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia), 
we  have  the  idea  of  an  empire  ruled  by  deity,  or  divine  government — theocracy. 
The  fact  that  Japan,  though  so  much  smaller  than  China,  has  always  claimed 
equal  dignity,  power,  and  glory  with  her  mighty  neighbor,  and  the  fact  that 
there  can  not  be  two  suns  in  the  same  heaven,  helps  to  explain  the  deep-seated 
rivalry,  mutual  jealousy,  and  even  contempt,  which  "the  decayed  old  gentle- 
man" and  "the  conceited  young  upstart"  feel  toward  esch  other. 


THE  WAR  OF  THE  CHRYSANTHEMUMS.  187 


XIX. 

THE  WAR   OF  THE  CHRYSANTHEMUMS. 

The  dynasty  of  the  imperial  rulers  of  Japan  is  the  oldest  in  the 
world.  No  other  family  line  extends  so  far  back  into  the  remote 
ages  as  the  nameless  family  of  mikados.  Disdaining  to  have  a  fami- 
ly name,  claiming  descent,  not  from  mortals,  but  from  the  heavenly 
gods,  the  imperial  house  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Rising  Sun  occupies 
a  throne  which  no  plebeian  has  ever  attempted  to  usurp.  Through- 
out all  the  vicissitudes  of  the  imperial  line,  in  plenitude  of  power  or 
abasement  of  poverty,  its  members  deposed  or  set  up  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  upstart  or  the  political  robber,  the  throne  itself  has  remained 
unshaken.  Unclean  hands  have  not  been  laid  upon  the  ark  itself. 
As  in  the  procession  of  life  on  the  globe  the  individual  perishes,  the 
species  lives  on,  so,  though  individual  mikados  have  been  dethroned, 
insulted,  or  exiled,  the  prestige  of  the  line  has  never  suffered.  The 
loyalty  or  allegiance  of  the  people  has  never  swerved.  The  soldier 
who  would  begin  revolution,  or  who  lusted  for  power,  would  make 
the  mikado  his  tool ;  but,  however  transcendent  his  genius  and  abili- 
ties, he  never  attempted  to  write  himself  mikado.  No  Japanese  Csesar 
ever  had  his  Brutus,  nor  Charles  his  Cromwell,  nor  George  his  Wash- 
ington. Not  even,  as  in  China,  did  one  dynasty  of  alien  blood  over- 
throw another,  and  reign  in  the  stead  of  a  destroyed  family.  Such 
events  are  unknown  in  Japanese  annals.  The  student  of  this  people 
and  their  unique  history  can  never  understand  them  or  their  national 
life  unless  he  measures  the  mightiness  of  the  force,  and  recognizes  the 
place  of  the  throne  and  the  mikado  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  its 
people. 

There  are  on  record  instances  in  which  the  true  heirship  v,'as  de- 
clared only  after  bitter  intrigue,  quarrels,  or  even  bloodshed.  In  the 
tenth  century,  Taira  no  Masakado,  disappointed  in  not  being  appoint- 
ed Dai  Jo  Dai  Jin,  left  Kioto,  went  to  Shimosa  in  the  Kuanto,  and  set 
himself  up  as  Shinno,  or  cadet  of  the  imperial  line,  and  temporarily 


188  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ruled  the  eiglit  provinces  of  the  East  as  a  pseudo-mikado.*  In  1139, 
the  military  families  of  Taira  and  Minamoto  came  to  blows  in  Kioto 
over  the  question  of  succession  between  the  rival  heirs,  Shutoku  and 
Go-Shirakawa.  The  Taira  being  victors,  their  candidate  became  mikado. 
During  the  decay  of  the  Taira,  they  fled  from  Kioto,  carrying  with 
them,  as  true  emperor,  with  his  suite  and  the  sacred  insignia,  Antoku, 
the  child,  five  years  old,  who  was  drowned  in  the  sea  when  the  Taira 
were  destroyed.    The  Minamoto  at  the  same  time  recognized  Gotoba. 

It  may  be  more  analogical  to  call  the  wars  of  the  Gen  and  Hei,  with 
their  white  and  red  flags,  the  Japanese  Wars  of  the  Roses.  Theirs  was 
the  struggle  of  rival  houses.  Now,  we  are  to  speak  of  rival  dynasties, 
each  with  the  imperial  crysanthemum. 

In  the  time  of  the  early  Ashikagas  (1336-1390)  there  were  two 
mikados  ruling,  or  attempting  to  rule,  in  Japan.  The  Emperor  Go- 
Daigo  had  chosen  his  son  Kuniyoshi  as  his  heir,  but  the  latter  died 
in  1326.     Kogen,  son  of  the  mikado  Go-Fushimi  (1299-1301),  was 

*  Taira  no  Masakado,  or,  as  we  should  say,  Masakado  Taira,  was  a  man  of  great 
energy  and  of  unscrupulous  character.  He  was  at  first  governor  of  Shimosa,  but 
aspired  to  rule  over  all  the  East.  He  built  a  palace  on  the  same  model  as  that 
of  the  mikado,  at  Sajima,  in  Shimotsuke,  and  appointed  officers  similar  to  those 
at  the  imperial  court.  He  killed  his  uncle,  who  stood  in  the  way  of  his  ambition. 
To  revenge  his  father's  death,  Sadamori,  cousin  to  Masakado,  headed  two  thou- 
sand men,  attacked  the  false  mikado,  and  shot  him  to  death  with  an  arrow,  car- 
rying his  head  as  trophy  and  evidence  to  Kioto,  where  it  was  exposed  on  the  pil- 
lory. Shortly  after  his  decease,  the  people  of  Musashi,  living  on  the  site  of  mod- 
ern Tokio,  being  greatly  afflicted  by  the  troubled  and  angry  spirit  of  their  late 
ruler,  erected  a  temple  on  the  site  within  the  second  castle  enceinte  near  Kanda 
Bridge,  and  in  that  part  of  the  city  district  of  Kanda  (God's  Field)  now  occupied 
by  the  Imperial  Treasury  Department.  This  had  the  eflFect  of  soothing  the  un- 
quiet ghost,  and  the  land  had  rest ;  and  later  generations,  mindful  of  the  power 
of  a  spirit  that  in  life  ruled  all  the  Kuan  to,  and  in  death  could  afflict  or  give  peace 
to  millions  at  will,  worshiped  Masakado  under  the  posthumous  name  of  Kanda 
Mio  Jin  (Illustrious  Deity  of  Kanda),  his  history  having  been  forgotten,  or  trans- 
figured into  the  form  of  a  narrative,  which  to  doubt  was  sin.  When  Iyt?yasii,  in 
the  latter  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  made  Yedo  his  capital,  he  removed  the 
shrine  to  a  more  eligible  location  on  the  hill  in  the  rear  of  the  Kanda  River  and 
the  Suido,  where,  later,  the  university  stood,  and  erected  an  edifice  of  great  splen- 
dor, surrounded  by  groves  and  grounds  of  sui-passing  loveliness.  This  was  per- 
haps only  policy,  to  gain  the  popular  fovor  by  honoring  the  local  gods ;  but  it 
stirred  up  some  jealousy  among  the  "mikado-reverencers"  and  students  of  his- 
tory who  knew  the  facts.  Some  accused  him  of  treasonable  designs  like  those  of 
Masakado.  In  1868,  when  the  mikado's  troops  arrived  in  Yedo,  they  rushed  to 
the  temple  of  Kanda  Mio  Jin,  and,  pulling  out  the  idol  or  image  of  the  deified 
Masakado,  hacked  it  to  pieces  with  their  swords,  wishing  the  same  fate  to  all 
traitors.  Thus,  after  nine  centuries,  the  traitor  received  a  traitor's  reward,  a 
clear  instance  of  historic  justice  in  the  eyes  of  native  patriots. 


THE  WAR  OF  THE  CHRYSANTHEMUMS.  189 

then  made  heir.  Go  -  Daigo's  third  son  Moriyoshi,  however,  as  he 
grew  up,  showed  great  talent,  and  his  father  regretted  that  he  had 
consented  to  the  choice  of  Kogen,  and  wished  his  own  son  to  succeed 
him.  He  referred  the  matter  to  Hojo  at  Kamakura,  who  disapproved 
of  the  plan.  Those  who  hated  Hojo  called  Kogen  the  "  false  emper- 
or," refusing  to  acknowledge  him.  When  Nitta  destroyed  Kamakura, 
and  Go-Daigo  was  restored,  Kogen  retired  to  obscurity.  No  one  for 
a  moment  thought  of  or  acknowledged  any  one  but  Go-Daigo  as  true 
and  only  mikado.  When,  however,  Ashikaga  by  his  treachery  had 
alienated  the  emperor  from  him,  and  was  without  imperial  favor,  and 
liable  to  punishment  as  a  rebel,  he  found  out  and  set  up  !^ogen  a3 
mikado,  and  proclaimed  him  sovereign.     Civil  war  then  broke  out. 

Into  the  details  of  the  war  between  the  adherents  of  the  North- 
ern emperor,  Ashikaga,  with  his  followers,  on  the  one  side,  and  Go- 
Daigo,  who  held  the  insignia  of  authority,  backed  by  a  brilliant  array 
of  names  famous  among  the  Japanese,  on  the  other,  I  do  not  propose 
to  enter.  It  is  a  confused  and  sickening  story  of  loyalty  and  treach- 
ery, battle,  murder,  pillage,  fire,  famine,  poverty,  and  misery,  such  as 
make  up  the  picture  of  civil  wars  in  every  country.  Occasionally  in 
this  period  a  noble  deed  or  typical  character  shines  forth  for  the  ad- 
miration or  example  of  succeeding  generations.  Among  these  none 
have  exhibited  more  nobly  man's  possible  greatness  in  the  hour  of 
death  than  Nitta  Yoshisada  and  Kusunoki  Masashige. 

On  one  occasion  the  army  of  Nitta,  who  was  fighting  under  the  flag 
of  Go-Daigo,  the  true  emperor,  was  encamped  before  that  of  Ashika- 
ga. To  save  further  slaughter,  Nitta  sallied  out  alone,  and,  approach- 
ing his  enemy's  camp,  cried  out :  "  The  war  in  the  country  continues 
long.  Although  this  has  arisen  from  the  rivalry  of  two  emperors, 
yet  its  issue  depends  solely  upon  you  and  me.  Rather  than  millions 
of  the  people  should  be  involved  in  distress,  let  us  determine  the  ques- 
tion by  single  combat."  The  retainers  of  Ashikaga  prevailed  on  their 
commander  not  to  accept  the  challenge.  In  1338,  on  the  second  day 
of  the  Seventh  month,  while  marching  with  about  fifty  followers  to 
assist  in  investing  a  fortress  in  Echizen,  he  was  suddenly  attacked  in 
a  narrow  path  in  a  rice-field  near  Fukui  by  about  three  thousand  of 
the  enemy,  and  exposed  without  shields  to  a  shower  of  arrows.  Some 
one  begged  Nitta,  as  he  was  mounted,  to  escape.  "  It  is  not  my  de- 
sire to  survive  my  companions  slain,"  was  his  response.  Wliipping 
up  his  horse,  he  rode  forward  to  engage  with  his  sword,  making  him- 
self the  target  for  a  hundred  archers.     His  horse,  struck  when  at  full 

13 


190  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

speed  by  an  arrow,  fell.  Nitta,  on  clearing  himself  and  rising,  was  hit 
between  the  eyes  with  a  white-feathered  shaft,  and  mortally  wounded. 
Drawing  his  sword,  he  cut  off  his  own  head — a  feat  which  the  war- 
riors of  that  time  were  trained  to  perform — so  that  his  enemies  might 
not  recognize  him.  He  was  thirty-eight  years  old.  His  brave  little 
band  were  slain  by  arrows,  or  killed  themselves  with  their  own  hand, 
that  they  might  die  with  their  master.  The  enemy  could  not  recog- 
nize Nitta,  until  they  found,  beneath  a  pile  of  corpses  of  men  who 
had  committed  hara-kiri,  a  body  on  which,  inclosed  in  a  damask  bag, 
was  a  letter  containing  the  imperial  commission  in  Go-Daigo's  hand- 
writing, "  I  invest  you  with  all  power  to  subjugate  the  rebels."  Then 
they  knew  the  corpse  to  be  that  of  Nitta.  His  head  was  carried  to 
Ki5to,  then  in  possession  of  Ashikaga,  and  exposed  in  public  on  a 
pillory.  The  tomb  of  this  brave  man  stands,  carefully  watched  and 
tended,  near  Fukui,  in  Echizen,  hard  by  the  very  spot  where  he  fell. 
I  often  passed  it  in  my  walks,  when  living  in  Fukui  in  1871,  and  no- 
ticed that  fresh  blooming  flowers  were  almost  daily  laid  upon  it — the 
tribute  of  an  admiring  people.  A  shrine  and  monument  in  memoriam 
were  erected  in  his  native  place  during  the  year  1875. 

The  brave  Kusunoki,  after  a  lost  battle  at  Minatogawa,  near  Hiogo, 
having  suffered  continual  defeat,  his  counsels  having  been  set  at 
naught,  and  his  advice  rejected,  felt  that  life  was  no  longer  honorable, 
and  solemnly  resolved  to  die  in  unsullied  reputation  and  with  a  sol- 
dier's honor.  Sorrowfully  bidding  his  wife  and  infant  children  good- 
bye, he  calmly  committed  hara-kiri,  an  example  which  his  comrades, 
numbering  one  hundred  and  fifty,  bravely  followed. 

Kusunoki  Masashige  was  one  of  an  honorable  family  who  dwelt  in 
Kawachi,  and  traced  their  descent  to  the  great-grandson  of  the  thirty- 
second  mikado,  Bidatsu  (a.d.  572-585).  The  family  name,  Kusunoki 
("Camphor"),  was  given  his  people  from  the  fact  that  a  grove  of 
camphor-trees  adorned  the  ancestral  gardens  of  the  mansion.  The 
twelfth  in  descent  was  the  Vice-governor  of  lyo.  The  father  of  Masa- 
shige held  land  assessed  at  two  thousand  koku.  His  mother,  desiring 
a  child,  prayed  to  the  god  Bishamon  for  one  hundred  days,  and  Ma- 
sashige was  born  after  a  pregnancy  of  fourteen  months.  The  mother, 
in  devout  gratitude,  named  the  boy  Tamon  (the  Sanskrit  name  of  Bish- 
amon), after  the  god  Avho  had  heard  her  prayers.  The  man-child  was 
very  strong,  and  at  seven  could  throw  boys  of  fifteen  at  wrestling. 
He  received  his  education  in  the  Chinese  classics  from  the  priests  in 
the  temple,  and  exercised  himself  in  all  manly  and  warlike  arts.     In 


THE   WAR   OF  THE  CHRYSANTHEMUMS.  191 

his  twelftli  year  he  cut  ofi  the  head  of  an  enemy,  and  at  fifteen  stud- 
ied the  Chinese  military  art,  and  made  it  the  solemn  purpose  of  his 
life  to  overthrow  the  Kamakura  usurpation,  and  restore  the  mikado  to 
power.  In  1330,  he  took  up  arms  for  Go-Daigo.  He  was  several 
times  besieged  by  the  Hojo  armies,  but  was  finally  victorious  with 
Nitta  and  Ashikaga.  When  the  latter  became  a  rebel,  defeated  Nitta, 
and  entered  Kioto  in  force,  Kusunoki  joined  Nitta,  and  thrice  drove 
out  the  troops  of  Ashikaga  from  the  capital.  The  latter  then  fled 
to  the  West,  and  Kusunoki  advised  the  imperialist  generals  to  follow 
them  up  and  annihilate  the  rebellion.  His  superiors,  with  criminal 
levity,  neglecting  to  do  this,  the  rebels  collected  together,  and  again 
advanced,  with  increased  strength  by  land  and  water,  against  Kioto, 
having,  it  is  said,  two  hundred  thousand  men.  Kusunoki's  plan  of 
operations  was  rejected,  and  his  advice  ignored.  With  Nitta  he  was 
compelled  to  bear  the  brunt  of  battle  against  overwhelming  forces  at 
Minato  gawa,  near  Hiogo,  and  was  there  hopelessly  defeated.  Kusu- 
noki, now  feeling  that  he  had  done  all  that  was  possible  to  a  subordi- 
nate, and  that  life  was  no  longer  honorable,  retired  to  a  farmer's  house 
at  the  village  of  Sakurai,  and  there,  giving  him  the  sword  bestowed 
on  himself  by  the  mikado,  admonished  his  son  Masatsura  to  follow 
the  soldier's  calling,  cherish  his  father's  memory,  and  avenge  his  fa- 
ther's death.  Sixteen  of  his  relatives,  with  unquailing  courage,  like- 
wise followed  their  master  in  death. 

Of  all  the  characters  in  Japanese  history,  that  of  Kusunoki  Masa- 
shige  stands  pre-eminent  for  pureness  of  patriotism,  unselfishness  of 
devotion  to  duty,  and  calmness  of  courage.  The  people  speak  of  him 
in  tones  of  reverential  tenderness,  and,  with  an  admiration  that  lacks 
fitting  words,  behold  in  him  the  mirror  of  stainless  loyalty.  I  have 
more  than  once  asked  my  Japanese  students  and  friends  whom  they 
considered  the  noblest  character  in  their  history.  Their  unanimous 
answer  was  "  Kusunoki  Masashige."  Every  relic  of  this  brave  man  is 
treasured  up  with  religious  care;  and  fans  inscribed  with  poems  writ- 
ten by  him,  in  fac-simile  of  his  handwriting,  are  sold  in  the  shops  and 
used  by  those  who  burn  to  imitate  his  exalted  patriotism.*  His  son 
Masatsura  lived  to  become  a  gallant  soldier. 

*  I  make  no  attempt  to  conceal  my  own  admiration  of  a  man  who  acted  ac- 
cording to  his  light,  and  faced  liis  soldierly  ideal  of  honor,  when  conscience  and 
all  his  previous  education  told  him  that  his  hour  had  come,  and  that  to  flinch 
from  the  suicidal  thrust  was  dishonor  and  sin.  No  enlightened  Japanese  of  to- 
day would  show  himself  brave  by  committing  hara-kiri,  as  the  most  earnest  writers, 


192  THE  3I1K ADO'S  EMPIRE. 

The  war,  whicli  at  first  was  waged  with  the  clearly  defined  object 
of  settling  the  question  of  the  supremacy  of  the  rival  mikados,  gradual' 
ly  lost  its  true  character,  and  finally  degenerated  into  a  melee  and  free 
fight  on  a  national  scale.  Before  peace  was  finally  declared,  all  the 
original  leaders  had  died,  and  the  prime  object  had  been,  in  a  great 
measure,  forgotten  in  the  lust  for  land  and  war.  Even  the  rival  em- 
perors lost  much  of  their  interest,  as  they  had  no  concern  in  brawls 
by  which  petty  chieftains  sought  to  exalt  their  own  name,  and  increase 
their  territory  by  robbing  their  neighbors.  In  1392,  an  envoy  from 
Ashikaga  persuaded  Go-Kameyama  to  come  to  Kioto  and  hand  over 
the  regalia  to  Go-Komatsu,  the  Northern  emperor.  The  basis  of 
peace  was  that  Go-Kameyama  should  receive  the  title  of  Dai  Jo 
Tenno  (ex-emperor),  Go-Komatsu  be  declared  emperor,  and  the  throne 
be  occupied  alternately  by  the  rival  branches  of  the  imperial  family. 
The  ceremony  of  abdication  and  surrender  of  regalia,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  investiture,  on  the  other,  Avere  celebrated  with  due 
pomp  and  solemnity  in  one  of  the  great  temples  in  the  capital,  and 
the  war  of  fifty-six  years'  duration  ceased.  All  this  redounded  to 
the  glory  and  power  of  the  Ashikaga. 

The  period  1336-1392  is  of  great  interest  in  the  eyes  of  all  native 
students  of  Japanese  history.  In  the  Dai  Nihon  Shi,  the  Southern 
dynasty  are  defended  as  the  legitimate  sovereigns,  and  the  true  de- 
scendants of  Ten  Sho  Dai  Jin,  the  sun -goddess;  and  the  Northern 
dynasty  are  condemned  as  mere  usurpers.  The  same  view  was  taken 
by  Kitabatake  Chikafusa,  who  was  the  author  of  the  Japanese  Red- 
book,  who  warned  the  emperor  Go-Daigo  against  Ashikaga,  and  in 
1339  wote  a  book  to  prove  that  Go-Daigo  was  mikado,  and  the 
Ashikaga's  nominee  a  usurper.  This  is  the  view  now  held  in  modern 
Japan,  and  only  those  historians  of  the  period  who  award  legitimacy 
to  the  Southern  dynasty  are  considered  authoritative.  The  Northern 
branch  of  the  imperial  family  after  a  few  generations  became  extinct.* 

thinkers,  and  even  soldiers  admit.  Fukuzawa,  the  learned  reformer  and  peda- 
gogue, and  a  chaste  and  eloquent  writer,  in  one  of  his  works  condemns  the  act 
of  Kusunoki,  not  mentioning  him  by  name,  however,  as  lacking  the  element  of 
true  courage,  according  to  the  enlightened  view.  He  explains  and  defends  the 
Christian  ideas  on  the  subject  of  suicide.  His  book  created  great  excitement 
and  intense  indignation  in  the  minds  of  the  samurai  at  first;  but  now  he  car- 
ries with  him  the  approbation  of  the  leading  minds  in  Japan,  especially  of  the 
students. 

*  The  names  of  the  "Northern,"  or  "False,"  emperors  are  Kogen,  Komio, 
Shinko,  Go-K6gon,  Go-Enyiu,  and  Go-Komatsu. 


THE  AUHLKAOA  PERIOD.  193 


XX. 

THE  ASHIKAGA  PERIOD. 

The  internal  history  of  Japan  during  the  period  of  time  covered  by 
the  actual  or  nominal  rule  of  the  thirteen  shoguns  of  the  Ashikaga 
family,  from  1336  until  1573,  except  that  portion  after  the  year  1542, 
is  not  very  attractive  to  a  foreign  reader.  It  is  a  confused  picture  of 
intestine  war. 

Ashikaga  Takauji,  the  founder  of  the  line,  was  a  descendant  of  the 
Minamoto  Yoshikuni,  who  had  settled  at  Ashikaga,  a  village  in  Shi- 
motsuke,  in  the  eleventh  century.  He  died  in  1356.  His  grandson 
Yoshimitsu,  called  the  Great  Ashikaga,  was  made  shogun  when  ten 
years  old,  and  became  a  famous  warrior  in  the  South  and  West.  Aft- 
er the  union  of  the  two  dynasties,  he  built  a  luxurious  palace  at  Kio- 
to, and  was  made  Dai  Jo  Dai  Jin.  He  enjoyed  his  honors  for  one 
year.  He  then  retired  from  the  world  to  become  a  shaven  monk  in 
a  Buddhist  monastery. 

Under  the  Hojo,  the  office  of  shogun  was  filled  by  appointment  of 
the  imperial  court ;  but  under  the  Ashikaga  the  office  became  heredi- 
tary in  this  family.  As  usual,  the  man  with  the  title  was,  in  nearly 
every  case,  but  a  mere  figure-head,  wielding  little  more  personal  power 
than  that  of  the  painted  and  gilded  simulacrum  of  the  admiral  that 
formerly  adorned  the  prow  of  our  old  seventy-four-gun  ships.  During 
this  period  the  term  Kubo  sama,  applied  to  the  sh5guns,  and  used  so 
frequently  by  the  Jesuit  fathers,  came  into  use.  The  actual  work  of 
government  was  done  by  able  men  of  inferior  rank.  The  most  noted 
of  these  was  Hosokawa  Yoriyuki,  who  was  a  fine  scholar  as  well  as  a 
warrior.  It  was  through  his  ordering  that  the  young  shogun  Yoshi- 
mitsu was  well  trained,  and  had  for  his  companions  noble  youths  who 
excelled  in  literary  and  military  skill.  This  was  vastly  different  from 
Hojo  Tokimasa's  treatment  of  the  sons  of  Yoritomo.  He  attempted 
the  reform  of  manners  and  administration.  He  issued  five  mottoes 
for  the  conduct  of  the  military  and  civil  officers.  They  were :  1.  Thou 
shalt  not  be  partial  in  amity  or  enmity.     2.  Thou  shalt  return  neither 


194  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPlIiE. 

favor  nor  vengeance.  3.  Thou  shalt  not  deceive,  either  with  a  right 
or  a  wrong  [motive].  4.  Thou  shalt  not  hope  dishonestly  [for  a 
bribe].     6.  Thou  shalt  not  deceive  thyself. 

The  pendulum  of  power  during  this  period  oscillated  between  Tvi5- 
to  and  Kamakura ;  a  tai  (or  "  great ")  shogun  ruling  at  the  former, 
and  a  shdgun  at  the  latter  place.  An  officer  called  the  shikken  was 
the  real  ruler  of  the  capital  and  the  central  provinces ;  and  another 
called  the  kuan-rei  (Governor  of  the  Kuanto),  of  Kamakura  and  the 
East.  War  was  the  rule,  peace  the  exception.  Feudal  fights ;  border 
brawls ;  the  seizure  of  lands ;  the  rise  of  great  clans ;  the  building; 
the  siege,  and  the  destruction  of  castles,  were  the  staple  events.  Every 
monastery  was  now  a  stronghold,  an  arsenal,  or  a  camp.  The  issue 
of  a  combat  or  a  campaign  was  often  decided  by  the  support  which 
the  bonzes  gave  to  one  or  the  other  party.  The  most  horrible  ex- 
cesses  were  committed,  the  ground  about  Kioto  and  Kamakura,  botli 
of  which  were  captured  and  recaptured  many  times,  became  like  the 
chitama  (blood-pits)  of  the  execution-ground.  Villages,  cities,  temples, 
monasteries,  and  libraries  were  burned.  The  fertile  fields  lay  waste, 
blackened  by  fire,  or  covered  from  sight,  as  with  a  cloth,  by  dense 
thickets  of  tall  weeds,  which,  even  in  one  summer's  time,  spring  with 
astonishing  fecundity  from  the  plethoric  soil  of  Japan.  The  people 
driven  from  their  homes  by  war  returned  to  find  a  new  wilderness,  re- 
sounding with  the  din  of  devouring  insects.  The  people  of  gentle 
birth  fled  to  mountain  caves.  Education  was  neglected.  The  com- 
mon herd  grew  up  in  ignorance  and  misery.  Reading  and  writing, 
except  among  the  priests  and  nobles,  were  unknown  arts  which  the 
warriors  scorned.  War  was  the  only  lucrative  trade,  except  that  of 
the  armorers  or  sword-makers.  Famine  followed  on  the  footsteps  of 
war,  and  with  pestilence  slew  her  tens  of  thousands.  Pirates  on  the 
seas  ravaged  not  only  the  coasts  of  Japan,  but  those  of  China  and 
Corea,  adding  pillage  and  rapine  to  the  destruction  of  commerce. 
The  Chinese  mothers  at  Ningpo  even  now  are  heard  to  frighten  their 
children  by  mentioning  the  names  of  the  Japanese  pirates.  On  land 
the  peasantry  were  impressed  in  military  service  to  build  castles  or  in- 
trenched camps;  or,  the  most  daring,  becoming  robbers,  made  their 
nests  in  the  mountains  and  plundered  the  traveler,  or  descended  upon 
the  merchant's  store-house.  Japan  was  then  the  paradise  of  thieves. 
■  To  all  these  local  terrors  were  added  those  gendered  in  the  mind  of 
man  by  the  convulsions  of  nature.  Earthquakes,  volcanic  eruptions, 
floods,  tidal  waves,  typhoons,  and  storms  seem  to  have  been  abnormal- 


THE  ASHIKAGA  PERIOD.  195 

ly  frequent  during  this  period.  The  public  morals  became  frightfully 
corrupted,  religion  debased.  All  kinds  of  strange  and  uncouth  doc- 
trines came  into  vogue.  Prostitution  was  never  more  rampant.  It 
was  the  Golden  Age  of  crime  and  anarchy. 

The  condition  of  the  emperors  was  deplorable.  With  no  revenues, 
and  dwelling  in  a  capital  alternately  in  the  possession  of  one  or  the 
other  hostile  army ;  in  frequent  danger  from  thieves,  fire,  or  starva- 
tion ;  exposed  to  the  weather  or  the  dangers  of  war,  the  narrative  of 
their  suflEerings  excites  pity  in  the  mind  of  even  a  foreign  reader,  and 
from  the  native  draws  the  tribute  of  tears.  One  was  so  poor  that  he 
depended  upon  the  bounty  of  a  noble  for  his  food  and  clothing ;  an- 
other died  in  such  poverty  that  his  body  lay  unburied  for  several 
days,  for  lack  of  money  to  have  him  interred.  The  remembrance  of 
the  wrongs  and  sufferings  of  these  poor  emperors  fired  the  hearts  and 
nerved  the  arms  of  the  men  who  in  1868  fought  to  sweep  away  for- 
ever the  hated  system  by  which  such  treatment  of  their  sovereign  be- 
came possible. 

So  utterly  demoralized  is  the  national,  political,  and  social  life  of 
this  period  believed  to  have  been,  that  the  Japanese  people  make  it 
the  limbo  of  all  vanities.  Dramatists  and  romancers  use  it  as  the 
convenient  ground  whereon  to  locate  every  novel  or  play,  the  plot  of 
which  violates  all  present  probability.  The  chosen  time  of  the  bulk  of 
Japanese  dramas  and  novels  written  during  the  last  century  or  two  is 
that  of  the  late  Ashikagas.  The  satirist  or  writer  aiming  at  contem- 
porary folly,  or  at  blunders  and  oppression  of  the  Government,  yet 
wishing  to  avoid  punishment  and  elude  the  censor,  clothes  his  charac- 
ters in  the  garb  and  manners  of  this  period.  It  is  the  potter's  field 
where  all  the  outcasts  and  Judases  of  moralists  are  buried.  By  com- 
mon consent,  it  has  become  the  limbo  of  playwright  and  romancer, 
and  the  scape-goat  of  chronology. 

The  act  by  which,  more  than  any  other,  the  Ashikagas  have  earned 
the  curses  of  posterity  was  the  sending  of  an  embassy  to  China  in 
1401,  bearing  presents  acknowledging,  in  a  measure,  the  authority  of 
China,  and  accepting  in  return  the  title  of  Nippon  O,  or  King  of  Ja- 
pan. This,  which  was  done  by  Ashikaga  Yoshimitsu,  the  third  of 
the  line,  was  an  insult  to  the  national  dignity  for  which  he  has  never 
been  forgiven.  It  was  a  needless  humiliation  of  Japan  to  her  arro- 
gant neighbor,  and  done  only  to  exalt  the  vanity  and  glory  of  the 
usurper  Ashikaga,  who,  not  content  with  adopting  the  style  and  equi- 
page of  the  mikado,  wished  to  be  made  or  called  a  king,  and  yet  dared 


196  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

not  usurp  tlie  imperial  throne.*  The  punishment  of  Ashikaga  is  the 
curse  of  posterity.  In  1853,  when  the  treaty  with  the  United  States 
was  made,  a  similar  insult  to  the  sovereign  and  the  nation,  as  well  as 
a  contemptible  deception  of  the  American  envoy  and  foreigners,  was 
practiced  by  the  shogun  calling  himself  "Tycoon"  (Great  King,  or 
Sovereio-n  of  Japan).  In  this  latter  instance,  as  we  know,  came  not 
the  distant  anathema  of  future  generations,  but  the  swift  vengeance  of 
war,  the  permanent  humiliation,  the  exile  to  obscurity,  of  the  Tokugawa 
family,  and  the  abolition  of  the  shogunate  and  the  dual  system  forever. 
It  was  during  the  first  of  the  last  three  decades  of  the  Ashikaga 
period  that  Japan  became  known  to  the  nations  of  Europe;  while 
fire-arms,  gunpowder,  and  a  new  and  mighty  faith  were  made  known 
to  the  Japanese  nation. 

*  The  Ashikaga  line  of  shoguns  comprised  the  following : 

1.  Takauji 1335-1357  9.  Yoshihisa 1472-1489 

2.  Yoshinori 1358-1367  10.  Yoshitaue 1490-1493 

3.  Yoshmitsu 136S-1393  11.  Yoshizumi 1494-1507 

4.  Yoshimochi 1394-1422 

5.  Yoshikadzu 1423-1425 

6.  Yoshinori 1428-1440 

7.  Yoshikatsu 1441-1448 

8.  Yoshimasa 1449-1471 

The  term  Kubo  sama,  so  often  used  by  the  Jesuit  and  Dutch  writers,  was  not 
an  official  title  of  the  shogun,  but  was  applied  to  him  by  the  common  people. 
When  at  first  anciently  used,  it  referred  to  the  mikado,  or,  rather,  the  mikado 
who  had  abdicated,  or  preceded  the  ruling  sovereign  ;  but  later,  when  the  people 
saw  in  the  Kamakura  court  and  its  master  so  close  an  imitation  of  the  imperial 
style  and  capital,  they  began  gradually  to  speak  of  the  shogun  as  the  Kubo,  with, 
however,  only  the  general  meaning  of  "the  governing  power,"  or  the  nobleman 
who  enjoyed  the  right  of  riding  to  the  court  in  a  car,  and  entering  the  imperial 
palace.  The  term  was  in  use  until  1868,  but  was  never  inherent  in  any  office,  be- 
ing rather  the  exponent  of  certain  forms  of  etiquette,  privilege,  and  display,  than 
of  official  duties.  The  Jesuit  fathers  nearly  always  speak  of  the  mikado  as  the 
Dairi  (see  page  39),  and  at  first  erroneously  termed  the  daimios  "  kings."  Later 
on,  they  seemed  to  have  gained  a  clear  understanding  of  the  various  titles  and 
official  relations.  In  some  works  the  Kuambaku  (with  dono,  lord,  attached)  is 
spoken  of  as  "emperor."  Nobunaga,  who  became  Nai  Dui  Jin,  is  also  called 
"emperor."  During  the  supremacy  of  the  military  rulers  at  Kamakura  and 
Yedo,  the  offices  and  titles,  though  purely  civil,  once  exclusively  given  to  no- 
bles at  the  mikado's  court,  were  held  by  the  officials  of  the  shogunate. 

In  later  chapters,  the  writer  of  this  work  has  fallen  into  the  careless  and  er- 
roneous practice  of  calling  daimios  "princes."  The  term  "prince"  should  be 
employed  only  in  speaking  of  the  sons  of  the  mikado,  or  members  of  the  imperi- 
al family.  "Collectively,  the  daimios  were  lords  or  barons,  and  all  ranks  of  the 
peerage  were  represented  among  them,  from  the  kokushi,  or  dukes,  down  to  the 
hatamoto,  or  knights." 


12.  Yoshitaue  (same  as 

thelOlh) 150a-1520 

13.  Yoshiharu 1521-1546 

14.  Yoshiteru 1546-1567 

15.  Yoshiaki 1568-1573 


LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  197 


XXL 

LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

History,  as  usually  written,  gives  the  impression  that  the  normal 
condition  of  mankind  is  that  of  war.  Japanese  students  who  take  up 
the  history  of  England  to  read,  lay  it  down  convinced  that  the  En- 
glish people  are  a  blood -loving  race  that  are  perpetually  fighting. 
They  contrast  their  own  peaceful  country  with  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, to  the  detriment  of  the  latter.  They  turn  most  gladly  from  the 
monotonous  story  of  battle,  murder,  and  sieges,  to  Buckle,  Guizot,  or 
Lecky,  that  they  may  learn  of  the  victories  no  less  renowned  than 
those  of  war  which  mark  as  mile-stones  the  progress  of  the  race.  I 
greatly  fear  that  from  lack  of  literary  skill  my  readers  will  say  that 
my  story  of  Japan  thus  far  is  a  story  of  bloody  war;  but  such,  in- 
deed, it  is  as  told  in  their  own  histories.  Permanent,  universal  peace 
was  unknown  in  Japan  until,  by  the  genius  of  lyeyasu  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  two  centuries  and  a  half  of  this  blessing  were  secured. 
Nevertheless,  in  the  eight  centuries  included  between  the  eighth  and 
the  sixteenth  of  our  era  were  many,  and  often  lengthened,  intervals  of 
peace.  In  many  sequestered  places  the  sandal  of  the  warrior  and  the 
hoof  of  the  war-horse  never  printed  the  soil.  Peace  in  the  palace,  in 
the  city,  in  the  village,  allowed  the  development  of  manners,  arts, 
manufactures,  and  agriculture.  In  this  period  were  developed  the 
characteristic  growths  of  the  Japanese  intellect,  imagination,  social 
economy,  and  manual,  skill  that  have  made  the  hermit  nation  unique 
in  the  earth  and  Japanese  art  productions  the  wonder  of  the  world. 

In  this  chapter,  I  shall  simply  glance  at  some  of  the  salient  features 
of  life  in  Japan  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  introduction  of  continental  or  Chinese  civilization  into  Japan 
was  not  a  simple  act  of  adoption.  It  was  rather  a  work  of  selection 
and  assimilation.  As  in  this  nineteenth  century,  the  Japanese  is  no 
blind  copyist,  he  improves  on  what  he  borrows.  Although  the  travel- 
er from  China  entering  Japan  can  see  in  a  moment  whence  the  Japa- 
nese have  borrowed  their  civilization,  and  though  he  may  believe  the 


198  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Japanese  to  be  an  inferior  type  to  that  of  the  Chinese,  he  will  ac- 
knowledge that  the  Japanese  have  improved  upon  their  borrowed  ele- 
ments fully  as  much  as  the  French  have  improved  upon  those  of 
Roman  civilization.  Many  reflecting  foreigners  in  Japan  have  asked 
the  question  why  the  Japanese  are  so  unlike  the  Chinese,  and  why 
their  art,  literature,  laws,  customs,  dress,  workmanship,  all  bear  a  stamp 
peculiar  to  themselves,  though  they  received  so  much  from  them  ? 
The  reason  is  to  be  found  in  the  strength  and  persistence  of  the 
primal  Japanese  type  of  character,  as  influenced  by  nature,  enabling 
it  to  resist  serious  alteration  and  radical  change.  The  greatest  con- 
quests made  by  any  of  the  imparted  elements  of  continental  civiliza- 
tion was  that  of  Buddhism,  which  became  within  ten  centuries  the 
universally  popular  religion.  Yet  even  its  conquests  were  but  partial. 
Its  triumph  was  secured  only  by  its  adulteration.  Japanese  Buddhism 
is  a  distinct  product  among  the  many  forms  of  that  Asiatic  religion. 
Buddhism  secured  life  and  growth  on  Japanese  soil  only  by  being 
Japanized,  by  being  grafted  on  the  original  stock  of  ideas  in  the  Japa- 
nese mind.  Thus,  in  order  to  popularize  the  Indian  religion,  the  an- 
cient native  heroes  and  the  local  gods  were  all  included  within  the 
Buddhist  pantheon,  and  declared  to  be  the  incarnations  of  Buddha  in 
his  various  forms.  A  class  of  deities  exist  in  Japan  who  are  worship- 
ed by  the  Buddhists  under  the  general  name  of  gorigen.  They  are  all 
deified  Japanese  heroes,  warriors,  or  famous  men.  Furthermore,  many 
of  the  old  rites  and  ceremonies  of  Shinto  were  altered  and  made  use 
of  by  the  bonzes.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  Buddhism  could  have 
ever  been  popular  in  Japan,  had  it  not  become  thoroughly  Japanized. 
Some  of  the  first-fruits  of  the  success  of  the  new  religion  was  the 
erection  of  temples,  pagodas,  idols,  wayside  shrines,  monasteries,  and 
nunneries ;  the  adoption  of  the  practice  of  cremation,  until  then  un- 
known ;  and  the  cessation  of  the  slaughter  of  animals  for  food.  The 
largest  and  richest  of  the  ecclesiastical  structures  were  in  or  near  Kioto. 
The  priests  acted  as  teachers,  advisers,  counselors,  and  scribes,  besides 
oflficiating  at  the  altars,  shriving  the  sick,  and  attending  the  sepulture 
of  the  dead. 

Among  the  orders  and  sects  which  grew  and  multiplied  were  many 
similar  to  those  in  papal  Europe — mendicants,  sellers  of  indulgences, 
builders  of  shrines  and  images,  and  openers  of  mountain  paths.  The 
monasteries  became  asylums  for  the  distressed,  afl3icted,  and  perse- 
cuted. In  them  the  defeated  soldier,  the  penniless  and  the  dissatisfied, 
the  refugee  from  the  vendetta,  could  find  inviolate  shelter.     To  them 


LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  199 

the  warrior  after  war,  the  prince  and  the  minister  leaving  the  palace, 
the  honors  and  pomp  of  the  world,  could  retire  to  spend  the  remnant 
of  their  days  in  prayer,  worship,  and  the  offices  of  piety.  Often  the 
murderer,  struck  with  remorse,  or  the  soldier  before  his  bloody  victim, 
would  resolve  to  turn  monk.  Not  rarely  did  men  crossed  in  love,  or  the 
offspring  of  the  concubine  displaced  by  the  birth  of  the  legitimate  son, 
or  the  grief-stricken  father,  devote  himself  to  the  priestly  life.  In 
general,  however,  the  ranks  of  the  bonzes  were  recruited  from  orphans 
or  piously  inclined  youth,  or  from  overstocked  families.  To  the  nun- 
neries, the  fertile  soil  of  bereavement,  remorse,  unrequited  love,  wid- 
owhood furnished  the  greater  number  of  sincere  and  devout  nuns. 
In  many  cases,  the  deliberate  choice  of  wealthy  ladies,  or  the  necessity 
of  escaping  an  uncongenial  marriage  planned  by  relatives,  undesirable 
attentions,  or  the  lusts  of  rude  men  in  unsettled  times,  gave  many  an 
inmate  to  the  convents. 

In  general,  however,  natural  indolence,  a  desire  to  avoid  the  round 
of  drudgery  at  the  well,  the  hoe,  or  in  the  kitchen,  or  as  nurse,  sent 
the  majority  of  applicants  to  knock  at  the  convent  doors.  Occasion- 
allv  a  noble  lady  was  won  to  recluse  life  from  the  very  apartments 
of  the  emperor,  or  his  ministers,  by  the  eloquence  of  a  bonze  who 
was  more  zealous  than  loyal.  In  a  few  of  the  convents,  only  ladies 
of  wealth  could  enter.  The  monk  and  nun,  in  Japanese  as  in  Eu- 
ropean history,  romance,  and  drama,  and  art,  are  staple  characters. 
The  rules  of  these  monastic  institutions  forbade  the  eating  of  fish  or 
flesh,  the  drinking  of  sake,  the  wearing  of  the  hair  or  of  fine  clothes, 
indulgence  in  certain  sensuous  pleasures,  or  the  reading  of  certain 
books.  Fastings,  vigils,  reflection,  continual  prayer  by  book,  bell, 
candle,  and  beads,  were  enjoined.  Pious  pilgrimages  were  undertaken. 
The  erection  of  a  shrine,  image,  belfry,  or  lantern  by  begging  contri- 
butions was  a  frequent  and  meritorious  enterprise.  There  stand  to- 
day thousands  of  these  monuments  of  the  piety,  zeal,  and  industry  of 
the  mediaeval  monks  and  nuns.  Those  at  Nara  and  Kamakura  are  the 
most  famous.  The  Kamakura  Dai  Butsu  (Great  Buddha)  has  been 
frequently  described  before.  It  is  a  mass  of  copper  44  feet  high,  and 
a  work  of  high  art.  The  image  at  Nara  was  first  erected  in  the  eighth 
century,  destroyed  during  the  civil  wars,  and  recast  about  seven  hun- 
dred years  ago.  Its  total  height  is  53-2-  feet ;  its  face  is  16  feet  long, 
and  9-^  feet  wide.  The  width  of  its  shoulders  is  28-i^  feet.  Nine 
hundred  and  sixty-six  curls  adorn  its  head,  around  which  is  a  halo  78 
feet  in  diameter,  on  which  are  sixteen  images,  each  8  feet  long.     The 


200 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


casting  of  the  idol  is  said  to  have  been  tried  seven  times  before  it  was 
successfully  accomplished,  and  3000  tons  of  charcoal  were  used  in  the 
operation.  The  metal,  said  to  weigh  450  tons,  is  a  bronze  composed 
of  gold  (500  pounds),  mercury  (1954  pounds),  tin  (16,827  pounds), 
and  copper  (986,080  pounds).  Many  millions  of  tons  of  copper  were 
mined  and  melted  to  make  these  idols.  Equally  renowned  were  the 
great  temple-bells  of  Kioto,  and  of  Miidera,  and  various  other  monas- 
teries.    Some  of  these  were  ten  feet  high,  and  adorned  with  sacred 


=s-  /  i^  r  ^f  1^  "^  'i^  '%  \^^  C  \ 


r«mple-bell   from   Kioto,  with  Dragon -bow,  Inscriptions,  Representation   of  Ten-nin 
(angel),  and  of  Buddha  in  Nirvana  on  the  Lotns. 

texts  from  the  Buddhist  Scriptures,  and  images  of  heavenly  beings, 
or  Buddha  on  the  sacred  lotus  in  Nirvana,  in  high  relief.  As  usual, 
the  nimbus,  or  halo,  surrounds  his  head.  Two  dragon-heads  formed 
the  summit,  and  ear,  by  which  it  was  hung  to  its  beam  by  an  iron 
jink.  The  bell  was  struck  on  a  raised  round  spot,  by  a  hammer  of 
wood — a  small  tree-trunk  swung  loosely  on  two  ropes.  After  impact, 
the  bellman  held  the  beam  on  its  rebound,  until  the  quivering  mono- 
tone began  to  die  away.     Few  sounds  are  more  solemnly  sweet  than 


LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  20] 

the  mellow  music  of  a  Japanese  temple-bell.  On  a  still  night,  a  cir 
cumference  of  twenty  miles  was  flooded  by  the  melody  of  the  great 
bell  of  Zozoji.  The  people  learned  to  love  their  temple-bell  as  a  dear 
friend,  as  its  note  changed  with  the  years  and  moods  of  life. 

The  casting  of  a  bell  was  ever  the  occasion  of  rejoicing  and  public 
festival.  When  the  chief  priest  of  the  city  announced  that  one  was 
to  be  made,  the  people  brought  contributions  in  money,  or  offerings  of 
bronze  gold,  pure  tin,  or  copper  vessels.  Ladies  gave  with  their  own 
hands  the  mirrors  which  had  been  the  envy  of  lovers,  young  girls  laid 
their  silver  hair-pins  and  bijouterie  on  the  heap.  When  metal  enough 
and  in  due  proportion  had  been  amassed,  crucibles  were  made,  earth- 
furnaces  dug,  the  molds  fashioned,  and  huge  bellows,  worked  by  stand- 
ing men  at  each  end,  like  a  seesaw,  were  mounted ;  and,  after  due 
prayers  and  consultation,  the  auspicious  day  was  appointed.  The 
place  selected  was  usually  on  a  hill  or  commanding  place.  The  peo- 
ple, in  their  gayest  dress,  assembled  in  picnic  parties,  and  with  song 
and  dance  and  feast  waited  while  the  workmen,  in  festal  uniform, 
toiled,  and  the  priests,  in  canonical  robes,  watched.  The  fires  were 
lighted,  the  bellows  oscillated,  the  blast  roared,  and  the  crucibles  were 
brought  to  the  proper  heat  and  the  contents  to  fiery  fluidity,  the  joy 
of  the  crowd  increasing  as  each  stage  in  the  process  was  announced. 
When  the  molten  flood  was  finally  poured  into  the  mold,  the  excite- 
ment of  the  spectators  reached  a  height  of  uncontrollable  enthusiasm. 
Another  pecuniary  harvest  was  reaped  by  the  priests  before  the  crowds 
dispersed,  by  the  sale  of  stamped  kerchiefs  or  paper  containing  a  holy 
text,  or  certifying  to  the  presence  of  the  purchaser  at  the  ceremony, 
and  the  blessing  of  the  gods  upon  him  therefor.  Such  a  token  be- 
came an  heir-loora  ;  and  the  child  who  ever  afterward  heard  the  sol- 
emn boom  of  the  bell  at  matin  or  evening  was  constrained,  by  filial 
as  well  as  holy  motives,  to  obey  and  reverence  its  admonitory  call. 
The  belfry  was  usually  a  separate  building  apart  from  the  temple,  with 
elaborate  cornices  and  roof.     (See  page  172.) 

In  addition  to  the  offices  of  religion,  many  of  the  priests  were  use- 
ful men,  and  real  civil izers.  They  were  not  all  lazy  monks  or  idle 
bonzes.  By  the  Buddhist  priests  many  streams  were  spanned  with 
bridges,  paths  and  roads  made,  shade  or  fruit  trees  planted,  ponds  and 
ditches  for  purposes  of  irrigation  dug,  aqueducts  built,  unwholesome 
localities  drained,  and  mountain  passes  discovered  or  explored.  Many 
were  the  school-masters,  and,  as  learned  men,  were  consulted  on  sub- 
jects beyond  the  ken  of  their  parishioners.     Some  of  them,  havino-  a 


202  THE  JIIKABO'S  EJilPIRE. 

knowledge  of  medicine,  acted  as  physicians.  The  sciences  and  arts  in 
Japan  all  owe  much  to  the  bonzes  who  from  Corea  personally  intro- 
duced many  useful  appliances  or  articles  of  food.  Several  edible  veg- 
etables are  still  named  after  the  priests,  who  first  taught  their  use. 
The  exact  sciences,  astronomy  and  mathematics,  as  well  as  the  human- 
ities, owe  much  of  their  cultivation  and  development  to  clerical  schol- 
ars. In  the  monasteries,  the  brethren  exercised  their  varied  gifts  in 
preaching,  study,  calligraphy,  carving,  sculpture,  or  on  objects  of  ec- 
clesiastical art. 

The  monuments  by  which  the  memory  of  many  a  saintly  bonze  is 
still  kept  green  exist  to-day  as  treasures  on  the  altars,  or  in  the  tem- 
ple or  its  shady  precincts,  in  winged  words  or  material  substance.  A 
copy  of  the  Buddhist  Scriptures,  a  sacred  classic,  in  roll  or  bound  vol- 
ume, might  occupy  a  holy  penman  before  his  brush  and  ink-stone  for 
years.  The  manuscript  texts  which  I  have  often  seen  in  the  hall  of 
worship  on  silky  paper  bound  in  damask,  in  Japanese  monasteries, 
could  not  be  improved  in  elegance  and  accuracy  by  the  printer's  art. 
The  transcription  of  a  sutra  on  silk,  made  to  adorn  the  wall  of  a  shrine, 
'>n  many  cases  performed  its  mission  for  centuries. 

Another  monk  excelled  in  improvisation  of  sacred  stanzas,  another 
painted  the  pictures  and  scrolls  by  which  the  multitude  were  taught 
by  the  priest,  with  his  pointer  in  hand,  the  mysteries  of  theology, 
the  symbols  of  worship,  the  terrors  of  the  graded  hells  and  purgato- 
ries, and  the  felicities  of  Nirvana.  Another  of  the  fraternity,  with 
cunning  hand,  compelled  the  wonder  of  his  brethren  by  his  skill  in 
carving.  He  could,  from  a  log  which  to-day  had  its  bark  on,  bring 
forth  in  time  the  serene  countenance  of  Buddha,  the  ravishing  beauty 
of  Kuanon,  the  Goddess  of  Mercy,  the  scowling  terrors  of  the  God 
of  War,  the  frightful  visage  of  Fudo,  or  the  hideous  face  of  the  Lord 
of  Hell.  Another  was  famous  for  molding  the  clay  for  the  carver,  the 
sculptor,  or  the  bronze-smith.  Many  articles  of  altar  furniture,  even 
to  the  incense-sticks  and  flowers,  were  often  made  entirely  by  clerical 
hands. 

During  the  Middle  Ages,  the  arts  of  pottery,  lacquering,  gilding, 
bronze-casting,  engraving  and  chasing,  chisel  and  punch  work,  sword- 
making,  goldsmith's  work,  were  brought  to  a  perfection  never  since 
excelled,  if  indeed  it  has  been  equaled.  In  enameled  and  inlaid  metal 
work  the  hand  of  the  Japanese  artisan  has  undoubtedly  lost  its  cun- 
ning. Native  archaeologists  assert  that  a  good  catalogue  of  "  lost 
arts*'  may  be  made  out,  notably  those  of  the  composition  and  appli- 


LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


203 


cation  of  violet  lacquer,  and  the  ancient  cloisonne  enamel.  The  deli- 
cacy of  tact,  freedom  of  movement,  and  perfection  of  finish  visible  on 
Japanese  work,  are  the  result  of  long  hereditary  application  and  con- 
centrated skill.  Hidden  away  in  sequestered  villages,  or  occupying  the 
same  workshop  in  cities  for  centuries,  generations  of  craftsmen  wrought 
upon  one  class  of  objects,  until  from  the  workman's  hand  is  born  the 
offspring  of  a  long  pedigree  of  thought  and  dexterity.  Japanese  an- 
tiquarians fix  the  date  of  the  discovery  of  lacquer-ware  variously  at 
A.D.  V24  and  900.  Echizen,  from  the  first,  has  been  noted  for  the 
abundance  and  luxuriant  yield  of  lacquer -trees,  and  the  skill  of  her 


Chasiug  Floral  Designs  from  Nature  on  Copper. 

workmen  in  extracting  the  milk-white  virgin  sap,  which  the  action  of 
the  air  turns  to  black,  and  which  by  pigments  is  changed  to  various 
colors.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  art  of  gold-lacquering  attained 
the  zenith  of  perfection.  Various  schools  of  lacquer  art  were  founded, 
one  excelling  in  landscape,  another  in  marine  scenery,  or  the  delinea- 
tion, in  gold  and  silver  powder  and  varnish,  of  birds,  insects,  and  flow- 
ers. The  masters  who  flourished  during  the  Hojo  period  still  rule  the 
pencil  of  the  modern  artist. 

Kioto,  as  the  civil  and  military  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  capital  of 
the  empire,  was  the  centre  and  standard  of  manners,  language,  and 


204  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

etiquette,  of  art,  literature,  religion,  and  government.  No  people  are 
more  courtly  and  polished  in  their  manners  than  the  Japanese,  and 
my  visit  to  Kioto  in  1873  impressed  me  vi'ith  the  fact  that  the  citizens 
of  this  proud  m'lako  surpass  all  others  in  Japan  in  refined  manners, 
and  the  graces  of  address  and  etiquette.  The  direct  influences  of 
court  life  have  made  themselves  perceptibly  felt  on  the  inhabitants  of 
the  city. 

From  this  centre  radiated  the  multifai'ious  influences  which  have 
molded  the  character  of  the  nation.  The  country  priest  came  as  pil- 
grim to  the  capital  as  to  the  Holy  City,  to  strengthen  his  faith  and 
cheer  his  soul  amidst  its  inspirations,  to  see  the  primate  and  magnates 
of  his  sect,  to  pray  at  the  famous  shrines,  to  study  in  the  largest  mon- 
asteries, under  the  greatest  lights  and  holiest  teachers.  Returning  to 
his  parish,  new  sanctity  was  shed  from  his  rustling  robes.  His 
brethren  welcomed  him  with  awe,  and  the  people  thronged  to  see  and 
venerate  the  holy  man  who  had  drunk  at  the  very  fountains  of  the 
faith.  The  temple  coffers  grew  heavy  with  the  weight  of  offerings 
because  of  him.  The  sons  of  the  noblemen  in  distant  provinces  were 
sent  to  Kioto  to  be  educated,  to  learn  reading  and  writing  from  the 
priests,  the  perfection  of  the  art  of  war  in  the  army,  the  etiquette  of 
palace  life  as  pages  to,  or  as  guests  of,  the  court  nobles.  The  artisan 
or  rich  merchant  from  Oshiu  or  Kadzusa,  who  had  made  the  journey 
to  Kioto,  astonished  his  wondering  listeners  at  home  with  tales  of  the 
splendor  of  the  processions  of  the  mikado,  the  wealth  of  the  temples, 
the  number  of  the  pagodas,  the  richness  of  the  silk  robes  of  the  court 
nobles,  and  the  wonders  which  the  Kioto  potters  and  vase -makers, 
sword -forgers,  goldsmiths,  lacquerers,  crystal-cutters,  and  bronze-mold- 
ers,  daily  exposed  in  their  shops  in  profusion. 

In  Kioto  also  dwelt  the  poets,  novelists,  historians,  grammarians, 
writers,  and  the  purists,  whose  dicta  were  laws.  By  them  were  writ- 
ten the  great  bulk  of  the  classic  literature,  embracing  poetry,  drama, 
fiction,  history,  philosophy,  etiquette,  and  the  numerous  diaries  and 
works  on  travel  in  China,  Corea,  and  the  remote  provinces  of  the 
country,  and  the  books  called  "  mirrors  "  {kagami)  of  the  times,  now 
so  interesting  to  the  antiquarian  student.  Occasionally  nobles  or 
court  ladies  would  leave  the  luxury  of  the  city,  and  take  up  their 
abode  in  a  castle,  tower,  pagoda,  or  temple  room,  or  on  some  mountain 
overlooking  Lake  Biwa,  the  sea,  or  the  Yodo  River,  or  the  plains  of 
Yamato ;  and  amidst  its  inspiring  scenery,  with  tiny  table,  ink-stone 
and  brush,  pen  some  prose  epic  or  romance,  that  has  since  become  an 


LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  205 

immortal  classic.  Almost  every  mansion  of  the  nobles  had  its  "  look- 
ing-room,"  or  "  Chamber  of  Inspiring  View,"  whence  to  gaze  upon  the 
landscape  or  marine  scenery.  Rooms  set  apart  for  this  aesthetic  pleas- 
ure still  form  a  feature  of  the  house  of  nearly  every  modem  native  of 
means.  On  many  a  coigne  of  vantage  may  be  seen  also  the  summer- 
houses  or  rustic  booths,  where  gather  pleasure  parties  on  picnics. 


Picnic  Booth,  overluokiui;  Lake  Biwa. 

In  the  civil  administration  of  the  empire,  the  chief  work  was  to 
dispense  justice,  punish  offenders,  collect  taxes,  and  settle  disputes. 
After  the  rude  surveys  of  those  days,  the  boundaries  of  provinces  and 
departments  were  marked  by  inscribed  posts  of  wood  or  stone.  Be- 
fore the  days  of  writing,  the  same  end  was  secured  by  charcoal  buried 
in  the  earth  at  certain  points,  the  durability  of  which  insured  the 
mark  against  decay.  The  peasants,  after  the  rice-harvest  was  over, 
brought  their  tribute,  or  taxes,  with  joyful  ceremony,  to  the  govern- 
ment granaries  in  straw  bags,  packed  on  horses  gayly  decorated  with 
scarlet  housings,  and  jingling  with  clusters  of  small  bells.  A  relic  of 
this  custom  is  seen  in  the  bunches  of  bells  suspended  by  red  cotton 

14 


206  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

stuff  from  the  rear  of  tte  pack-saddle,  which  dangle  musically  from 
the  ungainly  haunches  of  the  native  sumpters. 

From  earliest  times  there  existed  seki  (guard  gates  or  barriers)  be- 
tween the  various  provinces  at  mountain  passes  or  strategic  points. 
As  feudalism  developed,  they  grew  more  numerous.  A  fence  of  pal- 
isades, stretched  across  the  road,  guarded  the  path  through  which,  ac- 
cording to  time,  or  orders  of  the  keepers,  none  could  pass  with  arms, 
or  without  the  pass-word  or  passport.  Anciently  they  were  erected  at 
the  Hakone  and  other  mountain  passes,  to  keep  up  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  Ainos  and  the  pure  Japanese.  The  possession  of  these  bar- 
riers was  ever  an  important  object  of  rival  military  commanders,  and 
the  shifts,  devices,  and  extraordinary  artifices  resorted  to  by  refugees, 
disguised  worthies,  and  forbidden  characters,  furnish  the  historian,  the 
novelist,  and  dramatist  with  some  of  their  most  thrilling  episodes. 

It  is  related  of  Yoshitsune,  after  he  had  incurred  the  wrath  of 
Yoritomo,  that,  with  Benkei,  his  servant,  he  arrived  at  a  guard  gate 
kept  by  some  Genji  soldiers,  who  would  have  been  sure  to  arrest  him 
had  they  discovered  his  august  personality.  Disguised  as  wandering 
priests  of  the  Buddhist  sect  Yama-bushi,  they  approached  the  gate, 
and  were  challenged  by  the  sentinel,  who,  like  most  of  his  class  at 
that  time,  was  ignorant  of  writing.  Benkei,  with  great  dignity,  draw- 
ing from  his  bosom  a  roll  of  blank  paper,  began,  after  touching  it 
reverently  to  his  forehead,  to  extemporize  and  read  aloud  in  choicest 
and  most  pious  language  a  commission  from  the  high-priest  at  the 
temple  of  Hokoji,  in  Kioto,  in  which  stood  the  great  image  of  Buddha, 
authorizing  him  to  collect  money  to  cast  a  colossal  bell  for  the  tem- 
ple. At  the  first  mention  of  the  name  of  his  reverence  the  renowned 
priest,  so  talismanic  in  all  the  empire,  the  soldier  dropped  down  on 
his  knees  with  face  to  the  ground,  and  listened  with  reverent  awe,  un- 
aware that  the  paper  was  as  blank  as  the  reader's  tongue  was  glib. 
To  further  lull  suspicion,  Benkei  apologized  for  the  rude  conduct  of 
his  servant-boy,  who  stood  during  the  reading,  because  he  was  only  a 
boor  just  out  of  the  rice-fields;  and,  giving  him  a  kick,  bid  him  get 
down  on  his  marrow-bones,  and  not  stand  up  in  the  presence  of  a  gen- 
tleman and  a  soldier.  The  ruse  was  complete.  The  illustrious  youth 
and  his  servant  passed  on. 

Medical  science  made  considerable  progress  in  the  course  of  cent- 
uries. The  materia  medica,  system,  practice,  and  literature  of  the 
healing  art  were  borrowed  from  China ;  but  upon  these,  as  upon  most 
other  matters,  the  Japanese  improved.     Acupuncture,  or  the  introduc- 


LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  20 V 

tion  of  needles  into  living  tissues  for  remedial  purposes,  was  much  im- 
proved by  the  Japanese.  The  puncturing  needles,  as  fine  as  a  hair,  were 
made  of  gold,  silver,  or  tempered  steel,  by  experts.  The  bones,  large 
nerves,  or  blood-vessels  were  carefully  avoided  in  the  process,  which 
enjoyed  great  repute  in  cases  of  a  peculiar  violent  colic,  to  which  the 
natives  are  subject,  and  which  sometimes  becomes  endemic.  On  the 
theory  that  this  malady  was  caused  by  wind,  holes  were  made  in  the 
stomach  or  abdomen,  to  the  mystic  number  of  nine — corresponding  to 
the  nine  apertures  of  the  body.  Moxa  (Japanese,  mokusa ;  mo,  fire, 
from  moyeru,  to  burn,  and  kusa,  herb,  grass),  or  the  burning  of  a 
small  cone  of  cottony  fibres  of  the  artemisia,  on  the  back  or  feet,  was 
practiced  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century,  reference  being  made  to  it 
in  a  poem  written  at  that  time.  A  number  of  ancient  stanzas  and 
puns  relating  to  Mount  Ibuki,  on  the  sides  of  which  the  mugwort 
grows  luxuriantly,  are  still  extant.  To  this  day  it  is  an  exception  to 
find  the  backs  of  the  common  people  unscarred  with  the  spots  left  by 
the  moxa.  The  use  of  mercury  in  corrosive  sublimate  was  very  an- 
ciently known.  The  do-sha  powder,  however,  which  was  said  to  cure 
various  diseases,  and  to  relax  the  rigid  limbs  of  a  corpse,  was  manu- 
factured and  sold  only  by  the  bonzes  (Japanese,  bozu)  of  the  Shin  Gon 
sect.  It  is,  and  always  was,  a  pious  fraud,  being  nothing  but  unefiica- 
cious  quartz  sand,  mixed  with  grains  of  mica  and  pyrites.* 

Of  the  mediaeval  sports  and  pastimes  within  and  without  of  doors, 
the  former  were  preferred  by  the  weak  and  effeminate,  the  latter  by 
the  hale  and  strong.  Banquets  and  carousals  in  the  palace  were  fre- 
quent.    The  brewing  of  sake  from  rice  was  begun,  according  to  record, 

*  See  in  Titsingh  a  long  account  of  the  wonderful  virtues  and  effects  claimed 
for  the  do-sha  ("dosia")  powder,  and  in  various  other  old  writers  on  Japan,  who 
have  gravely  described  this  humbug.  I  once  tested  this  substance  thoroughly  by 
swallowing  a  tea-spoonful,  without  experiencing  any  effects.  It  might  cause,  but 
not  cure,  a  headache.  I  also  used  up  a  packageful  of  the  holy  sand,  purchased  at 
an  orthodox  Shin  Gon  temple,  upon  a  stiffened  corpse  that  had  but  a  short  time 
previous  become  such,  but  no  unlimbering  of  the  rigid  body  took  place.  I  also 
fused  a  quantity  of  the  certified  "drug"  with  some  carbonate  of  soda,  dissolved 
the  resultant  mass  in  distilled  water,  and  upon  adding  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  a  precipitate  of  gelatinous  silica  was  the  result.  I  also  subjected  the  do-sha 
to  careful  microscopic  examination,  finding  it  only  quartz  sand,  with  flakes  of 
other  minerals.  That  the  "corpse"  in  my  experiment  was  that  of  an  old  dog 
does  not  affect  the  validity  of  the  test.  It  may  be  remembered  also  that  gelati- 
nous silica  is  the  substance  sometimes  used  to  adulterate  butter.  The  main  ob- 
jection to  such  butter  is  that  one  can  buy  sand  in  a  cheaper  form;  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  that  nostrum  in  the  ecclesiastical  quackery  and  materia  tke- 
ologica  of  Japan  called  dosha. 


208  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

in  the  third  century,  and  the  office  of  chief  butler  even  earlier.  The 
native  sauce,  sho-i/u,  made  of  fermented  wheat  and  beans,  with  salt 
and  vinegar,  which  the  cunning  purveyors  of  Europe  use  as  the  basis 
of  their  high-priced  piquant  sauces,  was  made  and  used  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  century.  The  name  of  this  saline  oil  {sho,  salt ;  yu,  oil)  ap- 
pears as  "  soy "  in  our  dictionaries,  it  being  one  of  the  three  words 
(soy,  bonze,  moxa)  which  we  have  borrowed  from  the  Japanese.  At 
the  feasts,  besides  the  wine  and  delicacies  to  please  the  palate,  music, 
song,  and  dance  made  the  feast  of  reason  and  the  flow  of  soul,  while 
witty  and  beautiful  women  lent  grace  and  added  pleasure  to  the  fes- 
tivities. 

In  long  trailing  robes  of  white,  crimson,  or  highly  figured  silk,  with 
hair  flowing  in  luxuriance  over  the  shoulders,  and  bound  gracefully  in 
one  long  tress  which  fell  below  the  waist  behind,  maids  and  ladies 
of  the  palace  rained  glances  and  influence  upon  the  favored  ones. 
They  fired  the  heart  of  admirers*  by  the  bewitching  beauty  of  a  well- 
formed  hand,  foot,  neck,  face,  or  form  decked  with  whatever  added 
charms  cosmetics  could  bestow  upon  them.  Japanese  ladies  have 
ever  been  noted  for  neatness,  good  taste,  and,  on  proper  occasions, 
splendor  and  luxuriance  of  dress.  With  fan,  and  waving  long  sleeve, 
the  language  of  secret  but  outwardly  decorous  passion  found  ample  ex- 
pression. Kisses,  the  pressure  of  the  hand,  and  other  symbols  of  love 
as  expressed  in  other  lands,  were  then,  as  now,  unknown.  In  humble 
life  also,  in  all  their  social  pleasures  the  two  sexes  met  together  to 
participate  in  the  same  delights,  with  far  greater  freedom  than  is 
known  in  Asiatic  countries.  As,  however,  wives  or  concubines  had 
not  always  the  attractions  of  youth,  beauty,  wit,  maidenly  freshness, 

*  The  following  is  the  native  ideal  of  a  Japanese  woman,  given  by  a  young 
Japanese  gentleman  at  the  International  Congress  of  Orientalists  held  at  Paris 
in  1873:  "I  will  commence,  gentlemen,  with  the  head,  which  is  neither  too  large 
nor  too  small.  Figure  to  yourself  large  black  eyes,  surmounted  by  eyebrows 
of  a  strict  arch,  bordered  by  black  lashes ;  a  face  oval,  white,  very  slightly  rose-col- 
ored on  the  cheeks,  a  straight  high  nose;  a  small,  regular,  fresh  mouth,  whose 
thin  lips  disclose,  from  time  to  time,  white  teeth  ranged  regularly;  a  narrow 
forehead,  bordered  by  long,  black  hair,  arched  with  perfect  regularity.  Join 
this  head  by  a  round  neck  to  a  body  large,  but  not  fat,  with  slender  loins,  hands 
and  feet  small,  but  not  thin ;  a  breast  whose  swell  (saillie)  is  not  exaggerated. 
Add  to  these  the  following  attributes :  a  gentle  manner,  a  voice  like  the  night- 
ingale, which  makes  one  divine  its  artlessness;  a  look  at  once  lively,  sweet, 
gracious,  and  always  charming;  witty  words  pronounced  distinctly,  accompa- 
nied by  charming  smiles;  an  air  sometimes  calm,  gay,  sometimes  thoughtful,  and 
always  majestic ;  manners  noble,  simple,  a  little  proud,  but  without  ever  incur- 
ring the  accusation  of  presumption." 


LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


209 


or  skill  at  the  koto,  the  geisha,  or  singing-girl,  then  as  now,  served  the 
sake,  danced,  sung,  and  played,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  gold  or  gifts 
of  the  host,  or  perhaps  became  his  Hagar.  The  statement  that  the 
empress  was  attended  only  by  "  vestals  who  had  never  beheld  a  man  " 
is  disproved  by  a  short  study  of  the  volumes  of  poetry,  amorous  and 
otherwise,  written  by  them,  and  still  quoted  as  classic.  As  to  the 
standard  of  virtue  in  those  days,  I  believe  it  was  certainly  not  below 
that  of  the  later  Roman  empire,  and  I  am  inclined  to  believe  it  was 
far  above  it. 

In  the  court  at  Kioto,  besides  games  of  skill  or  chance  in  the  house, 
were  foot -ball,  cock-fighting,  falconry,  horsemanship,  and  archery. 
The  robust  games  of  the  military  classes  were  hunting  the  boar,  deer, 
bear,  and  smaller  game.  Hunting  by  falcons,  which  had  been  intro- 
duced by  some  Corean  em- 
bassadors in  the  time  of 
Jingu  Kogo,  was  almost  as 
extensively  practiced  as  in 
Europe,  almost  every  feu- 
dal lord  having  his  perch  of 
falcons.  Fishing  by  cor- 
morants, though  a  useful 
branch  of  the  fisherman's 
industry,  was  also  indulged 
in  for  pleasure.  The  se- 
vere exercise  of  hunting  for 
sport,  however,  never  be- 
came as  absorbing  and  pop- 
ular in  Japan  as  in  Europe, 
being  confined  more  to  the 
professional  huntsman,  and 
the  seeker  for  dailv  food. 


Court  Lady  in  Kioto. 


210  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

The  court  ladies  shaved  off  their  eyebrows,  and  painted  two  sable 
bars  or  spots  on  the  forehead  resembling  false  eyebrows.  In  addition 
to  the  gentle  tasks  of  needle-work  and  embroidery,  they  passed  the 
time  in  games  of  chess,  checkers,  painted  shells,  and  a  diversion  pe- 
culiar to  the  palace,  in  which  the  skill  of  the  player  depended  on 
her  sensitiveness  in  appreciating  perfumes,  the  necessary  articles  being 
vials  of  fragrant  extracts.  Their  pets  were  the  peculiar  little  dogs 
called  chin.  They  stained  their  teeth  black,  like  the  women  of  the 
lower  classes ;  an  example  which  the  nobles  of  the  sterner  sex  followed, 
as  they  grew  more  and  more  effeminate.  One  of  the  staple  diversions 
of  both  sexes  at  the  court  was  to  write  poetry,  and  recite  it  to  each 
other.  The  emperor  frequently  honored  a  lady  or  noble  by  giving 
the  chosen  one  a  subject  upon  which  to  compose  a  poem.  A  happy 
thought,  skillfully  wrought  stanza,  a  felicitous  grace  of  pantomime, 
often  made  the  poetess  a  maid  of  honor,  a  concubine,  or  even  an 
empress,  and  the  poet  a  minister  or  councilor. 

Another  favorite  means  of  amusement  was  to  write  and  read  or  tell 
stories — the  Scheherezade  of  these  being  a  beautiful  lady,  who  often 
composed  her  own  stories.  The  following  instance  is  abbreviated 
from  the  Onna  Dai  Gaku  ("  Woman's  Great  Study  ") :  Ise  no  Taiyu 
was  a  daughter  of  Sukeichika,  the  mikado's  minister  of  festivals,  and 
a  highly  accomplished  lady.  None  among  the  ladies  of  the  court  could 
equal  her.  One  day  a  branch  of  luxuriant  cherry-blossoms  was 
brought  from  Nara.  The  emperor  gave  it  to  her,  and  asked  her  to 
extemporize  a  verse.  She  did  so,  and  the  courtiers  were  all  astonished 
at  the  beauty  and  delicate  sentiment  of  the  verse. 

Here  is  another :  Murasaki  Shikibu  was  the  daughter  of  the  lord 
of  Echizen.  One  day  a  lady  of  Kamo  asked  if  there  was  any  new 
entertaining  literature  or  novels,  as  the  empress  -  dowager  wished  to 
read  something  new.  The  lady  invited  Murasaki  to  write  some  sto- 
ries. She,  knowing  that  the  great  Chinese  scholar  Shomei  completed 
his  collection  of  the  essays  of  ancient  writers  by  building  a  high  house 
and  secluding  himself  in  it,  had  a  high  tower  erected  at  Ishiyama 
overlooking  Lake  Biwa,  and  affording  a  glorious  view  of  the  mount- 
ains, especially  in  the  moonlight.  There  she  retired,  and  one  night 
when  the  full  moon  shone  upon  the  waters  she  was  so  inspired  that 
she  wrote  in  one  night  two  chapters  of  the  Genji  Monogatari*  a  book 

*  The  various  forms  of  inarticulate  language,  by  pantomime,  flowers,  art,  and 
symbolism,  in  Japan  dififer  in  many  respects  from  those  expressed  by  us.  Among 
the  gestures  partly  or  wholly  unknown  to  them  are  nictation,  kissing,  shaking 


LIFE  m  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  211 

containing  fifty-four  chapters  in  all,  which  she  finished  in  a  few  weeks. 
She  presented  it  to  the  empress-dowager,  who  gave  it  to  the  mikado. 
To  this  day  it  is  a  classic. 

Sei  Shonagon  was  the  daughter  of  Kiyowara  no  Motosuke.  She  was 
one  of  tlie  imperial  concubines.  She  was  well  read  in  Japanese  and 
Chinese  literature,  and  composed  poetry  almost  from  infancy,  having 
a  wonderful  facility  of  improvisation.  One  day,  after  a  fall  of  snow, 
she  looked  out  from  the  southern  door  of  the  palace.  The  emperor, 
having  passed  round  the  wine-cup  to  his  lords  and  ladies  at  the  usual 
morning  assembly  of  the  courtiers  and  maids  of  honor,  said,  "  How  is 

hands,  shrugiring  the  shoulders,  and  the  contemptuous  gyratory  motion  of  the 
thumb  set  against  the  nose,  with  the  fingers  upright.  Flirtation  is  practiced  not 
by  the  use  of  the  fan  or  tlie  handkerchief  (which  is  of  paper),  but  with  a  wave  of 
the  right  hand,  with  pahns  downward,  or  by  the  fair  charmer  waving  her  long 
sleeve.  Instead  of  winking,  they  convey  the  same  meaning  by  twitching  the  left 
corner  of  the  mouth,  or  rolling  the  eyeballs  to  the  right  or  left.  The  girls  simper 
by  letting  their  eyelids  fall,  and  the  language  of  woman's  eyes  is  in  other  respects 
the  same  as  with  us,  as  Japanese  poetry  shows.  Jealousy  is  indicated  by  the 
erecting  the  two  forefingers  on  the  forehead,  in  allusion  to  the  monster  which  in 
Japan  has  horns  and  black  hide,  but  not  green  eyes.  A  jilt  who  wishes  to  give 
her  lover  "the  mitten"  sends  him  a  branch  of  maple,  the  color  {iro)  of  whose 
leaves  has  changed,  like  her  love  {iro). 

Turning  up  the  nose  and  curling  the  lip  in  scorn  are  achieved  with  masterly 
skill.  In  agony,  the  hands  are  not  clasped,  but  put  upright,  palm  to  palm,  at 
length.     People  shake  their  heads  to  mean  "no,"  and  nod  them  to  mean  "yes." 

Among  the  peculiarities  in  their  code  of  etiquette,  eructation  is  permissible  iu 
company  at  all  times,  and  after  a  hearty  meal  is  rather  a  compliment  to  the  host. 
On  the  other  hand,  to  attend  to  the  requirements  of  nasal  etiquette,  except  with 
face  apart  from  the  company,  is  very  bad  manners.  Toothpicks  must  not  be 
used,  but  in  a  semi-secret  way,  and  with  the  left  hand  covering  the  mouth.  At 
banquets,  the  fragrant  bark  on  these  is  carved  ornamentally,  and  under  a  shaving 
loosened  from  the  white  wood  is  written  in  tiny  script  a  pun,  witticism,  bon- 
mot,  or  sentimental  proposal,  like  that  on  the  "secret  papers"  on  bonbons  at 
our  refreshments.  At  feasts  or  daily  meals,  all  such  matters  as  carving,  slicing, 
etc.,  are  looked  upon  as  out  of  place,  and  properly  belonging  to  servant's  work 
and  in  the  kitchen.  In  clothing,  the  idea  that  garments  ought  to  be  loose  and 
flowing,  so  as  to  conceal  the  shape  of  the  body  and  its  parts,  and  give  no  striking 
indication  of  sex,  as  among  us,  was  never  so  general  as  in  China.  In  hair-dress- 
ing, besides  marking  age  and  sex,  the  female  coiflfure  had  a  language  of  its  own. 
Generally  a  keen  observer  could  distinguish  a  maiden,  a  married  wife,  a  widow 
who  was  willing  to  marry  the  second  time,  and  the  widow  who  intended  never 
to  wed  again.  As  marks  of  beauty,  besides  the  ideals  spoken  of  on  page  30,  large 
ears  were  thought  desirable,  especially  those  with  long  lobes.  Fat  people  were 
much  admired,  and  a  rotund  physique  considered  a  good  gift  of  nature.  Many  of 
the  striking  details  of  military  and  social  etiquette,  such  as  falling  on  hands  and 
knees,  with  forehead  on  the  floor  or  on  the  prone  liand,  and  the  simultaneous 
noisy  sucking-in  of  the  breath,  which  sounds  and  seems  so  ridiculous  to  the  for- 
eigner, are  very  ancient. 


B12  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  snow  of  Kuroho  ?"  No  one  else  understood  the  meaning,  but 
Sei  Shonagon  instantly  stepped  forward  and  drew  up  the  curtains, 
revealing  the  mountains  decked  in  fresh-fallen  snow.  The  emperor 
was  delighted,  and  bestowed  upon  her  a  prize.  Sei  Shonagon  had 
understood  his  allusion  to  the  line  in  an  ancient  poem  which  ran  thus : 

"The  snow  of  Kuroho  is  seen  by  raising  the  curtains." 

Once  when  a  certain  kuge  was  traveling  in  a  province,  he  came,  on 
a  moonlight  night,  to  a  poor  village  in  which  the  cottages  had  fallen 
into  picturesque  decay,  the  roofs  of  which  gleamed  like  silver.  The 
sight  of  the  glorified  huts  inspired  the  noble  with  such  a  fine  frenzy 
that  he  sat  up  all  night  gazing  rapturously  on  the  scene,  anon  compos- 
ing stanzas.  He  was  so  delighted  that  he  planned  to  remain  in  the 
place  several  days.  The  next  morning,  however,  the  villagers,  hear- 
ing of  the  presence  of  so  illustrious  a  guest  among  them,  began  busily 
to  repair  the  ruin,  and  to  rethatch  the  roofs.  The  kuge,  seeing  all 
his  poetic  visions  dispelled  by  this  vandal  industry,  ordered  his  bullock- 
car,  and  was  off,  disgusted. 

During  the  first  centuries  of  writing  in  Japan,  the  spoken  and  the 
written  language  were  identical.  With  the  study  of  the  Chinese  liter- 
ature, and  the  composition  of  works  by  the  native  literati  almost  ex- 
clusively in  that  language,  grew  up  differences  between  the  colloquial 
and  literary  idiom  and  terminology.  The  infusion  of  a  large  number 
of  Chinese  words  into  the  common  speech  steadily  increased;  while 
the  learned  affected  a  pedantic  style  of  conversation,  so  interlarded 
with  Chinese  words,  names,  and  expressions,  that  to  the  vulgar  their 
discourse  was  almost  unintelligible.  Buddhism  also  made  Chinese  the 
vehicle  of  its  teachings,  and  the  people  everywhere  became  familiar, 
not  only  with  its  technical  terms,  but  with  its  stock  phrases  and  forms 
of  thought.  To  this  day  the  Buddhist,  or  sham-religious,  way  of  talking 
is  almost  a  complete  tongue  in  itself,  and  a  good  dictionary  always 
gives  the  Buddhistic  meaning  of  a  word  separately.  In  reading  or 
hearing  Japanese,  the  English-speaking  resident  continually  stumbles 
on  his  own  religious  cant  and  orthodox  expressions,  which  he  believes 
to  be  peculiar  to  bis  own  atmosphere,  that  have  a  meaning  entirely 
different  from  the  natural  sense:  "this  vale  of  tears,"  "this  evil 
world,"  "  gone  to  his  reward,"  "  dust  and  ashes,"  "  worm  of  the  dust," 
and  many  phrases  which  so  many  think  are  exclusively  Christian  or 
evangelical,  are  echoed  in  Japanese.  So  much  is  this  true,  that  the 
missionaries,  in  translating  religious  books,  are  at  first  delighted  to 


LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  213 

find  exact  equivalents  for  many  expressions  desirable  in  technical 
theology,  or  for  what  may  fairly  be  termed  pious  slang,  but  will  not 
use  them,  for  fear  of  misleading  the  reader,  or  rather  of  failing  to 
lead  him  out  of  his  old  notions  into  the  new  faith  which  it  is  desired 
to  teach.  So  general  have  the  use  and  affectation  of  Chinese  become, 
that  in  many  instances  the  pedantic  Chinese  name  or  word  has  been 
retained  in  the  mouths  of  the  people,  while  the  more  beautiful  native 
term  is  almost  lost.  In  general,  however,  only  the  men  were  devoted 
to  Chinese,  while  the  cultivation  of  the  Japanese  language  was  left  to 
the  women.  This  task  the  women  nobly  discharged,  fully  maintain- 
ing the  credit  of  the  native  literature.  Mr.  W.  G.  Aston  says,  "  I  be- 
lieve no  parallel  is  to  be  found  in  the  history  of  European  letters,  to 
the  remarkable  fact  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  best  writings 
of  the  best  age  of  Japanese  literature  was  the  work  of  women."  The 
Genji  Monogatari  is  the  acknowledged  standard  of  the  language  for 
the  period  to  which  it  belongs,  and  the  parent  of  the  Japanese  novel. 
This,  with  the  classics  Ise  Monogatari  and  Makura  Zoshi,  and  much 
of  the  poetry  of  the  time,  are  the  works  of  women. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  borrowed  Chinese  words  were  taken  en- 
tirely from  the  written,  not  the  colloquial,  language  of  China,  the  lat- 
ter having  never  been  spoken  by  the  Japanese,  except  by  a  few  in- 
terpreters at  Nagasaki.  The  Japanese  literary  style  is  more  concise, 
and  retains  archaic  forms.  The  colloquial  abounds  in  inter jectional 
and  ohomatopoetic  words  and  particles,  uses  a  more  simple  inflection 
of  the  verb,  and  makes  profuse  use  of  honorific  and  polite  terms. 
Though  these  particles  defy  translation,  they  add  grace  and  force  to 
the  language.  As  in  the  English  speech,  the  child  of  the  wedded  Saxon 
and  Norman,  the  words  which  express  the  wants,  feelings,  and  concerns 
of  every-day  life — all  that  is  deepest  in  the  human  heart — are  for  the 
most  part  native ;  the  technical,  scientific,  and  abstract  terms  are  for- 
eign. Hence,  if  we  would  find  the  fountains  of  the  musical  and  beau- 
tiful language  of  Japan,  we  must  seek  them  in  the  hearts,  and  hear 
them  flow  from  the  lips,  of  the  mothers  of  the  Island  Empire.  Among 
the  anomalies  with  which  Japan  has  surprised  or  delighted  the  world 
may  be  claimed  that  of  woman's  achievements  in  the  domain  of  letters. 
It  was  woman's  genius,  not  man's,  that  made  the  Japanese  a  litera- 
ry language.  Moses  established  the  Hebrew,  Alfred  the  Saxon,  and 
Luther  the  German  tongue  in  permanent  form  ;  but  in  Japan,  the 
mobile  forms  of  speech  crystallized  into  perennial  beauty  under  the 
touch  of  woman's  hand. 


214  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XXII. 

THE  GROWTH  AND   CUSTOMS  OF  FEUDALISM. 

Japan,  of  all  the  Asiatic  nations,  seems  to  have  brought  the  feu- 
dal system  to  the  highest  state  of  perfection.  Originating  and  devel- 
oping at  the  same  time  as  in  Europe,  it  became  the  constitution  of 
the  nation  and  the  condition  of  society  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
When  in  Europe  the  nations  were  engaged  in  throwing  oflE  the  feudal 
yoke  and  inaugurating  modern  government,  Japan  was  riveting  the 
fetters  of  feudalism,  which  stood  intact  until  1871.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  the  thirteenth  century,  it  had  come  to  pass  that  there  were 
virtually  two  rulers  in  Japan,  and  as  foreigners,  misled  by  the  Hol- 
landers at  Deshima,  supposed,  two  emperors. 

The  growth  of  feudalism  in  Japan  took  shape  and  form  from  the 
early  division  of  the  officials  into  civil  and  military.  As  we  have  seen, 
the  Fujiwara  controlled  all  the  civil  oflBces,  and  at  first,  in  time  of 
emergency,  put  on  armor,  led  their  troops  to  battle,  and  braved  the 
dangers  of  war  and  the  discomforts  of  the  camp.  In  time,  however, 
this  great  family,  yielding  to  that  sloth  and  luxury  which  ever  seem, 
like  an  insidious  disease,  to  ruin  greatness  in  Japan,  ceased  to  take  the 
field  themselves,  and  delegated  the  uncongenial  tasks  of  war  to  certain 
members  of  particular  noble  families.  Those  from  which  the  greatest 
number  of  shoguns  were  appointed  were  the  Taira  and  Minamoto,  that 
for  several  centuries  held  the  chief  military  appointments.  As  luxury, 
corruption,  intrigue,  and  effeminacy  increased  at  the  capital,  the  diffi- 
culty of  keeping  the  remote  parts  of  the  empire  in  order  increased, 
especially  in  the  North  and  East.  The  War  Department  became  dis- 
organized, and  the  generals  at  Kioto  lost  their  ability  to  enforce  their 
orders. 

Many  of  the  peasants,  on  becoming  soldiers,  had,  on  account  of  their 
personal  valor  or  merit,  been  promoted  to  the  permanent  garrison  of 
household  troops.  Once  in  the  gay  capital,  they  learned  the  details  of 
intrigue  and  politics.  Some  were  made  court  pages,  or  attendants  on 
men  of  high  rank,  and  thus  learned  the  routine  of  official  duty.    They 


THE  GROWTH  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  FEUDALISM.  215 

caught  the  tone  of  life  at  court,  where  every  man  was  striving  for 
rank  and  hig  own  glory,  and  they  were  not  slow  to  imitate  their  au- 
gust examples.  Returning  to  their  homes  with  the  prestige  of  having 
been  in  the  capital,  they  intrigued  for  power  in  their  native  districts, 
and  gradually  obtained  rule  over  them,  neglecting  to  go  when  duty 
called  them  to  Kioto,  and  ignoring  the  orders  of  their  superiors  in  the 
War  Department.  The  civil  governors  of  the  provinces  dared  not  to 
molest,  or  attempt  to  bring  these  petty  tyrants  to  obedience.  Having 
armor,  horses,  and  weapons,  they  were  able  to  train  and  equip  their 
dependents  and  servants,  and  thus  provide  themselves  with  an  armed 
following. 

Thus  was  formed  a  class  of  men  who  called  themselves  warriors, 
and  were  ever  ready  to  serve  a  great  leader  for  pay.  The  natural  con- 
sequence of  such  a  state  of  society  was  the  frequent  occurrence  of  vil- 
lage squabbles,  border  brawls,  and  the  levying  of  black-mail  upon  de- 
fenseless people,  culminating  in  the  insurrection  of  a  whole  province. 
The  disorder  often  rose  to  such  a  pitch  that  it  was  necessary  for  the 
court  to  interfere,  and  an  expedition  was  sent  from  Kioto,  under  the 
command  of  a  Taira  or  Minamoto  leader.  The  shogun,  instead  of 
waiting  to  recruit  his  army  in  the  regular  manner — a  process  doubt- 
ful of  results  in  the  disorganized  state  of  the  War  Department  and 
of  the  country  in  general  —  had  immediate  recourse  to  others  of 
these  veteran  "  warriors,"  who  were  already  equipped,  and  eager  for  a 

fray- 
Frequent  repetition  of  the  experience  of  the  relation  of  brothers  in 
arms,  of  commander  and  commanded,  of  rewarder  and  rewarded,  grad- 
ually grew  into  that  of  lord  and  retainers.  Each  general  had  his  spe- 
cial favorites  and  followers,  and  the  professional  soldier  looked  upon 
his  commander  as  the  one  to  whom  his  allegiance  was  directly  due. 
The  distant  court  at  Kioto,  being  utterly  unable  to  enforce  its  author- 
ity, put  the  whole  power  of  quieting  the  disturbed  districts,  whenever 
the  disorder  increased  beyond  the  ability  of  the  civil  magistrate  to  re- 
press it,  into  the  hands  of  the  Minamoto  and  Taira.  These  families 
thus  became  military  clans  and  acquired  enormous  influence,  enjoyed 
the  monopoly  of  military  patronage,  and  finally  became  the  virtual 
rulers  of  the  land. 

The  power  of  the  sword  was,  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century,  lost  to 
the  court,  which  then  attempted,  by  every  means  in  its  power,  to  check 
the  rising  influence  of  the  military  families  and  classes.  They  began 
by  denying  them  high  rank,  thus  putting  them  under  social  ban. 


216  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

They  next  attempted  to  lay  an  interdict  upon  the  warriors  by  forbid- 
ding them  to  ally  themselves  with  either  the  Taira  or  the  Minamoto. 
This  availed  nothing,  for  the  warriors  knew  who  rewarded  them. 
They  then  endeavored,  with  poor  success,  to  use  one  family  as  a  check 
upon  the  other.  Finally,  when  the  Minamoto,  Yoriyoshi,  and  Yoshiiye 
conquered  all  the  north  of  Hondo,  and  kept  in  tranquillity  the  whole 
of  the  Kuanto  for  fifteen  years,  even  paying  governmental  expenses 
from  their  private  funds,  the  court  ignored  their  achievements.  When 
they  petitioned  for  rewards  to  be  bestowed  on  their  soldiers,  the  dila- 
tory and  reluctant,  perhaps  jealous,  nobles  composing  the  court  not 
only  neglected  to  do  so,  but  left  them  without  the  imperial  commis- 
sion, and  dishonored  their  achievements  by  speaking  of  them  as  "pri- 
vate feuds."  Hence  they  took  the  responsibility,  and  conferred  upon 
their  soldiers  grants  of  the  conquered  land  in  their  own  name.  The 
Taira  followed  the  same  policy  in  the  south  and  west. 

When  Yoritomo  became  Sei-i  Tai  Sh5gun  at  Kamakura,  erected  the 
dual  system,  and  appointed  a  military  Avith  a  civil  governor  of  each 
province  in  the  interest  of  good  order,  feudalism  assumed  national  pro- 
portions. Such  a  distribution  soon  ceased  to  be  a  balance,  the  milita- 
ry pan  in  the  scale  gained  weight  and  the  civil  lost  until  it  kicked  the 
beam.  At  the  end  of  the  Hojo  domination,  the  court  had  lost  the 
government  of  the  provinces,  and  the  kuge  (court  nobles)  had  been 
despoiled  and  impoverished  by  the  buke  (military).  So  thoroughly 
had  feudalism  become  the  national  polity,  that  in  the  temporary  mika- 
doate,  1534-1536,  the  Emperor  Go-Daigo  rewarded  those  who  had  re- 
stored him  by  grants  of  land  for  them  to  rule  in  their  own  names  as 
his  vassals. 

Under  the  Ashikagas,  the  hold  of  even  the  central  military  author- 
ity, or  chief  daimio,  was  lost,  and  the  empire  split  up  into  fragments. 
Historians  have  in  vain  attempted  to  construct  a  series  of  historical 
maps  of  this  period.  The  pastime  was  war — a  game  of  patchwork  in 
which  land  continually  changed  possessors.  There  was  no  one  great 
leader  of  suflScient  power  to  overawe  all ;  hence  might  made  right ; 
and  whoever  had  the  ability,  valor,  or  daring  to  make  himself  pre-emi- 
nent above  his  fellows,  and  seized  more  land,  his  power  would  last 
until  he  was  overcome  by  a  stronger,  or  his  family  decayed  through 
the  effeminacy  of  his  descendants.  During  this  period,  the  great  clans 
with  whose  names  the  readers  of  the  works  of  the  Jesuits  and  Dutcb 
writers  are  familiar,  or  which  have  been  most  prominent  since  the 
opening  of  the  empire,  took  their  rise.    They  were  those  of  Hosokawa 


THE  GROWTH  AND   CUSTOMS  OF  FEUDALISM.  217 

TJyesugi,  Satake,  Takeda,  the  "  later  Hojo  of  Odawara,"  Mori,  Otomo, 
Shiinadzu,  Riuzoji,  Ota,  and  Tokugawa. 

As  the  authority  of  the  court  grew  weaker  and  weaker,  the  alle- 
giance which  all  men  owed  to  the  mikado,  and  which  they  theoretic- 
ally acknowledged,  was  changed  into  loyalty  to  the  military  chief. 
Every  man  who  bore  arms  was  thus  attached  to  some  "  great  name  " 
(daimio),  and  became  a  vassal  (kerai).  The  agricultural,  and  gradual- 
ly the  other  classes,  also  put  themselves,  or  were  forcibly  included, 
under  the  protection  of  some  castle  lord  or  nobleman  having  an  armed 
following.  The  taxes,  instead  of  being  collected  for  the  central  gov- 
ernment, flowed  into  the  treasury  of  the  local  rulers.  This  left  the 
mikado  and  court  without  revenue.  The  kuge,  or  Kioto  nobles,  were 
thus  stripped  of  wealth,  until  their  poverty  became  the  theme  for  the 
caricaturist.  Nevertheless,  the  eye  of  their  pride  never  dimmed.  In 
their  veins,  they  knew,  ran  the  blood  of  the  gods,  while  the  daimios 
were  only  "  earth  -  thieves,"  and  the  parvenus  of  feudalism.  They 
still  cherished  their  empty  titles ;  and  to  all  students  of  history  their 
poverty  was  more  honorable  than  all  the  glitter  of  the  shogun's  train, 
or  the  splendor  of  the  richest  daimio's  mansion. 

The  daimios  spent  their  revenues  on  their  retainers,  their  personal 
pleasures,  and  in  building  castles.  In  almost  every  feudal  city,  or  place 
of  strategic  importance,  the  towers,  walls,  and  moats  of  these  charac- 
teristic specimens  of  Japanese  architecture  could  be  seen.  The  strict- 
est vigilance  was  maintained  at  the  castle-gates,  and  a  retainer  of  an- 
other daimid,  however  hospitably  entertained  elsewhere,  was  never  al- 
lowed entrance  into  the  citadel.  A  minute  code  of  honor,  a  rude 
sort  of  chivalry,  and  an  exalted  sense  of  loyalty  were  the  growth  of 
the  feudal  system. 

Many  of  the  mediaeval  military  customs  were  very  interesting. 
During  this  period  the  habit  originated  of  the  men  shaving  the  hair 
off  their  temples  and  from  the  middle  of  the  scalp,  and  binding  the 
long  cue  into  a  top-knot,  which  was  turned  forward  and  laid  on  the 
scalp.  The  object  of  this  was  to  keep  the  hair  out  of  the  eyes  during 
battle,  and  also  to  mark  the  wearer  as  a  warrior.  Gradually  it  became 
a  universal  custom,  extending  to  all  classes. 

When,  in  1873,  the  reformers  persuaded  the  people  to  cut  off  their 
knots  and  let  their  hair  grow,  the  latter  refused  to  "  imitate  the  for- 
eigners," and  supposed  they  were  true  conservatives,  when,  in  reality, 
the  ancient  Japanese  knew  nothing  of  shaven  faces  and  scalps,  or  of 
top -knots.     The  ancient  warriors  wore  mustaches,  and  even  beards. 


218  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

The  practice  of  keeping  the  face  scrupulously  bare,  until  recently  so 
universally  observed  except  by  botanists  and  doctors,  is  comparatively 
modern. 

The  military  tactics  and  strategic  arts  of  the  Japanese  were  ancient- 
ly copied  from  the  Chinese,  but  were  afterward  modified  as  the  nature 
of  the  physical  features  of  their  country  and  the  institutions  of  feud- 
alism  required.  No  less  than  seven  distinct  systems  were  at  different 
times  in  vogue ;  but  that  perfected  by  Takeda  and  Uyesugi,  in  the 
Ashikaga  period,  finally  bore  oS  the  palm.  These  tactics  continued 
to  command  the  esteem  and  practice  of  the  Japanese  until  the  revolu- 
tion wrought  by  the  adoption  of  the  European  systems  in  the  present 
century.  The  surface  of  the  country  being  so  largely  mountainous, 
uneven,  and  covered  with  rice-swamps,  cavalry  were  but  little  employ- 
ed. A  volley  of  arrows  usually  opened  the  battle,  followed  by  a  gen- 
eral engagement  along  the  whole  line.  Single  combats  between  com- 
manders of  hostile  armies  were  of  frequent  occurrence.  When  they 
met  on  the  field,  their  retainers,  according  to  the  strict  etiquette  of 
war,  gave  no  aid  to  either,  but  encouraged  them  by  shouts,  as  they 
called  out  each  other's  names  and  rushed  to  the  combat.  The  battle 
slackened  while  the  leaders  strove,  the  armies  becoming  spectators. 
The  victor  cut  off  the  head  of  his  antagonist,  and,  holding  it  up, 
shouted  his  name  and  claimed  the  victory.  The  triumph  or  defeat  of 
their  leaders  often  decided  the  fate  of  the  army.  Vengeance  against 
the  victor  was  not  permitted  to  be  taken  at  the  time,  but  must  be 
sought  again,  the  two  armies  again  joining  battle.  The  fighting  over, 
those  who  had  slain  distinguished  personages  must  exhibit  their  heads 
before  their  chiefs,  who  bestowed  rewards  upon  them.  This  practice 
still  continues;  and  during  the  expedition  in  Formosa  in  18V4,  the 
chief  trophies  were  the  heads  of  the  Boutan  cannibals ;  though  the 
commander.  General  Saigo,  attempted  to  abolish  the  custom.  Who- 
ever saved  his  chieftain's  life  on  the  field  was  honored  with  the  place 
of  highest  rank  in  the  clan.  These  customs  had  a  tremendous  in- 
fluence in  cultivating  valor  and  a  spirit  of  loyalty  in  the  retainer  to- 
ward the  prince.  The  meanest  soldier,  if  brave  and  faithful,  might 
rise  to  the  highest  place  of  honor,  rank,  emolument,  and  influence. 
The  bestowal  of  a  reward,  the  investiture  of  a  command,  or  military 
promotion,  was  ever  an  occasion  of  impressive  ceremony. 

Even  in  time  of  peace  the  samurai  never  appeared  out-of-doors 
unarmed,  invariably  wearing  their  two  swords  in  their  girdle.  The 
offensive  weapons — spears  long  and  short,  the  bows,  arrows,  and  quiv- 


THE  GROWTH  AND   CUSTOMS  OF  FEUDALISM.  219 

er,  and  battle-axes — were  set  on  their  butts  on  the  porch  or  vestibule 
in  front  of  the  house.  Within  doors,  in  the  tokonoma,  or  recess,  were 
ranged  in  glittering  state  the  cuirass,  helmet,  greaves,  gauntlets,  and 
chain-mail.  Over  the  sliding  partitions,  on  racks,  were  the  long  hal- 
berds, which  the  women  of  the  house  were  trained  to  use  in  case  of 
attack  during  the  absence  of  the  men. 

The  gate  of  a  samurai,  or  noble's,  house  was  permanently  guarded  by 
his  armed  retainers,  who  occupied  the  porter's  lodge  beside  it.  Stand- 
ing upright  and  ready  were  three  long  instruments,  designed  to  en- 
tangle, throw  down,  and  pin  to  the  earth  a  quarrelsome  applicant. 
Familiar  faces  passed  unchallenged,  but  armed  strangers  were  held  at 
bay  till  their  business  was  known.  A  grappling-iron,  with  barbed 
tongues  turned  in  every  direction,  making  a  ball  of  hooks  like  an  iron 
hedgehog,  mounted  on  a  pike-stafE  ten  feet  long,  thrust  into  the  Japa- 
nese loose  clothing,  sufficed  to  keep  at  a  wholesome  length  any  swash- 
buckler whose  sword  left  its  sheath  too  easily.  Another  spiked  weapon, 
like  a  double  rake,  could  be  thrust  between  his  legs  and  bring  him  to 
the  earth.  A  third,  shaped  like  a  pitchfork,  could  hold  him  helpless 
under  its  wicket  arch.  Three  heavy  quarter  staves  were  also  ready,  to 
belabor  the  struggling  wight  who  would  not  yield,  while  swords  on 
the  racks  hung  ready  for  the  last  resort,  or  when  intruders  came  in 
numbers.  On  rows  of  pegs  hung  wooden  tickets  about  three  inches 
square,  branded  or  inscribed  with  the  names  of  the  retainers  and  serv- 
ants of  the  lord's  house,  which  were  handed  to  the  keeper  of  the  gate 
as  they  passed  in  or  out. 

The  soldiers  wore  armor  made  of  thin  scales  of  iron,  steel,  hardened 
hide,  lacquered  paper,  brass,  or  shark -skin,  chain -mail,  and  shields. 
The  helmet  was  of  iron,  very  strong,  and  lined  within  by  buckskin. 
Its  flap  of  articulated  iron  rings  drooped  well  around  the  shoulders. 
The  visor  was  of  thin  lacquered  iron,  the  nose  and  mouth  pieces  being 
removable.  The  eyes  w^ere  partially  protected  by  the  projecting  front 
piece.  A  false  mustache  was  supposed  to  make  the  upper  lip  of  the 
warrior  dreadful  to  behold.  On  the  frontlet  were  the  distinguishing 
symbols  of  the  man,  a  pair  of  horns,  a  fish,  an  eagle,  dragon,  buck- 
horns,  or  flashing  brass  plates  of  various  designs.  Some  of  the  hel- 
mets were  very  tall.  Kato  Kiyomasa's  was  three  feet  high.  On  the 
top  was  a  hole,  in  which  a  pennant  was  thrust,  or  an  ornament  shaped 
like  a  pear  inserted.  The  "  pear-splitter  "  was  the  fatal  stroke  in  com- 
bat and  the  prize-cut  in  fencing.  Behind  the  corslet  on  the  back  was 
another  socket,  in  which  the  clan  flag  was  inserted.     The  breastplate 


220 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


was  heavy  and  tougli ;  the  arms,  legs,  abdomen,  and  thighs  were  pro- 
tected by  plates  joined  by  woven  chains.  Shields  were  often  used; 
and  for  forlorn-hopes  or  assaults,  cavalrymen  made  use  of  a  stuffed  bag 
resembling  a  bolster,  to  receive  a  volley  of  arrows.  Besides  being 
missile-proof,  it  held  the  arrows  as  spoils.  On  the  shoulders,  hanging 
loosely,  were  unusually  wide  and  heavy  brassarts,  designed  to  deaden 
the  force  of  the  two-handed  sword-stroke.  Greaves  and  sandals  com- 
pleted the  suit,  which  was  laced  and  bound  with  iron  clamps,  and 
cords  of  buckskin  and  silk,  and  decorated  with  crests,  gilt  tassels,  and 
glittering  insignia.  Suits  of  armor  were  of  black,  white,  purple,  crim- 
son, violet,  green,  golden,  or  silver  colors. 


Knsunoki  Masatsura.    (From  a  photograph  takeu  from  a  native  drawing.) 

The  rations  of  the  soldiers  were  rice,  fish,  and  vegetables.  Instead 
of  tents,  huts  of  straw  or  boughs  were  easily  erected  to  form  a  camp. 
The  general's  head  -  quarters  were  inclosed  by  canvas,  stretched  on 
posts  six  feet  high,  on  which  his  armorial  bearings  were  wrought. 
The  weapons  were  bows  and  arrows,  spear,  sword,  and,  rarely,  battle- 
axes  and  bow-guns ;  for  sieges,  fire-arrows.  The  general's  scabbard  was 
of  tiger-skin.  Supplies  of  this  material  were  obtained  from  Corea, 
where  the  animal  abounds.  His  baton  was  a  small  lacquered  wand, 
with  a  cluster  of  strips  of  thick  white  paper  dependent  from  the  point. 
Flags,  banners,  and  streamers  were  freely  used ;  and  a  camp,  castle,  or 
moving  army,  in  time  of  war,  with  its  hundreds  and  thousands  of  flags, 
presented  a  gay  and  lively  appearance.  Drums,  hard-wood  clappers, 
and  conch-shells  sounded  the  reveille,  the  alarm,  the  onset,  or  the  re- 
treat. 

Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  consisting  chiefly  of  mountains 
and  valleys,  or  plains  covered  with  rice-swamps  intersected  by  narrow 


THE  GROWTH  AND   CUSTOMS  OF  FEUDALISM.  221 

paths,  infantry  were  usually  depended  upon.  In  besieging  a  castle, 
the  intrenchments  of  the  investing  army  consisted  chiefly  of  a  line  of 
palisades  or  heavy  planks,  propped  up  from  within  by  hinged  supports, 
at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  behind  which  the  besiegers  fought  or 
lived  in  camp  life,  while  sentinels  paced  at  the  gates.  Lookouts  were 
posted  on  overlooking  hills,  in  trees,  or  in  towers  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose. Sometimes  huge  kites  able  to  sustain  a  man  were  flown,  and  a 
bird's-eye  view  of  the  interior  of  the  enemy's  castle  thus  obtained. 
Fire,  treachery,  stratagem,  starvation,  or  shooting  at  long  range  having 
failed  to  compel  surrender,  an  assault  took  place,  in  which  the  gates 
wei'e  smashed  in,  or  the  wails  scaled.  Usually  great  loss  resulted  be- 
fore the  besiegers  were  driven  oif,  or  were  victorious.  Rough  surgery 
awaited  the  wounded.  An  arrow-barb  was  usually  pulled  out  by  a 
jerk  of  the  pincers.  A  sabre-cut  was  sewed  or  bound  together  with 
tough  paper,  of  which  every  soldier  carried  a  supply.  The  wonderful- 
ly adhesive,  absorptive,  and  healing  power  of  the  soft,  tough,  quickly 
wet,  easily  hardening,  or  easily  kept  pliable,  Japanese  paper  made  ex- 
cellent plasters,  bandages,  tourniquets,  cords,  and  towels.  In  the  dress- 
ing of  wounds,  the  native  doctors  to  this  day,  as  I  have  often  had  oc- 
casion to  witness,  excel. 

Seppuku  (belly-cut)  or  hara-kiri  also  came  into  vogue  about  the 
time  of  the  beginning  of  the  domination  of  the  military  classes.  At 
first,  after  a  battle,  the  vanquished  wounded  fell  on  their  swords,  drove 
them  through  their  mouth  or  breast,  or  cut  their  throats.  Often  a  fa- 
mous soldier,  before  dying,  would  flay  and  score  his  own  face  beyond 
recognition,  so  that  his  enemies  might  not  glory  over  him.  This  grew 
into  a  principle  of  honor ;  and  frequently  the  unscathed  survivors,  de- 
feated, and  feeling  the  cause  hopeless,  or  retainers  whose  master  was 
slain,  committed  suicide.  Hence  arose,  in  the  Ashikaga  period,  the 
fashion  of  wearing  two  swords ;  one  of  which,  the  longer,  was  for  en- 
emies ;  the  other,  shorter,  for  the  wearer's  own  body.  The  practice  of 
hara-kiri  as  a  judicial  sentence  and  punishment  did  not  come  into 
vogue  until  in  the  time  of  the  Tokugawas. 

Thrust  into  a  tiny  scabbard  at  the  side  of  the  dirk,  or  small  sword, 
was  a  pair  of  chopsticks  to  eat  with  in  camp.  Anciently  these  were 
skewers,  to  thrust  through  the  top-knot  of  a  decapitated  enemy,  that  the 
head  might  be  easily  carried.  Besides,  or  in  lieu  of  them,  was  a  small 
miniature  sword,  ko-katana  (little  sword),  or  long,  narrow  knife.  Al- 
though this  was  put  to  various  trivial  uses,  such  as  those  for  which  we 
employ  a  penknife,  yet  its  primary  purpose  was  that  of  the  card  of 

15 


222  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  owner.  Eacli  sword  was  adorned  with  some  symbol  or  crest, 
which  served  to  mark  the  clan,  family,  or  person  of  the  owner. 

The  Satsuma  men  wore  swords  with  red-lacquered  scabbards.  Later, 
the  Tokugawa  vassals,  who  fought  in  the  battle  of  Sekigahara,  were 
called  "  white  hilts,"  because  they  wore  swords  of  extraordinary  length, 
with  white  hilts.  The  bat,  the  falcon,  the  dragon,  lion,  tiger,  owl,  and 
hawk,  were  among  the  most  common  designs  wrought  in  gold,  lacquer, 
carving,  or  alloy  on  the  hilts,  handles,  or  scabbard ;  and  on  the  Jco-ka- 
tana  was  engraved  the  name  of  the  owner. 

Feudalism  was  the  mother  of  brawls  innumerable,  and  feuds  be- 
tween families  and  clans  continually  existed.  The  wife  whose  hus- 
band was  slain  by  the  grudge-bearer  brought  up  her  sons  religiously 
to  avenge  their  father's  death.  The  vendetta  was  unhindered  by  law 
and  applauded  by  society.  The  moment  of  revenge  selected  was 
usually  that  of  the  victim's  proudest  triumph.  After  promotion  to 
office,  succession  to  patrimony,  or  at  his  marriage  ceremony,  the  sword 
of  the  avenger  did  its  bloody  work.  Many  a  bride  found  herself  a 
widow  on  her  wedding-night.  Many  a  child  became  an  orphan  in 
the  hour  of  the  father's  acme  of  honor.  When  the  murder  was  secret, 
at  night,  or  on  the  wayside,  the  head  was  cut  off,  and  the  avenger, 
plucking  out  his  ko-katana,  thrust  it  in  the  ear  of  the  victim,  and  let 
it  lie  on  the  public  highway,  or  sent  it  to  be  deposited  before  the 
gate  of  the  house.  The  ko-katana,  with  the  name  engraved  on  it,  told 
the  whole  story. 

Whenever  the  lord  of  a  clan  wished  his  rival  or  enemy  out  of  the 
way,  he  gave  the  order  of  Herodias  to  her  daughter  to  his  faithful  re- 
tainers, and  usually  the  head  in  due  time  was  brought  before  him,  as 
was  John's,  on  a  charger  or  ceremonial  stand. 

The  most  minutely  detailed  etiquette  presided  over  the  sword,  the 
badge  of  the  gentleman.  The  visitor  whose  means  allowed  him  to  be 
accompanied  by  a  servant  always  left  his  long  sword  in  his  charge 
when  entering  a  friend's  house ;  the  salutation  being  repeated  bowing 
of  the  forehead  to  the  floor  while  on  the  hands  and  knees,  the  breath 
being  sucked  in  at  the  same  time  with  an  impressive  sound.  The  de- 
gree of  obeisance  was  accurately  graded  according  to  rank.  If  alone, 
the  visitor  laid  his  sword  on  the  floor  of  the  vestibule.  The  host's 
servants,  if  so  instructed  by  their  master,  then,  with  a  silk  napkin  in 
hand,  removed  it  inside  and  placed  it,  with  all  honor,  on  the  sword- 
rack.  At  meetings  between  those  less  familiar,  the  sheathed  weapon 
was  withdrawn  from  the  girdle  and  laid  on  the  floor  to  the  right,  an 


THE  GROWTH  AND   CUSTOMS  OF  FEUDALISM. 


223 


indication  of  friendship,  since  it  could  not  be  drawn  easily.  Under 
suspicious  circumstances,  it  was  laid  to  the  left,  so  as  to  be  at  hand. 
On  short  visits,  the  dirk  was  retained  in  the  girdle ;  on  festal  occasions, 
or  prolonged  visits,  it  was  withdrawn.  To  clash  the  sheath  of  one's 
sword  against  that  of  another  was  a  breach  of  etiquette  that  often  re- 
sulted in  instantaneous  and  bloody  reprisal.  The  accompanying  cut  by 
Hokusai  represents  such  a  scene.     The  story  is  a  true  one,  and  well 


The  Challeijge. 

told  by  Mitford.  Fuwa  Banzaemon — he  of  the  robe  marked  with  the 
nuretsubami  (swallow  in  a  shower)  —  and  Nagoya  Sanzaburo  —  he  of 
the  coat  figured  with  the  device  of  lightning — both  enemies,  and  ronin, 
as  their  straw  hats  show,  meet,  and  intentionally  turn  back  to  back 
and  clash  scabbards,  holding  their  hands  in  tragic  attitude.  In  a 
moment  more,  so  the  picture  tells  us,  the  insulted  scabbards  will  be 
empty,  and  the  blades  crossed  in  deadly  combat.  In  the  story,  which 
has  been  versified  and  dramatized,  and  which  on  the  boards  will  hold 
an  audience  breathless,  Nagoya  finally  kills  Fuwa  The  writing  at  the 
side  of  the  sketch  gives  the  clue  to  the  incident :  saya-ate  (scabbard  ■ 
collision),  equivalent  to  our  "  flinging  down  the  gauntlet." 

To  turn  the  sheath  in  the  belt  as  if  about  to  draw  was  tantamount 
to  a  challenge.  To  lay  one's  weapon  on  the  floor  of  a  room,  and  kick 
the  guard  toward  a  person,  was  an  insult  that  generally  resulted  in  a 
combat  to  the  death.  Even  to  touch  another's  weapon  in  any  way 
was  a  grave  offense.     No  weapon  was  ever  exhibited  naked  for  any 


224  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

purpose,  unless  the  wearer  first  profusely  begged  pardon  of  those 
present.  A  wish  to  see  a  sword  was  seldom  made,  unless  the  blade 
was  a  rare  one.  The  owner  then  held  the  back  of  the  sword  to  the 
spectator,  with  the  edge  toward  himself,  and  the  hilt,  wrapped  in  the 
little  silk  napkin  which  gentlemen  always  carry  in  their  pocket-books, 
or  a  piece  of  white  paper,  to  the  left.  The  blade  was  then  withdrawn 
from  the  scabbard,  and  admired  inch  by  inch,  but  never  entirely  with- 
drawn unless  the  owner  pressed  his  guest  to  do  so,  when,  with  much 
apology,  the  sword  was  entirely  withdrawn  and  held  away  from  those 
present.  Many  gentlemen  took  a  pride  in  making  collections  of 
swords,  and  the  men  of  every  samurai  family  wore  weapons  that  were 
heir-looms,  often  centuries  old.  Women  wore  short  swords  when 
traveling,  and  the  palace  ladies  in  time  of  fires  armed  themselves. 

In  no  country  has  the  sword  been  made  an  object  of  such  honor 
as  in  Japan.  It  is  at  once  a  divine  symbol,  a  knightly  weapon,  and 
a  certificate  of  noble  birth.  "  The  girded  sword  is  the  soul  of  the 
samurai."  It  is  "  the  precious  possession  of  lord  and  vassal  from 
times  older  than  the  divine  period."  Japan  is  "the  land  of  many 
blades."  The  gods  wore  and  wielded  two-edged  swords.  From  the 
tail  of  the  dragon  was  born  the  sword  which  the  Sun-goddess  gave  to 
the  first  emperor  of  Japan.  By  the  sword  of  the  clustering  clouds  of 
heaven  Yamato-Dake  subdued  the  East.  By  the  sword  the  mortal 
heroes  of  Japan  won  their  fame. 

"  There's  naught  'twixt  heaven  and  earth  that  man  need  fear,  who 
carries  at  his  belt  this  single  blade."  "  One's  fate  is  in  the  hands  of 
Heaven,  but  a  skillful  fighter  does  not  meet  with  death."  "  In  the 
last  days,  one's  sword  becomes  the  wealth  of  one's  posterity."  These 
are  the  mottoes  graven  on  Japanese  swords. 

Names  of  famous  swords  belonging  to  the  Taira,  Minamoto,  and 
other  families  are,  "Little  Crow,"  "  Beard  -  cutter,"  "Knee -divider." 
The  two  latter,  when  tried  on  sentenced  criminals,  after  severing  the 
heads  from  the  body,  cut  the  beard,  and  divided  the  knee  respective- 
ly. The  forging  of  these  swords  occupied  the  smith  sixty  days.  No 
artisans  were  held  in  greater  honor  than  the  sword-makers,  and  some 
of  them  even  rose  to  honorary  rank.  The  forging  of  a  blade  was 
often  a  religious  ceremony.  The  names  of  Munechicka,  Masamune, 
Yoshimitsu,  and  Muramasa,  a  few  out  of  many  noted  smiths,  are 
familiar  words  in  the  mouths  of  even  Japanese  children.  The  names, 
or  marks  and  dates,  of  famous  makers  were  always  attached  to  their 
blades,  and  from  the  ninth  to  the  fifteenth  century  were  sure  to  be 


THE  OROWTH  AND   CUSTOMS  OF  FEUDALISM.  225 

genuine.  In  later  times,  the  practice  of  counterfeiting  the  marks  of 
well-known  makers  came  into  vogue.  Certain  swords  considered  of 
good  omen  in  one  family  were  deemed  unlucky  in  others. 

I  had  frequent  opportunities  of  examining  several  of  the  master- 
pieces of  renowned  sword -makers  while  in  Japan,  the  property  of 
kuges,  daimios,  and  old  samurai  families,  the  museum  at  Kamakura 
being  especially  rich  in  famous  old  blades.  The  ordinary  length  of  a 
sword  was  a  fraction  over  two  feet  for  the  long  and  one  foot  for  the 
short  sword.  All  lengths  were,  however,  made  use  of,  and  some  of 
the  old  warriors  on  horseback  wore  swords  over  six  feet  long. 

The  Japanese  sword -blade  averages  about  an  inch  in  width,  about 
seven-eighths  of  which  is  a  backing  of  iron,  to  which  a  face  of  steel  is 
forged  along  its  entire  length.  The  back,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
thick,  bevels  out  very  slightly  to  near  the  centre  of  the  blade,  which 
then  narrows  to  a  razor  edge.  The  steel  and  the  forging  line  are 
easily  distinguished  by  a  cloudiness  on  the  mirror-like  polish  of  the 
metal.  An  inch  and  a  quarter  from  the  point,  the  width  of  the  blade 
having  been  decreased  one -fourth,  the  edge  is  ground  off  to  a  semi- 
parabola,  meeting  the  back,  which  is  prolonged,  untouched ;  the  curve 
of  the  whole  blade,  from  a  straight  line,  being  less  than  a  quarter  of 
an  inch.  The  guard  is  often  a  piece  of  elaborate  workmanship  in 
metal,  representing  a  landscape,  water -scene,  or  various  emblems. 
The  hilt  is  formed  by  covering  the  prolonged  iron  handle  by  shark- 
skin and  wrapping  this  with  twisted  silk.  The  ferule,  washers,  and 
elects  are  usually  inlaid,  embossed,  or  chased  in  gold,  silver,  or  alloy. 
The  rivets  in  the  centre  of  the  handle  are  concealed  by  designs,  often 
of  solid  gold,  such  as  the  lion,  dragon,  cock,  etc. 

In  full  dress,  the  color  of  the  scabbard  was  black,  with  a  tinge  of 
green  or  red  in  it,  and  the  bindings  of  the  hilt  of  blue  silk.  The 
taste  of  the  wearer  was  often  displayed  in  the  color,  size,  or  method 
of  wearing  his  sword,  gay  or  proud  fellows  affecting  startling  colors 
or  extravagant  length.  Riven  through  ornamental  ferules  at  the  side 
of  the  scabbards  were  long,  flat  cords  of  woven  silk  of  various  tints, 
which  were  used  to  tie  up  the  flowing  sleeves,  preparatory  to  fighting. 
Every  part  of  a  sword  was  richly  inlaid,  or  expensively  finished. 
Daimios  often  spent  extravagant  sums  on  a  single  blade,  and  small 
fortunes  on  a  collection.  A  samurai,  however  poor,  would  have  a 
blade  of  sure  temper  and  rich  mountings,  deeming  it  honorable  to  suf- 
fer for  food,  that  he  might  have  a  worthy  emblem  of  his  social  rank 
as  a  samurai.     A  description  of  the  various  styles  of  blade  and  scab- 


226 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE- 


bard,  lacquer,  oraaraents,  and  the  ricli  vocabulary  of  terms  minutely 
detailing  each  piece  entering  into  the  construction  of  a  Japanese 
sword,  the  etiquette  to  be  observed,  the  names,  mottoes,  and  legends 
relating  to  them,  would  fill  a  large  volume  closely  printed.  A  consid- 
erable portion  of  native  literature  is  devoted  to  this  one  subject. 


Archer  on  Castle  Rampart.     (From  a  native  drawing.) 

The  bow  and  arrows  were  the  chief  weapons  for  siege  ana  long- 
range  operations.  A  Japanese  bow  has  a  peculiar  shape,  as  seen  in 
the  engraving.  It  was  made  of  well-selected  oak  (kashi),  incased  on 
both  sides  with  a  semi-cylinder  of  split  bamboo  toughened  by  fire. 
The  three  pieces  composing  the  bow  were  then  bound  firmly  into  one 
piece  by  thin  withes  of  rattan,  making  an  excellent  combination  of 
lightness,  strength,  and  elasticity.  The  string  was  of  hemp.  Arrows 
were  of  various  kinds  and  lengths,  according  to  the  arms  of  the  arch- 


THE  GROWTH  AND   CUSTOMS  OF  FEUDALISM. 


227 


er.  The  average  length  of  the  war-arrow  was  three  feet.  The  "  tur- 
nip-head," "  frog  -  crotch,"  "  willow -leaf,"  "  armor  -  piercer,"  "bowel- 
raker,"  were  a  few  of  the  various  names  for  arrows.  The  "  turnip- 
top,"  so  named  from  its  shape,  made  a  singing  noise  as  it  flew.  The 
"  frog-crotch,"  shaped  like  a  pitchfork,  or  the  hind  legs  of  a  leaping- 
frog,  with  edged  blades,  was  used  to  cut  down  flags  or  sever  helmet 
lacings.  The  "  willow-leaf  "  was  a  two-edged,  unbarbed  head,  shaped 
like  the  leaf  of  a  willow.  The  "  bowel  -  raker "  was  of  a  frightful 
shape,  well  worthy  of  the  name ;  and  the  victim  whose  diaphragm  it 
penetrated  was  not  likely  to  stir  about  afterward.  The  "  armor- 
piercer"  was  a  plain  bolt-head,  with 
nearly  blunt  point,  well  calculated  to 
punch  through  a  breastplate.  Barbs 
of  steel  were  of  various  shape ;  some- 
times very  heavy,  and  often  handsome- 
ly open -worked.  The  shaft  was  of 
cane  bamboo,  with  string-piece  of  bone 
or  horn,  whipped  on  with  silk.  Quiv- 
ers were  of  leather,  water-proof  paper, 
or  thin  lacquered  wood,  and  often 
splendidly  adorned.  Gold-inlaid  weap- 
ons were  common  among  the  rich  sol- 
diers, and  the  outfit  of  an  ofiicer  often 
cost  many  hundreds  of  dollars.  Not 
a  few  of  these  old  tools  of  war  have 
lost  their  significance,  and  have  be- 
come household  adornments,  objects 
of  art,  or  symbols  of  peace.  Such 
especially  are  the  emblems  of  the  car- 
penter's guilds,  which  consist  of  the 
half  -  feathered  "  turnip  -  head  "  arrow, 
wreathed  with  leaves  of  the  same  suc- 
culent, and  the  "  frog-crotch,"  inserted 
in  the  mouth  of  a  dragon,  crossed 
upon  the  ancient  mallet  of  the  craft. 
These  adorn  temples  or  houses,  or  are 
carried  in  the  local  parades  and  festi- 
vals. 

As  Buddhism  had  become  the  pro-   ^y™''°''  of  the  Carpenter's  Gmid:  the 

.  ^  Singing  or  "Turnip-top," and  Cutting 

fessed    religion    of    the    entire   nation,       or  Knife-prong,  Arrows,  and  Mallet. 


228  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  vast  majority  of  the  military  men  were  Buddhists.  Each  had 
his  patron  or  deity.  The  soldier  went  into  battle  with  an  image  of 
Buddha  sewed  in  his  helmet,  and  after  victory  ascribed  glory  to  his 
divine  deliverer.  Many  temples  in  Japan  are  the  standing  monuments 
of  triumph  in  battle,  or  vows  performed.  Many  of  the  noted  captains, 
notably  Kato,  inscribed  their  banners  with  texts  from  the  classics  or 
the  prayers,  "  Namu  Amida  Butsti,"  or  "  Namu  mio  ho,"  etc.,  ac- 
cording to  their  sect.  Amulets  and  charms  were  worn  almost  without 
exception,  and  many  a  tale  is  told  of  arrows  turned  aside,  or  swords 
broken,  that  struck  on  a  sacred  image,  picture,  or  text.  Before  enter- 
ing a  battle,  or  performing  a  special  feat  of  skill  or  valor,  the  hero 
uttered  the  warrior's  prayer,  "  Namu  Hachiman  Dai-bosatsu  "  (Glory  to 
Hachiman,  the  incarnation  of  Great  Buddha).  Though  brave  heroes 
must,  like  ordinary  men,  pass  through  purgatory,  yet  death  on  the 
battle-field  was  reckoned  highly  meritorious,  and  the  happiness  of  the 
warrior's  soul  in  the  next  world  was  secured  by  the  prayers  of  his 
wife  and  children. 

[Note  on  the  Development  of  Feudalism.— A  thoroughly  competent  critic  in  The 
Japan  Mail  of  November  25th,  1876,  in  a  review  of  this  worlv,  criticising  the  au- 
thor's treatment  of  Japanese  feudalism,  says :  "  In  Japan,  as  in  other  Asiatic 
countries,  the  two  main  functions  of  government  were  the  collection  of  the  land 
revenue  and  the  repression  of  rapine.  In  the  palmy  days  of  the  mikado's  power, 
both  these  functions  were  united  in  the  hands  of  the  prefects,  who  were  appoint- 
ed from  Kioto,  with  a  tenure  of  office  restricted  to  four  years.  What  Toritomo 
ostensibly  did  was  to  procure  a  division  of  these  two  departments  of  govern- 
mental activity,  leaving  one  (the  collection  of  revenue)  to  the  mikado's  function- 
aries, and  obtaining  the  control  of  the  other  (the  repression  of  crime)  for  himself. 
This  control  he  acquired  not ....  in  virtue  of  his  military  office  of  Sei-i-Tai  Sho- 
gun,but  by  cloaking  his  military  power  under  the  guise  of  his  civil  title,  So  Tsui- 
ho  Shi,  which  might  well  be  rendered  Chief  Commissioner  of  Police,  or  High 
Constable  of  the  Realm.  The  extension  of  the  system  of  appointing  military 
magistrates,  which  was  found  to  work  so  well  in  the  Kuanto,  to  the  central  and 
western  provinces,  was  effected  some  years  before  he  received  his  rank  of  Bar- 
barian-quelling Generalissimo.  The  second  step  in  the  direction  of  feudalism 
....  was  the  system,  initiated  by  the  Ashikaga  shoguns,  of  making  the  military 
magistracies  hereditary  in  the  families  of  their  own  nominees.  The  third  was 
when  Hideyoshi  parceled  out  the  flefs  without  reference  to  the  sovereign,  by 
titles  granted  in  his  own  names.  This  was  the  precedent  that  lyeyasii  follow- 
ed when  he  based  the  power  of  his  dynasty  on  the  tie  of  personal  fealty  of  the 
Fudai  daimios  and  hatamotos  to  himself  and  his  successors  as  lords-paramount 
of  their  lands."] 


NOBUNAGA,  THE  PERSECUTOR  OF  THE  BUDDHISTS.        229 


XXIII. 

NOBUXAGA,  THE  PERSECUTOR  OF  THE  BUDDHISTS. 

In  the  province  of  Echizen,  a  few  miles  from  Fukui,  on  the  sea- 
coast,  stands  the  mountain  of  Ochi,  adorned  with  many  a  shrine  and 
sacred  portal,  and  at  its  foot  lies  the  village  of  Ota.  Tradition  states 
that  nearly  a  thousand  years  ago  the  pious  bonze,  Tai  Ch5,  ascended 
and  explored  this  mountain,  which  is  now  held  sacred  and  resorted  to 
by  many  a  pilgrim.  Here,  in  uninterrupted  harmony,  dwelt  for  cent- 
uries priests  of  both  the  native  Shinto  and  Buddhist  cultus,  until 
1868,  when,  in  the  purification,  all  Shinto  shrines  were  purged  of  Bud- 
dhist symbolism  and  influences,  as  of  a  thing  unclean.  The  priests 
were  wont  to  make  occasional  journeys  to  Kioto,  the  ecclesiastical  cen- 
tre of  the  country.  Centuries  before  the  troublous  times  of  Ashikaga, 
and  during  the  period  of  the  Taira  and  Minamoto,  one  of  the  Shinto 
priests,  while  on  his  way  through  Omi,  stopped  at  Tsuda,  and  lodged 
with  the  nanushi,  or  head-man  of  the  village,  and  asked  him  for  one 
of  his  sons  for  the  priesthood.  The  host  gave  him  his  step-son,  whom 
the  priest  named  Ota  Chikazane. 

That  boy  was  of  Taira  blood,  the  great-grandson  of  Kiyomori.  His 
father,  Sukemori,  had  been  killed  by  the  Minamoto,  but  his  mother 
had  fled  to  Omi,  and  the  head-man  of  the  village  of  Tsuda  had  mar- 
ried her. 

The  mother,  though  grie\ang  for  the  loss  of  her  son,  doubtless,  as  a 
pious  woman,  rejoiced  to  see  him  in  such  excellent  hands.  The  lad 
was  returned  to  Ota,  and  lived  in  the  village.  He  grew  up,  married 
as  became  a  kannushi  (custodian  of  a  Shinto  shrine),  and  founded  a 
family  of  Shinto  priests.  He  was  the  common  ancestor  of  the  famous 
hero  of  Echizen,  Shibata  Katsuiye,  and  of  the  renowned  Nobunaga, 
who  deposed  the  Ashikaga,  persecuted  the  Buddhists,  encouraged  the 
Jesuits,  and  restored,  to  a  great  extent,  the  supremacy  of  the  mikado. 
In  the  "History  of  the  Church,"  a  portrait  is  given  of  Nobunaga, 
which  is  thus  translated  by  Dr.  Walter  Dixon.  He  is  described  as  "  a 
prince  of  large  stature,  but  of  a  weak  and  delicate  complexion,  with  a 


230  THE  MIKADO'S  EMHRE. 

heart  and  soul  that  suppUed  all  other  wants ;  ambitious  above  all  man- 
kind ;  brave,  generous,  and  bold,  and  not  without  many  excellent  mor- 
al virtues  ;  inclined  to  justice,  and  an  enemy  to  treason.  With  a  quick 
and  penetrating  wit,  he  seemed  cut  out  for  business.  Excelling  in  mili- 
tary discipline,  he  was  esteemed  the  fittest  to  command  an  army,  man- 
age a  siege,  fortify  a  town,  or  mark  out  a  camp,  of  any  general  in  Ja- 
pan, never  using  any  heads  but  his  own.  If  he  asked  advice,  it  was 
more  to  know  their  hearts  than  to  profit  by  their  advice.  He  sought 
to  see  into  others,  and  to  conceal  his  own  counsel,  being  very  secret  in 
his  designs.  He  laughed  at  the  worship  of  the  gods,  convinced  that 
the  bonzes  were  impostors  abusing  the  simplicity  of  the  people,  and 
screening  their  own  debauches  under  the  name  of  religion." 

Nobunaga  had  four  generals,  whom  the  people  in  those  days  were 
wont  to  nickname,  respectively,  "Cotton,"  "Rice,"  "Attack,"  "Re- 
treat." The  one  was  so  fertile  of  resources  that  he  was  like  cotton, 
that  can  be  put  to  a  multitude  of  uses ;  the  second  was  as  absolutely 
necessary  as  rice,  which,  if  the  people  be  without  for  a  day,  they  die ; 
the  third  excelled  in  onset ;  the  fourth,  in  skillful  retreat.  They  were 
Hideyoshi,  Goroza,  Shibata,  and  Ikeda.  A  fifth  afterward  joined  him, 
whose  name  was  Tokugawa  lyeyasu.  These  three  names,  Nobunaga, 
Hideyoshi,  and  lyeyasu,  are  the  most  renowned  in  Japan. 

Nobunaga  first  appears  on  the  scene  in  1542.  His  father,  after  the 
fashion  of  the  times,  was  a  warrior,  who,  in  the  general  scramble  for 
land,  was  bent  on  securing  a  fair  slice  of  territory.  He  died  in  1549, 
leaving  to  his  son  his  arms,  his  land,  and  his  feuds.  Nobunaga  gained 
Suruga,  Mino,  Omi  and  Mikawa,  Ise  and  Echizen,  in  succession.  Hav- 
ing possession  of  Kioto,  he  built  the  fine  castle  of  Nijo,  and  took  the 
side  of  Ashikaga  Yoshiaki,  who  by  his  influence  was  made  shogun  in 
1558.  Six  years  later,  the  two  quarreled.  Nobunaga  arrested  and 
deposed  him,  and  the  power  of  this  family,  which  had  lasted  two  hun- 
dred and  thirty-eight  years,  came  to  an  end.  From  this  time  there 
was  no  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun,  until  lyeyasu  obtained  the  office,  in  1604. 
By  the  aid  of  his  commanders,  Hideyoshi  and  lyeyasu,  he  brought 
large  portions  of  the  empire  under  his  authority,  and  nominally  that 
of  the  mikado,  in  whose  name  he  governed.  He  became  Naidaijin 
(inner  great  minister),  but  never  shogun.  The  reason  of  this,  doubt- 
less, was  that  the  office  of  shogun  was  by  custom  monopolized  by  the 
Minamoto  family  and  descendants,  whereas  Nobunaga  was  of  Taira  de- 
scent. Like  Yoritomo,  he  was  a  skillful  and  determined  soldier,  but 
was  never  able  to  subdue  the  great  clans.     Unlike  him,  he  lacked  ad- 


NOBUNAGA,  THE  PERSECUTOR   OF  THE  BUDDHISTS.        231 

ministrative  power,  and  was  never  able  to  follow  up  in  peace  the  vic- 
tories gained  in  war. 

He  met  his  death  in  Kioto,  when  in  the  fullness  of  his  power  and 
fame,  in  the  following  manner.  Among  his  captains  was  Akechi,  a 
brave,  proud  man,  who  had  taken  mortal  offense  at  his  leader.  One 
day,  while  in  his  palace,  being  in  an  unusually  merry  and  familiar 
mood,  Nobunaga  put  Akechi's  head  under  his  arm,  saying  he  would 
make  a  drum  of  it,  struck  it  with  his  fan,  like  a  drumstick,  playing  a 
tune.  Akechi  did  not  relish  the  joke,  and  silently  waited  for  revenge. 
His  passion  was  doubtless  nursed  and  kept  warm  by  a  previous  desire 
to  seize  the  place  and  power  and  riches  of  his  chief. 

In  those  days  treachery  was  a  common  and  trivial  occurrence,  and 
the  adherent  of  to-day  w^is  the  deserter  of  to-morrow.  The  opportu- 
nity did  not  delay.  Nobunaga  had  sent  so  large  a  re-enforcement  into 
the  west,  to  Hideyoshi,  who  was  fighting  with  Mori,  that  the  garrison 
at  the  capital  was  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Akechi  was  ordered  to  the 
Chiugoku,  and  pretended  to  march  thither.  Outside  the  city  he  dis- 
closed his  plan  of  killing  Nobunaga,  whom  he  denounced  to  his  oifi- 
cers,  and  promised  them  rich  booty.  They  returned  to  Kioto,  and  sur- 
rounded the  temple  of  Honnoji,  where  their  victim  was  then  residing. 
Hearing  of  the  unexpected  presence  of  so  many  soldiers  in  armor 
around  his  dwelling,  he  drew  aside  the  window  of  his  room  to  ascer- 
tain the  cause.  He  was  struck  by  an  arrow,  and  instantly  divined  the 
situation,  and  that  escape  was  impossible.  He  then  set  the  temple  on 
fire,  and  committed  suicide.  In  a  few  minutes  the  body  of  the  great 
hero  was  a  charred  crisp. 

An  uninscribed  tomb  of  polygonal  masonry,  built  in  his  honor, 
stands  in  the  ten-shiu,  or  keep,  of  his  most  famous  castle,  Azuchi  yama, 
on  a  high  hill  looking  out  upon  the  white  walls  of  the  fortress  of  Hi- 
kone,  the  blue  lake  of  Biwa,  and  the  towering  grandeur  of  Ibuki  yama. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  forty-nine. 

The  position  of  Ota  Nobunaga  in  Japanese  history  would  be  illy 
understood  were  the  reader  to  regard  him  merely  as  a  leader  in  clan 
fights,  who  by  genius  and  vigor  rose  above  the  crowd  of  petty  milita- 
ry adventurers,  or  even  as  one  who  wished  to  tranquilize  and  unify  all 
Japan  for  the  mikado.  We  must  inquire  why  it  is  that  no  man  has 
won  more  execration  and  anathemas  from  the  Buddhists  in  Japan 
than  he.  They  look  upon  him  as  an  incarnate  demon  sent  to  destroy 
their  faith. 

The  period  of  the  Ashikaga  was  that  in  which  the  Buddhist  priests 


232  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

reached  the  acme  of  power.  Their  monasteries  were  often  enormou? 
stone-walled  and  moated  fortresses.  The  bonzes  kept  armor  and  ar- 
senals full  of  weapons  to  don  and  use  themselves,  or  to  equip  the 
armies  in  their  pay  when  it  suited  their  pleasure  to  cope  with  or  as- 
sist either  of  the  changing  sides,  or  to  take  spoil  of  both.  Many 
bloody  battles  took  place  between  rival  sects,  in  which  temples  were 
burned  down,  villages  fired,  and  hundreds  on  both  sides  killed.  Part 
of  what  is  now  the  immense  castle  of  Ozaka  belonged  to  the  Ikko  or 
Shin  sect. 

At  Hiyeizan,  on  Lake  Biwa,  was  the  most  extensive  monastery  in 
Japan.  The  grounds,  adorned  and  beautified  with  the  rarest  art  of 
the  native  landscape  gardener,  inclosed  thirteen  valleys  and  over  five 
hundred  temples,  shrines,  and  priestly  dwellings.  Here  thousands  of 
monks  were  congregated.  They  chanted  before  gorgeous  altars,  cele- 
brated their  splendid  ritual,  reveled  in  luxury  and  licentiousness,  drank 
their  sake,  eat  the  forbidden  viands,  and  dallied  with  their  concubines, 
or  hatched  plots  to  light  or  fan  the  flames  of  feudal  war,  so  as  to  make 
the  quarrels  of  the  clans  and  chiefs  redound  to  their  aggrandizement. 
They  trusted  profoundly  to  their  professedly  sacred  character  to  shield 
them  from  all  danger. 

For  these  bonzes  Nobunaga  had  no  respect.  His  early  life  among 
the  priests  had  doubtless  destroyed  whatever  reverence  he  might  have 
had  for  their  sanctity.  His  education  as  a  Shintoist  made  him  hate 
the  Buddhists  as  enemies.  The  bonzes  continually  foiled  his  schemes, 
and  he  saw  that,  even  if  war  between  the  clans  ceased,  the  existence 
of  these  monasteries  would  jeopard  the  national  peace.  He  resolved 
to  destroy  them. 

In  the  Ninth  month,  1571,  says  \hQ  Nihon  Guai  Shi,  he  encamped 
at  Seta,  and  ordered  his  generals  to  set  Hiyeizan  on  fire.  The  gener- 
als, surprised  at  the  order,  lost  countenance,  and  exhorted  him  not  to 
do  it,  saying,  "  Since  Kuammu  Tenno  [782-806]  built  this  monastery, 
nearly  a  thousand  years  ago,  it  has  been  esteemed  the  most  vigilant 
against  the  devil.  No  one  has  yet  dared  to  injure  these  temples ;  but 
now,  do  you  intend  to  do  so?  How  can  it  be  possible?"  To  this 
Nobunaga  answered :  *'  I  have  put  down  the  thieves  against  the  em- 
peror [kokuzoku,  robbers  of  country] ;  why  do  you  hinder  me  thus  ? 
I  intend  to  tranquilize  the  whole  land,  and  revive  the  declining  power 
of  the  imperial  Government.  I  continually  make  light  of  my  life  for 
the  mikado's  sake,  and  hence  I  have  no  rest  for  a  single  day.  Last 
year  I  subdued  Settsu,  and  both  castles  were  about  to  be  surrendered, 


NOBUNAOA,  THE  PERSECUTOR  OP  THE  BUDDHISTS.        233 

when  Yosliikage  [Daimio  of  Echizen]  and  Nagamasa  [Daimid  of  Omi] 
attacked  my  rear,  and  I  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  and  retrace  my 
steps.  My  allowing  the  priests  to  remain  on  this  mountain  was  in  or- 
der that  I  might  destroy  them.  I  once  dispatched  a  messenger  to  the 
priests,  and  set  before  them  happiness  and  misery.  The  bonzes  nev- 
er obeyed  my  word,  but  stoutly  assisted  the  wicked  fellows,  and  so 
resisted  the  imperial  army  \oshi,  or  kuangu7i\.  Does  this  act  not 
make  them  \kokuzoku\  country -thieves  ?  If  I  do  \iot  now  take  them 
away,  this  great  trouble  will  continue  forever.  Moreover,  I  have  heard 
that  the  priests  violate  their  own  rules ;  they  eat  fish  and  stinking 
vegetables  [the  five  odorous  plants  prohibited  by  Buddhism — common 
and  wild  leek,  garlic,  onions,  scallions],  keep  concubines,  and  roll  up 
the  sacred  books  [never  untie  them  to  read  them  or  pray].  How  can 
they  be  vigilant  against  evil,  or  preserve  justice  ?  Then  surround  their 
dwellings,  burn  them  down,  suffer  no  one  to  live." 

The  generals,  incited  by  the  speech  of  their  commander,  agreed. 
On  the  next  day  an  awful  scene  of  butchery  and  conflagration  ensued. 
The  soldiers  set  fire  to  the  great  shrines  and  temples ;  and  while  the 
stately  edifices  were  in  flames,  plied  sword,  lance,  and  arrow.  None 
were  permitted  to  escape.  Without  discrimination  of  age  or  sex,  the 
toothless  dotard,  abbot,  and  bonze,  maid -servant  and  concubine  and 
children,  were  speared  or  cut  down  without  mercy.  This  was  the  first 
great  blow  at  Buddhism. 

In  1579,  the  two  great  sects  of  Nichiren  and  Jodo  held  a  great  dis- 
cussion upon  religious  subjects,  which  reached  such  a  point  of  acri- 
mony that  the  attention  of  the  Government  was  called  to  it,  and  it 
was  continued  and  finished  before  Nobunaga,  at  his  castle  at  Azuchi 
yama,  on  the  lands  of  which  he  had  already  allowed  the  Jesuits  to 
build  churches.  A  book  called  Azuchi  Ron,  still  extant,  contains  the 
substance  of  the  argument  on  both  sides.  One  result  of  the  wordy 
contest  was  the  suppression  of  a  sub -sect  of  Jodo,  whose  doctrines 
were  thought  to  be  dangerous  to  the  State. 

The  immense  fortified  temple  and  monastery  called  Honguanji,  in 
Ozaka,  was  the  property  of  the  Monto,  or  Shin  sect  of  Buddhists,  and 
the  retreat  and  hiding-place  of  Nobunaga's  enemies.  The  bonzes 
themselves  were  his  most  bitter  haters,  because  he  had  so  encouraged 
the  Jesuits.  They  had  taken  the  side  of  his  enemies  for  over  twelve 
years.  At  last,  when  some  of  his  best  captains  had  been  killed  by 
"  grass-rebels,"  or  ambuscaders,  who  fled  into  the  monastery,  he  laid 
siege  to  it  in  earnest,  with  the  intention  of  serving  the  inmates  as  he 


234 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


did  those  of  Hiyeizan.  Within  the  enceinte,  crowded  in  five  connect- 
ing fortresses,  were  thousands  of  women  and  children,  besides  the 
warriors  and  priests.  Another  frightful  massacre  seemed  imminent. 
The  place  was  so  surrounded  that  every  attempt  of  the  garrison  to 
escape  was  cut  off.  On  an  intensely  dark  night,  under  cover  of  a 
storm  then  raging,  several  thousands  of  the  people,  of  all  sexes  and  ages, 
attempted  to  escape  from  one  of  the  forts.  They  were  overtaken  and 
slaughtered.  The  main  garrison  shortly  afterward  learned  the  fate  of 
their  late  comrades  by  seeing  a  junk,  dispatched  by  the  victors,  laden 
with  human  ears  and  noses,  approach  the  castle  with  its  hideous  cargo. 


View  of  the  Castle  of  Ozaka  (takeu  iu  1S61),  from  the  Rice-flelds. 

Another  outpost  of  the  castle  was  surrendered.  In  the  second  month 
of  the  siege,  a  sortie  in  force  was  repelled  by  showers  of  arrows  and 
matchlock  balls ;  but,  in  the  fighting,  Nobunaga's  best  oflBcers  were 
slain.  The  besieging  army  finally  occupied  three  of  the  five  in  the 
net-work  of  fortresses.  Thousands  ("  twenty  thousand  ")  of  the  gar- 
rison had  been  killed  by  arrow  and  ball,  or  had  perished  in  the  flames, 
and  the  horrible  stench  of  burning  flesh  filled  the  air  for  miles.  The 
fate  of  the  main  body  within  the  walls  was  soon  to  be  decided. 

The  mikado,  grieving  over  the  shedding  of  so   much  blood,  sent 
three  court  nobles  and  a  priest  of  another  sect  to  persuade  the  garri- 


NOBUNAQA,  THE  PEBSECUTOIi  OF  THE  BUDDHISTS.         235 

son  to  yield.  A  conference  of  the  abbot  and  elders  was  called,  and  a 
surrender  decided  upon.  The  castle  was  turned  over  to  Nobunaga, 
and  from  that  day  until  the  present  has  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Government.  Pardon  was  granted  to  the  survivors,  and  the  bonzes 
scattered  to  the  other  large  monasteries  of  their  sect.  To  this  day, 
the  great  sects  in  Japan  have  never  fully  recovered  from  the  blows 
dealt  by  Nobunaga.  Subsequently,  rulers  were  obliged  to  lay  violent 
hands  upon  the  strongholds  of  ecclesiastical  power  that  threatened  so 
frequently  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the  country ;  but  they  were  able  to 
do  it  with  comparative  ease,  because  Nobunaga  had  begun  the  work 
with  such  unscrupulous  vigor  and  thoroughness. 


Nobuuaga'6  Victims :  Types  of  Buddhist  Priesthood  and  Monastic  Orders. 


236 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XXIV. 


HIDEYOSHPS  ENTERPRISES.— THE  INVASION  OF  COREA. 

There  are  hundreds  of  mura,  or  villages,  in  Japan,  called  Nakamu- 
ra  {naka,  middle ;  mura,  village),  for  the  same  reason  that  there  are 
many  Middletowns  in  English-speaking  countries,  but  none  of  them 
claim  to  be  the  birthplace  of  Hideyoshi  except  that  in  the  district  of 
Aichi,  in  Owari.  There,  in  1536,  lived  a  peasant  called  Yasuke,  whose 
wife  bore  a  wizen-faced,  pithecoid  baby,  who  grew  up  to  be  a  cunning 
and  reckless  boy.  Instead  of  going  out  to  the  hill-sides,  grass-hook 
in  hand  and  basket  on  back,  to  cut  green  fodder  for  horses,  or  stand- 
ing knee-deep  in  the  mud- 
pulp  of  the  rice-fields  weed- 
ing the  young  plants,  re- 
turning at  night,  with  hoe 
on  shoulder,  he  lived  on 
the  streets,  and  sharpened 
his  wits,  afraid  of  no  one. 
While  a  mere  boy,  he  be- 
came a  betto,  or  groom,  to 
Nobunaga,  who  noticed  the 
boy's  monkey  face  and  rest- 
less eyes,  and  encouraged 
him  to  become  a  soldier, 
which  he  did. 

The  number  and  variety 
f>f  names  possessed  by  him 
in  his  life -time  illustrate 
well  the  confusing  custom 
in  vogue  among  the  Japa- 
nese of  frequently  changing 
their  names.      The  reader 

A  Familiar  Country  Scene:  Boy.  going  np  a  Mount-    ^f    ^^^   ^^^^^^    literature    Or 
aiu  to  cut  Grass ;  Peasant  Woman,  with  Hoe  on  her 

Shoulder.  of  foreign  works  of  Japan 


HIDEYOSHrS  ENTERPRISES.— INVASION  OF  COREA.        237 

is  perplexed,  among  the  multitude  of  names  and  titles,  to  distinguish 
the  personage  to  whom  they  belong.  When  there  are  many  actors  in 
the  scene,  and  each  is  known  by  a  half-dozen  aliases,  confusion  becomes 
confounded,  and  the  patience  is  sorely  taxed. 

In  this  work  I  designate  one  person  by  one  name,  although  appar- 
ent anachronisms  must  thereby  be  committed,  and  the  eyes  of  the 
scholar  be  often  annoyed.  It  has,  until  recently,  in  Japan  been  the 
custom  for  every  samurai  to  be  named  differently  in  babyhood,  boy- 
hood, manhood,  or  promotion,  change  of  life  or  residence,  in  com- 
memoration of  certain  events,  or  on  account  of  a  vow,  or  from  mere 
whim.  Thus,  at  his  birth,  Hideyoshi's  mother  having,  as  it  is  said, 
dreamed  that  she  had  conceived  by  the  sun,  called  him  Hiyoshi  maro 
(good  sun).  Others  dubbed  him  Ko  chiku  (small  boy),  and  afterward 
Saru  matsu  (monkey-pine).  As  a  soldier,  he  enlisted  as  Kinoshita  To- 
kichiro,  the  first  being  an  assumed  name.  As  he  grew  famous,  he  was 
nicknamed  Momen  Tokichi  ("  Cotton  "  Tokichi).  When  a  general, 
from  a  mere  whim,  he  made  himself  a  name  by  uniting  two  syllables, 
ha  and  shiba,  making  Hashiba,  from  the  names  of  two  of  his  generals, 
Ni-wa  or  ha,  and  Shibata,  which  the  Jesuits  wrote,  as  the  Portuguese 
orthography  required,  Faxiba. 

When,  in  1586,  he  attained  the  rank  of  Kuambaku  (Cambaku  dono 
of  the  Jesuits),  or  premier,  his  enemies,  who  were  jealous  of  the  par- 
venu, spoke  of  him  as  Saru  Kuan  ja,  or  crowned  monkey.  How  he 
obtained  this  high  office,  even  with  all  the  limitless  store  of  cunning 
impudence  and  egotism,  is  not  known,  for  no  one  except  nobles  of 
Fujiwara  blood  had  ever  filled  that  office,  it  being  reserved  exclusively 
for  members  of  that  family.  He  obtained  from  the  emperor  the  pat- 
ent of  a  family  name,  and  he  and  his  successors  are  known  in  history 
as  the  Toyotomi  family,  he  being  Toyotomi  Hideyoshi.  In  1591  he 
resigned  his  high  office,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son.  Hence  he 
took  the  title  of  taiko,  and  the  people  referred  to  him  as  Taiko  sama, 
just  as  they  put  the  term  sama  (Mr.,  or  Sir,  Honorable,  etc.)  after  the 
titles  of  emperor,  shogun,  other  titled  officials,  or  after  the  name  of 
any  person.  Japanese  address  foreigners  as  "  Smith  sama,"  or  "  Smith 
san,"  or  an  infant  as  "  baby  san,"  instead  of  "  Mr.  Smith,"  "the  baby," 
etc.  The  term  sama  fulfills,  in  a  measure,  the  function  of  the  definite 
article  or  demonstrative  pronoun,  or  serves  as  a  social  handle.  Hence, 
in  foreign  works,  Hideyoshi,  the  taiko  ;  or  that  one  of  the  many  taiko, 
called  Hideyoshi,  is  refen-ed  to  as  Taiko  sama. 

Hideyoshi  was  a  man  of  war  from  his  youth  up.     His  abilities  and 

16 


238  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

soldierly  qualities  made  him  a  favorite  commander.-  His  banner  con- 
sisted of  a  cluster  of  gourds.  At  first  it  was  a  single  gourd.  After 
each  battle  another  was  added,  until  at  last  it  became  an  imposing 
sheaf.  The  standard-bearer  carried  aloft  at  the  head  of  the  columns  a 
golden  representation  of  the  original  model,  and  wherever  Hideyoshi's 
banner  moved  there  was  the  centre  of  victory. 

At  the  death  of  Nobunaga,  the  situation  was  as  follows :  His  third 
son,  Nobutaka,  was  ruler  over  Shikoku ;  Shimadzu  (Satsuma)  was 
fio-hting  with  Otomo,  and  seizing  his  land  in  Kiushiu.  Hideyoshi  and 
Nobuwo,  second  son  of  Nobunaga,  with  the  imperial  army,  were  fight- 
ino-  with  Mori,  Prince  of  Choshiu,  who  held  ten  provinces  in  the  West. 
lyeyasu,  ruler  of  eight  provinces  in  the  Kuanto,  was  in  the  field  against 
Hojo  of  Odawara.  Shibata  held  Echizen.  Hideyoshi  and  lyeyasu 
were  the  rising  men,  but  the  former  attained  first  to  highest  power. 
Immediately  on  hearing  of  Nobunaga's  death,  Hideyoshi  made  terms 
with  Mori,  hastened  to  Kioto,  and  defeated  and  slew  Akechi,  The 
fate  of  this  assassin  has  given  rise  to  the  native  proverb,  "  Akechi  ruled 
three  days."  His  name  and  power  were  now  paramount.  The  prizes 
of  rank  were  before  him,  for  the  mikado  and  court  could  not  oppose 
his  wishes.  Of  his  master's  sons,  one  had  died,  leaving  an  infant ;  the 
second  son  was  assisted  by  lyeyasu,  with  whom  Hideyoshi  had  made 
a  compromise ;  the  third,  Nobutaka,  was  weak,  and  endeavored,  sec- 
onded by  his  chief  captain,  Shibata,  who  had  married  the  sister  of  No- 
bunaga, to  maintain  his  rights.  Hideyoshi  marched  into  Mino,  de- 
feated him,  pursued  Shibata  into  Echizen,  and,  after  several  skirmishes, 
burned  his  castle.  The  account  of  this,  as  given  by  the  Jesuits,  is  as 
follows :  "Among  the  confederates  of  Nobutaka  was  one  Shibata  dono, 
brother-in-law  to  Nobunaga.  He  was  besieged  in  the  fortress  of  Shi- 
bata [in  what  is  now  Fukui]  ;  and  seeing  no  way  of  escape,  he,  having 
dined  with  his  friend's  wife  and  children  and  retainers,  set  fire  to  his 
castle,  first  killing  his  wife,  his  children,  and  the  female  servants ;  and 
his  friends,  following  his  example,  afterward  committed  suicide,  and 
lay  there  wallowing  in  their  blood,  till  the  fire  kindled,  and  burned 
them  to  ashes." 

My  residence  in  Fukui,  during  the  year  1871,  was  immediately  on 
the  site  of  part  of  Shibata's  old  castle.  His  tomb  stands  under  some 
venerable  old  pine-trees  some  distance  from  the  city.  Wlien  I  visited 
it,  the  old  priest  who  keeps  the  temple,  since  erected,  brought  out  sev- 
eral old  boxes  carefully  labeled,  and  reverently  opened  them.  One 
contained  the  rusty  breastplate  and  other  portions  of  Shibata's  armor, 


HIDEYOmrS  ENTERPRISES— INVASION  OF  COREA. 


239 


picked  up  after  the  tire.  Other 
relics  saved  from  the  ashes  were 
shown  me.  The  story,  as  it  fell 
from  the  old  bonze's  lips,  and 
was  translated  by  my  interpret- 
er, is  substantially  that  given  by 
the  native  historians. 

Having  fled,  after  many  de- 

»     i      1  1      1  ii         1  „  Caini)  of  llid^■vo^hi  oij  Ahiiru  Mountain,  be- 

feats,  he  reached  the  place  now   »-'""i' "  "■"  j-  !^ 

'     ^         _  _  '     ,   .  fore  Fukui. 

called  Fukui.    Ilideyoshi,  in  hot 

pursuit,  fixed  his  camp  on  Atagoyama,  a  mountain  which  overlooks 
the  city,  and  began  the  siege,  which  he  daily  pressed  closer  and 
closer.  Being  hopelessly  surrounded,  and  succor  hopeless,  Shibata, 
like  a  true  Epicurean,  gave  a  grand  feast  to  all  his  captains  and  re- 
tainers, in  anticipation  of  the  morrow  of  death.  All  within  the 
doomed  walls  eat,  drank,  sung,  danced  and  made  merry,  for  the  mor- 


240  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

row  was  not  to  see  them  in  this  world.  At  the  height  of  the  ban- 
quet, Shibata,  quaffing  the  parting  cup  before  death,  addressed  his 
wife  thus :  "  You  may  go  out  of  the  castle  and  save  your  life. 
You  are  a  woman ;  but  we  are  men,  and  will  die.  You  are  at  liberty 
to  marry  another."  His  wife,  the  sister  of  Nobuuaga,  with  a  spirit 
equal  to  his,  was  moved  to  tears,  thanked  her  lord  for  his  love  and 
kindness,  and  declared  she  would  never  marry  another,  but  would  die 
with  her  husband.  She  then  composed  a  farewell  stanza  of  poetry, 
and,  with  a  soul  no  less  brave  because  it  was  a  woman's,  received  her 
husband's  dirk  into  her  heart. 

Like  true  Stoics,  Shibata  and  his  companions  put  all  the  women 
and  children  to  the  death  they  welcomed,  and  for  which  they  gave 
thanks  ;  and  then,  with  due  decorum  and  ceremony,  opening  their  own 
bodies  by  hara-kiri.,  they  died  as  brave  Japanese  ever  love  to  die,  by 
their  own  hands,  and  not  by  those  of  an  enemy. 

Hideyoshi,  on  his  return  to  Kioto,  began  a  career  of  usefulness,  devel- 
oping the  resources  of  the  empire  and  strengthening  the  power  of  the 
emperor.  Knowing  it  was  necessary  to  keep  his  captains  and  soldiers 
busy  in  time  of  inaction,  and  having  a  genius  for  the  works  of  peace  as 
well  as  war,  he  built  splendid  palaces  at  Kioto,  improved  the  city,  and 
paved  the  bed  of  the  river  Kamo  with  broad,  flat  stones.  He  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  future  commercial  greatness  of  Ozaka  by  enlarging 
the  site  of  the  monastery  destroyed  by  Nobunaga,  building  the  immense 
fortress,  only  part  of  which  still  remains,  the  pride  of  the  city,  enlarged 
and  deepened  the  river,  and  dug  many  of  the  hundreds  of  canals  which 
give  this  city  whatever  right  it  may  have  to  be  called  the  Venice  of 
Japan.  It  had,  when  I  saw  it  in  1871,  over  eleven  hundred  bridges, 
one  of  them  of  iron.  He  fortified  Fushimi,  the  strategic  key  of  Kioto, 
with  a  triple-moated  castle,  erected  colossal  towers  and  pagodas  in  many 
places.  He  sequestrated  the  flourishing  commercial  port  of  Nagasaki 
from  the  Daimio  of  Omura,  and  made  it  the  property  of  the  crown. 
Neither  Deshima  nor  Pappenberg  was  then  historic ;  but  the  lovely 
scenery  was  as  much  the  subject  of  admiration  as  it  is  now.  His  policy 
was  to  forgive  those  who  had  fought  against  him,  and  not  to  put  them 
to  death,  as  Nobunaga  had  done,  who,  in  the  course  of  his  life,  had 
killed  his  brother,  father-in-law,  and  many  of  his  enemies.  He  reform- 
ed the  revenues.  His  rule  was  highly  popular,  for,  in  his  execution  of 
justice,  he  cared  little  for  rank,  name,  or  family  line,  or  services  done 
to  himself.  He  was  successful  in  inducing  lyeyasu,  after  the  latter 
had  secured  the  taiko's  mother  as  hostage,  to  come  to  Kioto  and  pay 


HIDEYOsnr IS  ENTERPRISES.-INVASION  OF  COREA. 


241 


homage  to  the  emperor ;  and  the  two  rivals  becoming  friends,  lyeyasu 
married  the  taiko's  sister.  Mori,  lord  of  the  Western  provinces,  also 
came  to  the  capital,  and  acknowledged  him  as  his  superior. 

Among  his  other  works,  Hideyoshi  followed  out  the  policy  of  No- 
bunaga,  destroyed  the  great  monastery  at  Kuraano,  the  bonzes  of  which 
claimed  the  province  of  Kii.  He  was  never  made  shogun,  not  being 
of  Minamoto  blood ;  but  having  become  Kuambaku,  and  being  sur- 
rounded by  nobles  of  high  birth  and  the  lofty  etiquette  of  the  court, 
he  felt  the  need  of  a  pedigree.  No  one  at  court  knew  who  his  grand- 
father was,  if,  indeed,  he  was  aware  himself.  He  made  out  that  his 
mother  was  the  daughter  of  a  kuge,  who,  in  the  disturbed  times  of 
Ashikaga,  had  fled  from  Kioto,  and,  while  in  poverty  and  great  distress, 
had  married  his  father,  but  had  conceived  him  before  her  marriage. 

In  his  youth  he  had  wedded  a  peasant  girl ;  but  as  he  rose  step  by 
step  to  eminence,  he  kept  on  marrying  until  he  had  a  number  equal 
to  that  of  the  polygamous  English  king,  Henry  VHI. ;  but,  unlike  that 
monarch,  he  enjoyed  them  all  at  once,  and  caused  none  of  Jhem  to 
lose  her  head.  The  last  two  of  his  spouses  were,  respectively,  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  house  of  Maeda,  of  the  rich  province  of  Kaga,  and  the 
Princess  Azai,  from  Omi,  daughter  of  the  wife  of  Shibata  Katsuiye, 
whom  the  Jesuits,  under  the  name 
of  Kita  Mandocoro,  say  was  the 
tirst  wife  of  the  taiko,  "  sweetest 
and  best  beloved."  He  had  no  son 
until  in  old  age. 

The  immoderate  ambition  of 
Hideyoshi's  life  was  to  conquer 
Corea,  and  even  China.  It  had 
been  his  dream  when  a  boy,  and 
his  plan  when  a  man.  When  un- 
der Nobunaga,  he  had  begged  of 
him  the  revenue  of  Kiushiu  for 
one  year  and  weapons,  while  he 
himself  would  provide  the  ships 
and  provisions,  offering  to  subdue 
Corea,  and  with  an  army  of  Co- 

reans   to   conquer   China,  and  thus    image  of  Japanese  Deified  Hero,  seen  in 

make  the  three  countries  one.    His  Shiuto  shrines. 

master  laughed,  but  he  kept  thinking  of  it.     AVhen  in  the  Kuanto, 

he  \'isited  Kamakura,  and  saw  an   image  of  Yoritomo,  such  as  one 


242  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

may  still  see  in  the  temple  of  Tsurugaoka.  Rubbing  and  patting 
its  back,  the  parvenu  thus  addressed  the  illustrious  effigy :  "  You 
are  my  friend.  You  took  all  the  power  under  Heaven  (in  Japan), 
You  and  I,  only,  have  been  able  to  do  this  ;  but  you  were  of  a  famous 
family,  and  not  like  me,  sprung  from  peasants.  I  intend,  at  last,  to 
conquer  all  the  earth,  and  even  China.  What  think  you  of  that?" 
Hideyoshi  used  to  say,  "  The  earth  is  the  earth's  earth  " — a  doctrine 
which  led  him  to  respect  very  slightly  the  claim  of  any  one  to  land 
which  he  coveted,  and  had  won  by  his  own  efforts. 

Under  the  declining  power  of  Ashikaga,  all  tribute  from  Corea  had 
ceased,  and  the  pirates  who  ranged  the  coasts  scarcely  allowed  a  pre- 
carious trade  to  exist.  The  So  family,  who  held  Tsushima,  however, 
had  a  small  settlement  in  Corea.  Some  Chinese,  emigrating  to  Japan, 
told  Hideyoshi  of  the  military  disorganization  and  anarchy  in  China, 
which  increased  his  desire  to  "  peep  into  China."  He  then  sent  two 
embassies  in  succession  to  Corea  to  demand  tribute.  The  second  was 
successful.  He  also  sent  word  to  the  Emperor  of  China  by  some  Liu 
Kiu  tribute-bearers  that  if  he  (the  Emperor  of  China)  would  not  heaj; 
him,  he  would  invade  his  territory  with  an  army.  To  the  Corean  en~ 
voy  he  recounted  his  exploits,  and  announced  his  intentions  definitely. 

Several  embassies  crossed  and  recrossed  the  sea  between  Corea  and 
Japan,  Hideyoshi  meanwhile  awaiting  his  best  opportunity,  as  the 
dispatch  of  the  expedition  depended  almost  entirely  on  his  own  will. 
His  wife,  Azai,  had  borne  him  a  child,  whom  he  loved  dearly,  but  it 
died,  and  he  mourned  for  it  many  months.  One  day  he  went  out  to 
a  temple,  Kiyomidzti,  in  Kioto,  to  beguile  the  sad  hours.  Lost  in 
thought,  in  looking  over  the  western  sky  beyond  the  mountains,  he 
suddenly  exclaimed  to  his  attendant,  "  A  great  man  ought  to  employ 
his  army  beyond  ten  thousand  miles,  and  not  give  way  to  sorrow." 
Returning  to  his  house,  he  assembled  his  generals,  and  fired  their  en- 
thusiasm by  recounting  their  exploits  mutually  achieved.  He  then 
promised  to  march  to  Peking,  and  divide  the  soil  of  China  in  fiefs 
among  them.  They  unanimously  agreed,  and  departed  to  the  various 
provinces  to  prepare  troops  and  material.  Hideyoshi  himself  went  to 
Kiushiu. 

On  his  way,  some  one  suggested  that  scholars  versed  in  Chinese 
should  accompany  the  expedition.  Hideyoshi  laughed,  and  said,  "  This 
expedition  will  make  the  Chinese  use  our  literature."  After  worship- 
ing at  a  shrine,  he  threw  up  a  handful  of  one  hundred  "  cash  "  in  front 
of  the  shrine,  and  said,  "  If  I  am  to  conquer  China,  let  the  heads  show 


HIDEYOSHVS  EXTERPEISES.— INVASION  OF  COREA.         243 

it."  The  Japanese  copper  and  iron  zeni,  or  kas,  have  Chinese  charac- 
ters representing  the  chronological  period  of  coinage  on  one  side,  and 
waves  representing  their  circulation  as  money  on  the  reverse.  The 
lettered  side  is  "  head,"  the  reverse  is  "  tail."  All  the  coins  which  the 
taiko  flung  up  came  down  heads.  The  soldiers  were  delighted  with 
the  omen.  Maps  of  Corea  were  distributed  among  the  commanders 
of  the  eight  divisions,  and  the  plan  of  the  expedition  and  their  co-op- 
eration explained. 

Kato  Kiyomasa,  who  hated  the  Christians,  and  who  afterward  be- 
came their  bitterest  persecutor,  was  commander  of  the  first ;  and  Koni- 
shi  Yukinaga,  the  Christian  leader,  and  a  great  favorite  of  the  Jesuits, 
of  the  second.  These  divisions  were  alternately  to  lead  the  van.  The 
naval  and  military  force  that  embarked  is  set  down  in  the  Guai  Shi 
at  five  hundred  thousand  men.  A  reserve  of  sixty  thousand  was  kept 
ready  in  Japan  as  re-enforcements.  Many  of  the  generals,  captains, 
and  private  soldiers  were  of  the  Christian  faith.  Kato  despised  Ko- 
nishi,  and  they  were  not  friends.  The  latter  was  the  son  of  a  druggist, 
and  persisted,  to  the  disgust  of  the  high-born  Kato,  in  carrying  a  ban- 
ner representing  a  paper  medicine-bag,  such  as  can  be  seen  swinging 
in  front  of  a  native  drug-shop  to-day.  He  probably  took  his  cue  from 
the  august  parvenu,  the  taiko. 

Hideyoshi  expected  to  lead  the  army  himself ;  but  being  sixty  years 
old,  and  infirm,  and  his  aged  mother  sorrowing  so  that  she  could  not 
eat  on  account  of  it,  he  remained  behind.  He  gave  Kato  a  flag,  say- 
ing, "  This  was  given  me  by  Ota  [Nobunaga]  when  I  marched  against 
Mori  [Choshiu]."  To  Konishi  he  presented  a  fine  horse,  saying, "  With 
this  gallop  over  the  bearded  savages  [Coreans]."  All  being  ready, 
the  fleet  set  sail  amidst  the  shouts  of  the  army  and  the  thunder  of 
cannon  on  the  shore.  Hideyoshi  had  attempted  to  buy  or  charter  two 
Portuguese  ships,  but  was  unsuccessful,  and  the  fleet  consisted  of  large 
junks.  They  were  detained  off  Iki  Island  by  stormy  weather.  As 
soon  as  it  was  calm,  Konishi,  well  acquainted  with  the  route,  sailed 
away  with  his  division,  arrived  at  Fusan,  in  Southern  Corea,  first,  and 
seized  the  castle.  Without  allowing  his  troops  to  rest,  he  urged  them 
on  to  other  triumphs,  that  the  glory  might  be  theirs  alone,  and  not  be 
shared  by  the  other  troops,  who  would  soon  arrive.  Another  large 
castle  was  stormed,  several  towns  captured,  and  brilliant  victories  won. 
Three  days  later,  Kato  arrived,  and  heard,  to  his  chagrin,  of  his  rival's 
advance  into  the  interior.  He  exclaimed,  "The  boy  has  taken  my 
route;  I  shall  not  follow  in  his  tracks."     He  then  burned  the  town. 


244  THE  MIKADO'S  E^IPIKE. 

which  Konishi  had  spared,  and  advanced  into  the  country  by  another 
way. 

Corea  was  divided  into  eight  circuits,  and  the  taikd's  plan  had  been 
for  each  corps  of  the  army  to  conquer  a  circuit.  The  Corean  king  ap- 
pointed a  commander-in-chief,  and  endeavored  to  defend  his  country, 
but  the  Japanese  armies  were  everywhere  victorious.  After  many  bat- 
tles fought,  and  fortresses  stormed,  nearly  all  the  provinces  of  the  eight 
circuits  were  subdued,  and  the  capital,  Kenkitai,  was  taken.  The  king 
and  his  son  fled.  At  one  great  battle,  ten  thousand  Coreans  are  said, 
to  have  been  killed,  and  their  ears  cut  off  and  preserved  in  salt  or  sake. 
The  forts  were  garrisoned  by  Japanese  troops.  The  Coreans  asked 
the  aid  of  China,  and  a  Chinese  army  of  assistance  was  sent  forward, 
and  after  several  severe  battles  the  Japanese  were  compelled  to  fall 
back.  Reserves  from  Japan  were  dispatched  to  Corea,  and  the  Japa- 
nese were  on  the  point  of  invading  China,  when,  in  1598,  the  death  oi 
the  taiko  was  announced,  and  orders  were  received  from  their  Govern- 
ment to  return  home.  A  truce  was  concluded,  and  Corean  envoys  ac- 
companied Konishi  to  Japan. 

The  conquest  of  Corea,  thus  ingloriously  terminated,  reflects  no 
honor  on  Japan,  and  perhaps  the  responsibility  of  the  outrage  upon  a 
peaceful  nation  rests  wholly  upon  Hideyoshi.  The  Coreans  were  a 
mild  and  peaceable  people,  wholly  unprepared  for  war.  There  was 
scarcely  a  shadow  of  provocation  for  the  invasion,  which  was  nothing 
less  than  a  huge  filibustering  scheme.  It  was  not  popular  with  the 
people  or  the  rulers,  and  was  only  carried  through  by  the  will  of  the 
taiko.  While  Japan  was  impoverished  by  the  great  drain  on  its  re- 
sources, the  soldiers  abroad  ruthlessly  desolated  the  homes  and  need- 
lessly ravaged  the  land  of  the  Coreans.  While  the  Japanese  were  de- 
stroying the  liberties  of  the  Coreans,  the  poor  natives  at  home  often 
pawned  or  sold  themselves  as  slaves  to  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese 
slave-traders.  The  sacrifice  of  life  on  either  side  must  have  been 
great,  and  all  for  the  ambition  of  one  man.  Nevertheless,  a  party  in 
Japan  has  long  held  that  Corea  was,  by  the  conquests  of  the  third 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  a  part  of  the  Japanese  empire,  and  the  reader 
will  see  how  in  1872,  and  again  in  1875,  the  cry  of  "On  to  Corea!" 
shook  the  nation  like  an  earthquake. 

The  taiko  died  on  the  15th  of  September,  1598.  Before  his  death, 
he  settled  the  form  of  government,  and  married  his  son  Hideyori,  then 
six  years  old,  to  the  granddaughter  of  lyeyasu,  and  appointed  five 
tairo,  or  ministers,  who  were  to  be  guardians  of  the  boy,  and  to  ac- 


HIDEYOSIirS  ENTERPRISES.— INVASION  OF  COREA. 


245 


knowledge  him  as  his  fatlier's  successor.  As  lyeyasu  was  the  rising 
man,  the  taiko  hoped  thus  to  gain  his  influence,  so  that  the  power 
might  descend  in  his  own  family.  The  last  thoughts  of  the  hero 
were  of  strengthening  the  citadel  at  Ozaka.  The  old  hero  was  buried 
in  the  grounds  of  Kodaiji,  in  Kioto. 

The  victorious  army,  returning  from  Corea,  brought  much  spoil, 
and  fine  timber  to  build  a  memorial  temple  to  the  memory  of  the 
dead  hero.  Among  other  trophies  were  several  thousands  of  ears, 
which,  instead  of  heads,  the  Japanese  carried  back  to  raise  a  barrow  in 
Kioto.  The  temple  was  erected  on  a  hill  on  the  west  side  of  Kidto 
by  his  wife,  who,  after  the  death  of  her  husband,  became  a  nun.  This 
splendid  edifice  was  afterward  burned,  and  the  site  of  the  taiko's  re- 
mains is  uncertain. 


Mimidzuka   (Ear  Monument),  in  Kioto.    (From  a  photograph.) 

In  the  city  still  stands  the  Mimidzuka  (ear-tomb),  a  monument  of 
characteristic  appearance.  It  consists  of  a  cube,  sphere,  and  pagoda- 
curve,  surmounted  by  two  spheroids,  the  top-stone  rising  to  a  point. 
The  mound  is  seven  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  circumference,  and 
ninety  feet  in  height ;  the  pedestal  at  the  top  being  tAvelve  feet  square, 
and  the  monument  twelve  feet  high.  As  usual  on  Buddhist  tombs  or 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  a  Sanskrit  letter  is  carved  on  each  side  of  the 
four  faces  of  the  cube.  Beneath  this  tomb  is  a  barrow,  covering  the 
dissevered  ears  of  thousands  of  Coreans ;  but  the  most  enduring  monu- 
ments of  the  great  taiko  were  the  political  institutions,  and  the  works 
of  peace  reared  by  his  genius  and  labor. 


246  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  account  for  the  tone  of  admiration  and  pride 
with  which  a  modern  Japanese  speaks  of  "  the  age  of  Taiko."  There 
are  many  who  hold  that  he  was  the  real  unifier  of  the  empire,  and 
that  lyeyasu  merely  followed  in  his  footsteps,  perfecting  the  work 
which  Hideyoshi  began.  Certain  it  is  that  in  many  of  the  most 
striking  forms  of  national  administration,  and  notably  in  bestowing 
upon  his  vassals  grants  of  land,  and  making  the  conditions  of  tenure 
loyalty  to  himself  and  family,  lyeyasu  was  but  the  copyist  of  the 
taiko.  In  his  time,  the  arts  and  sciences  were  not  only  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition,  but  gave  promise  of  rich  development.  The 
spirit  of  military  enterprise  and  internal  national  improvement  was  at 
its  height.  Contact  with  the  foreigners  of  many  nations  awoke  a 
spirit  of  inquiry  and  intellectual  activity ;  but  it  was  on  the  seas  that 
genius  and  restless  activity  found  their  most  congenial  field. 

This  era  is  marked  by  the  highest  perfection  in  marine  architecture, 
and  the  extent  and  variety  of  commercial  enterprises.  The  ships 
built  in  this  century  were  twice  or  thrice  the  size,  and  vastly  the 
superior  in  model,  of  the  junks  that  now  hug  the  Japanese  shores,  or 
ply  between  China  and  Japan.  The  pictures  of  them  preserved  to  the 
present  day  show  that  they  were  superior  in  size  to  the  vessels  of 
Columbus,  and  nearly  equal  in  sailing  qualities  to  the  contemporary 
Dutch  and  Portuguese  galleons.  They  were  provided  with  ordnance, 
and  a  model  of  a  Japanese  breech-loading  cannon  is  still  preserved  in 
Kioto.  Ever  a  brave  and  adventurous  people,  the  Japanese  then 
roamed  the  seas  with  a  freedom  that  one  who  knows  only  of  the 
modern  shore-bound  people  would  scarcely  credit.  Voyages  of  trade, 
discovery,  or  piracy  had  been  made  to  India,  Siam,  Burmah,  the  Phil- 
ippines, Southern  China,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  the  Kuriles,  on 
the  north,  even  in  the  fifteenth  century,  but  were  most  numerous  in 
the  sixteenth.  The  Japanese  gave  the  name  to  the  island  of  Roson 
(Luzon),  and  the  descendants  of  Japanese  pirates  or  traders  are  still  to 
be  found  in  numbers  in  this  archipelago.  In  the  city  of  Ayuthaya, 
on  the  Menam,  in  Siam,  a  flourishing  sea-port,  the  people  call  one  part 
of  the  place  the  "  Japanese  quarter."  The  Japanese  literature  contains 
many  references  to  these  adventurous  sailors ;  and  when  the  records 
of  the  Far  East  are  thoroughly  investigated,  and  this  subject  fully 
studied,  very  interesting  results  will  be  obtained,  showing  the  wide- 
spread influence  of  Japan  at  a  time  when  she  was  scarcely  known  by 
the  European  world  to  have  existence. 


CHBISTIANITT  AND  FOREIGNERS.  247 


XXV. 

CHRISTIANITY  AND  FOREIGNERS* 

It  seems  now  nearly  certain  that  when  Columbus  set  sail  from 
Spain  to  discover  a  new  continent,  it  was  not  America  he  was  seek- 
ing ;  for  of  that  he  knew  nothing.  His  quest  was  the  land  of  Japan. 
Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian  traveler,  had  spent  seventeen  years  (1275- 
1292)  at  the  court  of  the  Tartar  emperor,  Kublai  Khan,  and  while  in 
Peking  had  heard  of  a  land  lying  to  the  eastward  called,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Chinese  capital,  Jipangu,  from  which  our  modern  name, 
Japan,  has  been  corrupted.  Columbus  was  an  ardent  student  of  Polo's 
book,  which  had  been  published  in  1298.  He  sailed  westward  across 
the  Atlantic  to  find  this  kingdom  of  the  sun-source.  He  discovered, 
not  Japan,  but  an  archipelago  in  America,  on  whose  shores  he  eagerly 
inquired  concerning  Jipangu.  The  torch  of  modern  discovery  thus 
kindled  by  him  was  handed  on  by  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  a  host  of 
brave  Portuguese  navigators,  who  drove  their  keels  into  the  once  un- 
known seas  of  the  Orient,  and  came  back  to  tell  of  densely  populated 
empires  enriched  with  the  wealth  that  makes  civilization  possible,  and 
of  which  Europe  had  scarcely  heard.  Their  accounts  fired  the  hearts 
of  the  zealous  who  longed  to  convert  the  heathen,  aroused  the  cupidity 
of  traders  who  thirsted  for  gold,  and  kindled  the  desire  of  monarchs  to 
found  empires  in  Asia. 

As  the  Spaniards  had  founded  an  empire  in  America,  Portugal  was 
then  nearing  the  zenith  of  her  maritime  glory.  Mendez  Pinto,  a  Por- 
tuguese adventurer,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  European  who  landed 
on  Japanese  soil.  On  his  return  to  Europe,  he  told  so  many  wonder 
ful  stories  that  he  was  dubbed,  by  a  pun  on  his  Christian  name,  "  the 

*  In  compiling  this  chapter,  I  have  made  use  of  Hildreth's  "Japan  as  it  Was 
and  Is;"  Leon  Pag&'  "  Ilistoire  de  la  Religion  Chretienne  au  Japon;"  Char- 
levoix's "Histoiredu  ChristianismeauJapon;"  Dixon's  "Japan;"  ^'■Shimdbara:  A 
Japanese  Account  of  the  Christian  Insurrection  in  1637;"  the  Japanese  Encyclo- 
paedia, San  Sai  Dzu  Ye ;  and  the  able  paper  of  Herr  Von  Brandt  (Minister  of  the 
North  German  Confederation  in  Japan)  read  before  the  German  Asiatic  Society 
of  Japan. 


248  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

mendacious."  His  narrative  was,  however,  as  we  now  know,  substan- 
tially correct.  Pinto,  while  in  China,  had  got  on  board  a  Chinese 
junk,  commanded  by  a  pirate.  They  were  attacked  by  another  cor- 
sair, their  pilot  was  killed,  and  the  vessel  was  driven  off  the  coast  by 
a  storm.  They  made  for  the  Liu  Kiu  Islands ;  but,  unable  to  find  a 
harbor,  put  to  sea,  and  after  twenty-three  days  beating  about,  sighted 
the  island  of  Tane  {Tanegashima^  island  of  the  seed),  off  the  south  of 
Kiushiu,  and  landed.  The  name  of  the  island  was  significant.  The 
arrival  of  those  foreigners  was  the  seed  of  troubles  innumerable.  The 
crop  was  priestcraft  of  the  worst  type,  political  intrigue,  religious  per- 
secution, the  Inquisition,  the  slave-trade,  the  propagation  of  Christian- 
ity by  the  sword,  sedition,  rebellion,  and  civil  war.  Its  harvest  was 
garnered  in  the  blood  of  sixty  thousand  Japanese. 

The  native  histories  recount  the  first  arrival  of  Europeans  on  Tane- 
gashima  in  1542,  and  note  that  year  as  the  one  in  which  fire-arms 
were  first  introduced.  Pinto  and  his  two  companions  were  armed 
with  arquebuses,  which  delighted  this  people,  ever  ready  to  accept 
whatever  will  tend  to  their  advantage.  They  were  even  more  im- 
pressed with  the  novel  weapons  than  by  the  strangers.  Pinto  was  in- 
vited by  the  Daimio  of  Bungo  to  visit  him,  which  he  did.  The  na- 
tives began  immediately  to  make  guns  and  powder,  the  secret  of  which 
was  taught  them  by  their  visitors.  In  a  few  years,  as  we  know  from 
Japanese  history,  fire-arms  came  into  general  use.  To  this  day  many 
country  people  call  them  "  Tanegashima."  Thus,  in  the  beginning, 
hand-in-hand  came  foreigners,  Christianity,  and  fire-arms.  To  many  a 
native  they  are  still  each  and  equal  members  of  a  trinity  of  terrors,  and 
one  is  a  synonym  of  the  other,  Christianity  to  most  of  "the  heathen" 
still  means  big  guns  and  powder. 

In  those  days  commerce  and  piracy,  war  and  religion,  were  closely 
united ;  and  the  sword  and  the  cross  were  twin  weapons,  like  the  cime- 
ter  and  the  Koran  of  the  Turks,  by  which  the  pious  robbers  of  the 
most  Christian  empires  of  Spain  and  Portugal  went  forth  to  conquer 
weak  nations. 

The  pirate-trader  who  brought  Pinto  to  Japan  cleared  twelve  hun- 
dred per  cent,  on  his  cargo,  and  the  three  Portuguese  returned,  loaded 
with  presents,  to  China.  This  new  market  attracted  hundreds  of  Por- 
tuguese adventurers  to  Japan,  who  found  a  ready  welcome  at  the  hands 
of  the  impressible  people.  The  daimios  vied  with  each  other  in  at- 
tracting the  foreigners  to  their  shores,  their  object  being  to  obtain  the 
weapons,  and  get  the  wealth  which  would  increase  their  power,  as  the 


CHRISTIANITY  AND   FOREIGNEBS.  249 

authority  of  the  Ashikaga  shoguns  had  before  this  time  been  cast  off, 
and  each  chief  was  striving  for  local  supremacy. 

The  missionary  followed  the  merchant.  Already  the  Portuguese 
priests  and  Franciscan  friars  were  numerous  in  India  and  the  straits. 
A  native  of  Satsuma  named  Anjiro,  who,  having  killed  a  man,  had 
fled  to  Pinto's  boat,  and  was  carried  off  by  him,  after  the  long  suffer- 
ings of  remorse  reached  Goa,  becoming  a  convert  to  Christianity. 
Learning  to  read  and  write  Portuguese,  and  having  mastered  the  whole 
Christian  doctrine,  he  became  Xavier's  interpreter.  To  the  question 
whether  the  Japanese  would  be  likely  to  accept  Christianity,  Anjiro 
answered — in  words  that  seem  fresh,  pertinent,  and  to  have  been  ut- 
tered but  yesterday,  so  true  are  they  still — that  "  his  people  would  not 
immediately  assent  to  what  might  be  said  to  them,  but  they  would 
investigate  what  I  might  affirm  respecting  religion  by  a  multitude  of 
questions,  and,  above  all,  by  observing  whether  my  conduct  agreed  with 
my  words.  This  done,  the  king  (daimio),  the  nobility,  and  adult  pop- 
ulation would  flock  to  Christ,  being  a  nation  A\hich  always  follows  rea- 
son as  a  guide."     The  words  are  recorded  by  Xavier  himself. 

In  1549,  the  party  of  two  Jesuits  and  two  Japanese  landed  at  Ka- 
goshima,  in  Satsuma.  Xavier,  after  studying  the  rudiments  of  the  lan- 
guage, beyond  -which  he  never  advanced,  and  making  diligent  use  of 
the  pictures  of  the  Virgin  and  Child,  soon  left  the  capital  of  this  war- 
like clan,  for  the  city  had  not  been  favored  with  the  commerce  of  the 
Portuguese ;  and,  as  the  missionaries  had  not  come  to  improve  the 
material  resources  of  the  province,  they  were  not  warmly  welcomed. 
He  then  went  to  Bungo  and  Nagato.  Besides  having  an  interpreter, 
though  unable  to  preach,  he  used  to  read  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  trans- 
lated by  Anjiro  into  Japanese,  and  Romanized.  Though  unable  to 
understand  much  of  it,  he  read  it  in  public  with  great  effect.  There 
trade  was  flourishing  and  enriching  the  daimios,  and  he  was  warmly 
received  by  them.  His  next  step  was  a  journey  to  Kioto.  There,  in- 
stead of  the  extraordinary  richness  of  the  sovereign's  palace,  which  he 
had  expected  to  see  plated  with  gold  on  the  roofs  and  ceilings,  with 
tables  of  the  same  metal,  and  all  the  other  wonders  as  related  by  Mar- 
co Polo,  he  found  it  but  a  city  which  wars  and  fires  had  rendered  des- 
olate, and  almost  uninhabitable,  except  as  a  camp.  Here  he  employed 
the  policy  of  austerity  and  poverty,  his  appearance  being  that  of  a  beg- 
gar, though  later  he  used  wealth  and  great  display  in  his  ministrations, 
with  marked  effect.  The  mikado's  (dairi)  authority,  he  found,  was 
merely  nominal ;  the  shogun,  Ashikaga  Yoshiteru,  ruled  only  over  a 


250  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

few  provinces  around  tlie  capital.  Every  one's  thoughts  were  of  war, 
and  battle  was  imminent.  The  very  idea  of  an  interview  with  the  mi- 
kado was  an  absurdity,  and  one  with  the  Kubo  sama  (shogun)  an  im- 
possibility, his  temporary  poverty  not  permitting  him  to  make  a  pres- 
ent effectively  large  enough  for  the  latter,  and  rendering  him  con- 
temptible in  the  eyes  of  the  people.  He  attempted  to  preach  several 
times  in  the  streets,  but,  not  being  master  of  the  language,  failed  to  se- 
cure attention,  and  after  two  weeks  left  the  city  disgusted.  Not  long 
after,  having  turned  his  attention  to  the  furtherance  of  trade  and  di- 
plomacy, he  departed  from  Japan,  disheartened  by  the  realities  of  mis- 
sionary work.  He  had,  however,  inspired  others,  who  followed  him, 
and  their  success  was  amazinglj^  great.  Within  five  years  after  Xavier 
visited  Ki5to,  seven  churches  were  established  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
city  itself,  while  scores  of  Christian  communities  had  sprung  up  in  the 
south-west.  In  1581,  there  were  two  hundred  churches,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  native  Christians.  In  Bungo,  where  Xavier 
won  his  way  by  costly  gifts,  as  he  did  in  Suwo  by  diplomacy ;  in  Hari- 
ma  and  Omura,  the  daimios  themselves  had  professed  the  new  faith, 
while  Nobunaga,  the  hater  of  the  Buddhists,  openly  favored  the  Chris- 
tians, and  gave  them  eligible  sites  upon  which  to  build  dwellings  and 
churches.  Ready  to  use  any  weapons  against  the  bonzes,  Nobunaga 
hoped  to  use  the  foreigners  as  a  counterpoise  to  their  arrogance. 

In  1583,  an  embassy  of  four  young  noblemen  was  dispatched  by 
the  Christian  daimios  of  Kiushiu  to  the  pope,  to  declare  themselves 
vassals  of  the  Holy  See.  Eight  years  afterward,  having  had  audience 
of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  kissed  the  feet  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  they 
returned,  bringing  with  them  seventeen  Jesuit  missionaries — an  im- 
portant addition  to  the  many  Portuguese  religious  of  that  order  al- 
ready in  Japan.  Spanish  mendicant  friars  from  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands, with  Dominicans  and  Augustans,  also  flocked  into  the  country, 
preaching  and  zealously  proselyting.  The  number  of  "  Christians  "  at 
the  time  of  the  highest  success  of  the  missionaries  in  Japan  was,  ac- 
cording to  their  own  figures,  six  hundred  thousand — a  number  which 
I  believe  is  no  exaggeration,  the  quantity,  not  quality,  being  consid- 
ered. The  Japanese,  less  accurately,  set  down  a  total  of  two  million 
nominal  adherents  to  the  Christian  sects,  large  numerical  statements 
in  Japanese  books  being  untrustworthy,  and  often  worthless.  Among 
their  converts  were  several  princes,  and  large  numbers  of  lords  and 
gentlemen  in  high  oiBcial  position,  generals  and  captains  in  the  army, 
and  the  admiral  and  officers  of  the  Japanese  fleets.     Several  of  the  la- 


CHRIHTIANITT  AND  FOREIGNERS.  251 

dies  of  the  liouseholds  of  Hidejoshi,  Hideyori,  and  lyeyasu,  besides 
influential  women  of  noble  blood  in  many  provinces  whose  rulers  were 
not  Christians,  added  to  their  power,  while  at  the  seat  of  government 
the  chief  interpreter  was  a  Jesuit  father.  Churches,  chapels,  and  resi- 
dences of  the  fathers  were  numbered  by  thousands,  and  in  some  prov- 
inces crosses  and  Christian  shrines  were  as  numerous  as  the  kindred 
evidences  of  Buddhism  had  been  before.  The  fathers  and  friars  had 
traveled  or  preached  from  one  end  of  the  western  half  of  Hondo  to 
the  other;  northward  in  Echizen,  Kaga,  Echigo,  and  Oshiu,  and  in 
the  provinces  of  the  Tokaido.     They  had  also  one  church  in  Yedo. 

The  causes  of  this  astonishingly  rapid  success  of  the  Jesuits  are  to  be 
sought  in  the  mental  soil  which  the  missionaries  found  ready  prepared 
for  their  seed.  It  was  in  the  later  days  of  the  Ashikaga,  when  Xavier 
arrived  in  Japan.  Centuries  of  misrule  and  anarchy  had  reduced  the 
people,  on  whom  the  burdens  of  war  fell,  to  the  lowest  depths  of  pov- 
erty and  misery.  The  native  religions  then  afforded  little  comfort  or 
consolation  to  their  adherents.  Shinto  had  sunk  to  a  myth  almost 
utterly  unknown  to  the  people,  and  so  overshadowed  by  Buddhism 
that  only  a  few  scholars  knew  its  origin.  Buddhism,  having  lost  itfi 
vitalizing  power,  had  degenerated  into  a  commercial  system  of  prayers 
and  masses,  in  which  salvation  could  be  purchased  only  by  the  merit 
of  the  deeds  and  prayers  of  the  priests.  Nevertheless,  its  material  and 
outward  splendor  were  never  greater.  Gorgeous  vestments,  blazing 
lights,  imposing  processions,  altars  of  dazzling  magnificence,  and  a 
sensuous  worship  captivated  the  minds  of  the  people,  while  indulgences 
were  sold,  and  saints'  days  and  holidays  and  festivals  were  multiplied. 

The  Japanese  are  an  intensely  imaginative  people ;  and  whatever 
appeals  to  the  aesthetics  of  sense,  or  fires  the  imagination,  leads  the 
masses  captive  at  the  will  of  their  religious  leaders.  The  priests  of 
Rome  came  with  crucifixes  in  their  hands,  eloquence  on  their  lips,  and 
with  rich  dresses,  impressive  ceremonies,  processions,  and  mysteries 
out-dazzled  the  scenic  display  of  the  Buddhists.  They  brought  pict- 
ures, gilt  crosses,  and  images,  and  erected  gorgeous  altars,  which  they 
used  as  illuminated  texts  for  their  sermons.  They  preached  the  doc- 
trine of  an  immediate  entrance  into  paradise  after  death  to  all  be- 
lievers, a  doctrine  which  thrilled  their  hearers  to  an  uncontrollable 
pitch  of  enthusiasm.  Buddhism  promises  rest  in  heaven  only  after 
many  transformations,  births,  and  the  repeated  miseries  of  life  and 
death,  the  very  thought  of  which  wearies  the  soul.  The  story  of  the 
Cross,  made  vivid  by  fervid  eloquence,  tears,  and  harrowing  pictures 


252  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

and  colored  images,  which  bridged  the  gulf  of  remoteness,  and  made 
the  act  of  Calvary  near  and  intensely  real,  melted  the  hearts  of  the 
impressible  natives.  Furthermore,  the  transition  from  the  religion  of 
India  to  that  of  Rome  was  extremely  easy.  The  very  idols  of  Buddha 
served,  after  a  little  alteration  with  the  chisel,  for  images  of  Christ. 
The  Buddhist  saints  were  easily  transformed  into  the  Twelve  Apostles. 
The  Cross  took  the  place  of  the  torii.  It  was  emblazoned  on  the  hel- 
mets and  banners  of  the  warriors,  and  embroidered  on  their  breasts. 
The  Japanese  soldiers  went  forth  to  battle  like  Christian  crusaders. 
In  the  roadside  shrine  Kuanon,  the  Goddess  of  Mercy,  made  way  for 
the  Virgin,  the  mother  of  God.  Buddhism  was  beaten  with  its  own 
weapons.  Its  own  artillery  was  turned  against  it.  Nearly  all  the 
Christian  churches  were  native  temples,  sprinkled  and  purified.  The 
same  bell,  whose  boom  had  so  often  quivered  the  air  announcing  the 
orisons  and  matins  of  paganism,  was  again  blessed  and  sprinkled,  and 
called  the  same  hearers  to  mass  and  confession ;  the  same  lavatory 
that  fronted  the  temple  served  for  holy-water  or  baptismal  font ;  the 
same  censer  that  swung  before  Amida  could  be  refilled  to  waft  Chris- 
tian incense ;  the  new  convert  could  use  unchanged  his  old  beads, 
bells,  candles,  incense,  and  all  the  paraphernalia  of  his  old  faith  in 
celebration  of  the  new. 

Almost  every  thing  that  is  distinctive  in  the  Roman  form  of  Chris- 
tianity is  to  be  found  in  Buddhism :  images,  pictures,  lights,  altars, 
incense,  vestments,  masses,  beads,  wayside  shrines,  monasteries,  nun- 
neries, celibacy,  fastings,  vigils,  retreats,  pilgrimages,  mendicant  vows, 
shorn  heads,  orders,  habits,  uniforms,  nuns,  convents,  purgatory,  saint- 
ly and  priestly  intercession,  indulgences,  works  of  supererogation, 
pope,  archbishops,  abbots,  abbesses,  monks,  neophytes,  relics  and  relic- 
worship,  exclusive  burial-ground,  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

The  methods  which  the  foreign  priests  employed  to  propagate  the 
new  faith  were  not  such  as  commend  themselves  to  a  candid  mind. 
The  first  act  of  propagation  was  an  act  of  Mariolatry.  They  brought 
with  them  the  spirit  of  the  Inquisition,  then  in  full  blast  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  which  they  had  used  there  for  the  reclamation  of  native  and 
Dutch  heretics.  In  Japan  they  began  to  attack  most  violently  the 
character  of  the  native  bonzes,  and  to  incite  their  converts  to  insult 
the  gods,  destroy  the  idols,  and  burn  or  desecrate  the  old  shrines. 
They  made  plentiful  use  of  the  gold  furnished  liberally  by  the  kings 
of  Portugal  and  Spain,  under  the  name  of  "  alms."  In  two  years  and 
a  half  Xavier  received  one  thousand  doubloons  (fifteen  thousand  dol- 


CHEISTIANITT  AND  FOREIGNERS.  253 

lars)  for  the  support  of  his  mission.  This  abundance  of  the  foreign 
precious  metal  was  noticed  especially  by  the  native  rulers.  In  Kiu- 
shiu  the  dairaios  themselves  became  Christians,  and  they  compelled 
their  subjects  to  embrace  their  religion.  The  people  of  whole  districts 
of  country  were  ordered  to  become  Christians,  or  to  leave  their  land 
and  the  homes  of  their  fathers,  and  go  into  banishment.  The  bonzes 
were  exiled  or  killed ;  and  fire  and  sword,  as  well  as  preaching,  were 
employed  as  instruments  of  conversion.  Furthermore,  fictitious  mira- 
cles were  frequently  got  up  to  utilize  the  credulity  of  the  superstitious 
in  furthering  the  spread  of  the  faith,  glowing  accounts  of  which  may 
be  found  in  Leon  Pages'  "  Histoire  de  la  R.  C."  Not  only  do  the  na- 
tive Japanese  writers  record  these  things  as  simple  matter  of  fact,  but 
the  letters  of  the  Jesuits  themselves,  and  the  books  written  by  them, 
teem  with  instances  of  ferocious  cruelty  and  pious  fraud  wrought  in 
their  behalf,  or  at  their  instigation.  The  following  passages  from  the 
Jesuit  Charlevoix's  "  Histoire  du  Christianisme  au  Japon "  are  trans- 
lated by  Dr.  Walter  Dixon  in  his  "  Japan :"  "  Sumitanda,  King  of 
Omura,  who  had  become  a  Christian  in  1562,  declared  open  war 
against  the  devils  [bonzes].  He  dispatched  some  squadrons  through 
his  kingdom  to  ruin  all  the  idols  and  temples  without  any  regard  to 
the  bonzes'  rage."....  "In  1577,  the  lord  of  the  island  of  Ama- 
cusa  [Amakusa]  issued  his  proclamation,  by  which  his  subjects — 
whether  bonzes  or  gentlemen,  merchants  or  tradesmen — were  required 
either  to  turn  Christians,  or  to  leave  the  country  the  very  next  day. 
Tliey  almost  all  submitted,  and  received  baptism,  so  that  in  a  short 
time  there  were  more  than  twenty  churches  in  the  kingdom.  God 
wrought  miracles  to  confirm  the  faithful  in  their  belief."  The  Daimi5 
of  Takatsuki,  Settsu,  "  labored  with  a  zeal  truly  apostolic  to  extirpate 
the  idolaters  out  of  his  states.  He  sent  word  that  they  should  either 
receive  the  faith,  or  be  gone  immediately  out  of  his  country,  for  he 
would  acknowledge  none  for  his  subjects  but  such  as  acknowledged 
the  true  God.  The  declaration  obliged  them  all  to  accept  instruction, 
which  cut  out  work  enough  for  all  the  fathers  and  missionaries  at 
Meaco  [Miako]." 

The  Daimio  of  Bungo  at  one  time,  during  war,  destroyed  a  most 
prodigious  and  magnificent  temple,  wdth  a  colossal  statue,  burning 
three  thousand  monasteries  to  ashes,  and  razing  the  temples  to  the 
ground.  The  comment  of  the  Jesuit  writer  on  this  is,  "This  ardent 
zeal  of  the  prince  is  an  evident  instance  of  his  faith  and  charity." 
This  does  not,  however,  sound  like  an  echo  of  the  song  once  heard 

17 


254  THE  MIKADO'S  EMTIRE. 

above  the  Bethlehem  hills,  few  echoes  of  which  the  Japanese  have  as 
yet  heard. 

As  the  different  orders,  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  and  Augustinians,  in- 
creased, they  began  to  trench  upon  each  other's  parishes.  This  gave 
rise  to  quarrels,  indecent  squabbles,  and  mutual  vituperation,  at  which 
the  pagans  sneered  and  the  bonzes  rejoiced.  While  the  friars  of 
these  orders  were  rigorously  excommunicating  each  other,  thinking 
heathen  were  not  favorably  impressed  with  the  new  religion.  Chris- 
tianity received  her  sorest  wound  in  the  house  of  her  friends. 

At  this  time,  also,  political  and  religious  war  was  almost  universal 
in  Europe,  and  the  quarrels  of  the  various  nationalities  followed  the 
buccaneers,  pirates,  traders,  and  missionaries  to  the  distant  seas  of 
Japan.  The  Protestant,  Dutch,  and  English  stirred  up  the  hatred 
and  fear  of  the  Japanese  against  the  papists,  and  finally  against  each 
other.  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  blackened  the  character  of  the  here- 
tics, and  as  vigorously  abused  each  other  when  it  served  their  interest. 
All  of  which  impelled  the  shrewd  Japanese  to  contrive  how  to  use 
them  one  against  the  other,  an  art  which  they  still  understand.  All 
foreigners,  but  especially  Portuguese,  then  were  slave-traders,  and 
thousands  of  Japanese  were  bought  and  sold  and  shipped  to  Macao, 
in  China,  and  to  the  Philippines.  The  long  civil  wars,  and  the  misery 
caused  by  them,  and  the  expedition  to  Corea,  had  so  impoverished  the 
people  that  slaves  became  so  cheap  that  even  the  Malay  and  negro 
servants  of  the  Portuguese,  speculated  in  the  bodies  of  Japanese  slaves 
who  were  bought  and  sold  and  transported.  Hideyoshi  repeatedly 
issued  decrees  threatening  with  death  these  slave-traders,  and  even  the 
purchasers.  The  sea-ports  of  Hirado  and  Nagasaki  were  the  resort 
of  the  lowest  class  of  adventurers  from  all  European  nations,  and  the 
result  was  a  continual  series  of  uproars,  broils,  and  murders  among 
the  foreigners,  requiring  ever  and  anon  the  intervention  of  the  native 
authorities  to  keep  the  peace.  To  the  everlasting  honor  of  some  of 
the  Jesuit  bishops  and  priests  be  it  said,  they  endeavored  to  do  all 
they  could  to  prevent  the  traffic  in  the  bodies  of  men. 

Such  a  picture  of  foreign  influence  and  of  Christianity,  which  is 
here  drawn  in  mild  colors,  as  the  Japanese  saw  it,  was  not  calculated 
to  make  a  permanently  favorable  impression  on  the  Japanese  mind. 

While  Nobunaga  lived,  and  the  Jesuits  basked  in  his  favor,  all  was 
progress  and  victory.  Hideyoshi,  though  at  first  favorable  to  the  new 
religion,  issued,  in  1587,  a  decree  of  banishment  against  the  foreign 
missionaries.     The  Jesuits  closed  their  churches  and  chapels,  ceased 


CHRISTIANITY  AXD  FOREIONEES.  255 

to  preach  in  public,  but  carried  on  their  proselyting  work  in  private 
as  vigorously  as  ever,  averaging  ten  thousand  converts  a.  year,  until 
1590.  The  Spanish  mendicant  friars,  pouring  in  from  the  Philippines, 
openly  defied  the  Japanese  laws,  preaching  in  their  usual  garb  in  pub- 
lic, and  in  their  intemperate  language.  This  aroused  Hideyoshi's 
attention,  and  his  decree  of  expulsion  was  renewed.  Some  of  the 
churches  were  burned.  In  1596,  six  Franciscan,  three  Jesuit,  and  sev- 
enteen Japanese  converts  were  taken  to  Nagasaki,  and  there  crucified. 
Still  the  Jesuits  resided  in  the  country,  giving  out  to  the  people  that 
the  Spaniards  nourished  the  political  designs  against  Japan,  and  that 
the  decrees  of  expulsion  had  been  directed  against  the  priests  of  that 
nation,  and  that  the  late  outburst  of  persecution  was  an  explosion  of 
zeal  on  the  part  of  a  few  subordinate  officials.  Several  of  the  gener- 
als of  the  army  in  Corea  still  openly  professed  the  Christian  faith. 

When  the  taiko  died,  affaire  seemed  to  take  a  more  favorable  turn, 
but  only  for  a  few  years.  The  Christians  looked  to  Hideyori  for 
their  friend  and  quasi-leader.  The  battle  of  Sekigahara,  and  the  de- 
feat of  Hideyori's  following,  blew  their  hopes  to  the  winds ;  and  the 
ignominious  death  of  Ishida,  Konishi,  and  Otani,  the  Christian  gener- 
als who  had  witnessed  a  good  confession  both  as  warriors  and  as  up- 
holders of  the  faith  in  Corea  and  at  home,  drove  their  adherents  to 
the  verge  of  despair.  lyeyasu  re-adjusted  the  feudal  relations  of  his 
vassals  in  Kiushiu ;  and  as  the  taiko  had  also  re-arranged  the  fiefs,  the 
political  status  of  the  Christians  was  profoundly  altered.  The  new 
daimids,  carrying  the  policy  of  their  predecessors  as  taught  them  by 
the  Jesuits,  but  reversing  its  direction,  began  to  persecute  their  Chris- 
tian subjects,  and  to  compel  them  to  renounce  their  faith.  The  native 
converts  resisted  even  to  blood  and  the  taking-up  of  arms.  This  was 
an  entirely  new  thing  under  the  Japanese  sun.  Hitherto  the  attitude 
of  the  peasantry  to  the  Government  had  been  one  of  passive  obedi- 
ence and  slavish  submission.  The  idea  of  armed  rebellion  among  the 
farmers  was  something  so  wholly  new  that  lyeyasu  suspected  foreign 
instigation.  Color  was  given  to  this  idea  by  the  fact  that  the  foreign- 
ers still  secretly  or  openly  paid  court  to  Hideyori,  and  at  the  same 
time  freely  dispersed  gold  and  gifts,  in  addition  to  religious  comfort, 
to  the  persecuted.  lyeyasu  became  more  vigilant  as  his  suspicions  in- 
creased, and,  resolving  to  crush  this  spirit  of  independence  and  intimi- 
date the  foreign  emissaries,  met  every  outbreak  with  bloody  reprisals. 
In  1606,  an  edict  from  Yedo  forbade  the  exercise  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, but  an  outward  show  of  obedience  warded  off  active  persecu- 


256  TEE  MIKADO'S  EJilPIRE. 

tion.  In  1610,  the  Spanisli  friars  again  aroused  the  wrath  of  the  Gov- 
ernment by  defying  its  commands,  and  exhorting  the  native  converts 
to  do  likewise.  In  1611,  lyeyasu  obtained  documentary  proof  of 
what  he  had  long  suspected,  viz.,  the  existence  of  a  plot  on  the  part  of 
the  native  converts  and  the  foreign  emissaries  to  reduce  Japan  to  the 
position  of  a  subject  state.  The  chief  conspirator,  Okubo,  then  Gov- 
ernor of  Sado,  to  which  place  thousands  of  Christian  exiles  had  been 
sent  to  work  the  mines,  was  to  be  made  hereditary  ruler  by  the  for- 
eigners. The  names  of  the  chief  native  and  foreign  conspirators  were 
written  down,  with  the  usual  seal  of  blood  from  the  end  of  the  middle 
finger  of  the  ringleader.  With  this  paper  was  found  concealed,  in  an 
iron  box  in  an  old  well,  a  vast  hoard  of  gold  and  silver. 

lyeyasu  now  put  forth  strenuous  measures  to  root  out  utterly  what 
he  believed  to  be  a  pestilent  breeder  of  sedition  and  war.  Fresh  edicts 
were  issued,  and  in  1614  twenty -two  Franciscan,  Dominican,  and  Au- 
gustinian  friars,  one  hundred  and  seventeen  Jesuits,  and  hundreds  of 
native  priests  and  catechists,  were  embarked  by  force  on  board  junks, 
and  sent  out  of  the  country. 

In  1615,  lyeyasii  pushed  matters  to  an  extreme  with  Hideyori,  who 
was  then  entertaining  some  Jesuit  priests ;  and,  calling  out  the  troops 
of  Kiushiu  and  the  Kuantd,  laid  siege  to  the  castle  of  Ozaka.  A  bat- 
tle of  unusual  ferocity  and  bloody  slaughter  raged,  on  the  9th  of  June, 
1615,  ending  in  the  burning  of  the  citadel,  and  the  total  defeat  and 
death  of  Hideyori  and  thousands  of  his  followers.  The  Jesuit  fathers 
say  that  one  hundred  thousand  men  perished  in  this  brief  war,  of 
which  vivid  details  are  given  in  the  "  Histoire  de  la  Religion  Chretienne." 
The  Christian  cause  was  now  politically  and  irretrievably  ruined.  Hil- 
dredth  remarks  that  Catholicism  in  Japan  "  received  its  death-blow  in 
that  same  year  in  which  a  few  Puritan  pilgrims  landed  at  Plymouth 
to  plant  the  obscure  seeds  of  a  new  and  still  growing  Protestant  em- 
pire." 

The  exiled  foreign  friars,  however,  kept  secretly  returning,  apparent- 
ly desirous  of  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  Hidetada,  the  shogun,  now 
pronounced  sentence  of  death  against  any  foreign  priest  found  in  the 
country.  lyemitsu,  his  successor,  restricted  all  foreign  commerce  to 
Nagasaki  and  Hirado ;  all  Japanese  were  forbidden  to  leave  the  coun- 
try on  pain  of  death;  and  in  1624  all  foreigners,  except  Dutch  and 
Chinese,  were  banished  from  Japan,  and  an  edict  was  issued  command- 
ing the  destruction  of  all  vessels  beyond  a  certain  diminutive  size,  and 
restricting  the  universal  model  in  ship-building  to  that  of  the  coasting 


CHRISTIANITY  AND  FOREIGNERS.  257 

junk.  Fresh  persecutions  followed,  many  apostate  lords  and  gentry 
now  favoring  the  Government.  Fire  and  sword  were  used  to  extir- 
pate Christianity,  and  to  paganize  the  same  people  who  in  their  youth 
were  Christianized  by  the  same  means.  Thousands  of  the  native  con- 
verts fled  to  China,  Formosa,  and  the  Philippines.  All  over  the  em- 
pire, but  especially  at  Ozaka  and  in  Kiushiu,  the  people  were  com- 
pelled to  trample  on  the  cross,  or  on  a  copper  plate  engraved  with  the 
representation  of  "  the  Christian  criminal  God."  The  Christians  suf- 
fered all  sorts  of  persecutions.  They  were  wrapped  in  straw  sacks, 
piled  in  heaps  of  living  fuel,  and  set  on  fire.  All  the  tortures  that 
barbaric  hatred  or  refined  cruelty  could  invent  were  used  to  turn  thou- 
sands of  their  fellow-men  into  carcasses  and  ashes.  Yet  few  of  the 
natives  quailed,  or  renounced  their  faith.  They  calmly  let  the  fire  of 
wood  cleft  from  the  crosses  before  which  they  once  prayed  consume 
them,  or  walked  cheerfully  to  the  blood-pit,  or  were  flung  alive  into 
the  open  grave  about  to  be  filled  up.  Mothers  carried  their  babes  at 
their  bosoms,  or  their  children  in  their  arms  to  the  fire,  the  sword,  or 
the  precipice's  edge,  rather  than  leave  them  behind  to  be  educated  in 
the  pagan  faith.  If  any  one  doubt  the  sincerity  and  fervor  of  the 
Christian  converts  of  to-day,  or  the  ability  of  the  Japanese  to  accept  a 
higher  form  of  faith,  or  their  willingness  to  suffer  for  what  they  be- 
lieve, they  have  but  to  read  the  accounts  preserved  in  English,  Dutch, 
French,  Latin,  and  Japanese,  of  various  witnesses  to  the  fortitude  of 
the  Japanese  Christians  of  the  seventeenth  centmy.  The  annals  of 
the  primitive  Church  furnish  no  instances  of  sacrifice  or  heroic  con- 
stancy, in  the  Coliseum  or  the  Roman  arenas,  that  were  not  paralleled 
on  the  dry  river-beds  and  execution-grounds  of  Japan. 

Finally,  in  1637,  at  Shimabara,  the  Christians  rose  by  tens  of  thou- 
sands in  arms,  seized  an  old  castle,  repaired  and  fortified  it,  and  raised 
the  flag  of  rebellion.  Armies  from  Kiushiu  and  the  Kuanto,  com- 
posed mainly  of  veterans  of  Corea  and  Ozaka,  were  sent  by  the  sho- 
gun  to  besiege  it.  Their  commanders  expected  an  easy  victory,  and 
sneered  at  the  idea  of  having  any  difficulty  in  subduing  these  farmers 
and  peasants.  A  siege  of  two  months,  by  land  and  water,  was,  how- 
ever, necessary  to  reduce  the  fortress.*  Thousands  of  the  rebels, 
were  hurled  from  the  rock  of  Pappenburg,  or  were  banished  to  va- 


*  Dr.  Geerts,  in  the  Chrysanthemum,  Jan.,  1883,  and  in  the  "Transactions  of 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,"  vol.  xi.,  with  original  documents,  vindicates  the 
Dutch  from  the  aspersions  cast  upon  them  by  Tavernier  and  Kaempfer. 


258 


THE  3nK ADO'S  EMPIRE. 


rious  provinces,  or  put  to  death  by  torture.  Others  escaped,  and 
fled  to  the  island  of  Formosa,  joining  their  brethren  ah'eady  there. 
The  edicts  prohibiting  the  "  evil  sect "  vv^ere  now  promulgated  and 
published  permanently  all  over  the  empire,  and  new  ones  commanded 
that,  as  long  as  the  sun  should  shine,  no  foreigners  should  enter  Ja- 
pan, or  natives  leave  it.  The  Dutch  gained  the  privilege  of  a  paltry 
trade  and  residence  on  the  little  fan-shaped  island  of  Deshima  (outer 
island),  in  front  of  Nagasaki.  Here,  under  degrading  restrictions  and 
constant  surveillance,  lived  a  little  company  of  less  than  twenty  Hol- 
landers, who  were  allowed  one  ship  per  annum  to  come  from  the 


"The  Tarpeian  Eock  of  Japan:"  the  Island  of  Pappenberg,  in  Nagasaki  Harbor.    (Now 
used  as  a  picnic  resort.) 

Dutch  East  Indies  and  exchange  commodities  of  Japan  for  those  of 
Holland. 

After  nearly  a  hundred  years  of  Christianity  and  foreign  inter- 
course, the  only  apparent  results  of  this  contact  with  another  religion 
and  civilization  were  the  adoption  of  gunpowder,  and  fire-arms  as 
weapons,  the  use  of  tobacco,  and  the  habit  of  smoking,  the  making 
of  sponge-cake  (still  called  Castira — the  Japanese  form  of  Castile), 
the  naturalization  into  the  language  of  a  few  foreign  words,  the  intro- 
duction of  new  and  strange  forms  of  disease,  among  which  the  Japa- 


CHRISTIANITY  AND  FOREIGNERS.  259 

nese  count  tlie  scourge  of  the  venereal  virus,  and  the  permanent  addi- 
tion to  that  catalogue  of  terrors  which  priest  and  magistrate  in  Asiat- 
ic countries  ever  hold  as  weapons  to  overawe  the  herd.  For  centuries 
the  mention  of  that  name  would  bate  the  breath,  blanch  the  cheek, 
and  smite  with  fear  as  with  an  earthquake  shock.  It  was  the  syno- 
nym of  sorcery,  sedition,  and  all  that  was  hostile  to  the  purity  of  the 
home  and  the  peace  of  society.  All  over  the  empire,  in  every  city, 
town,  village,  and  hamlet ;  by  the  roadside,  ferry,  or  mountain  pass ; 
at  every  entrance  to  the  capital,  stood  the  public  notice-boards,  on 
which,  with  prohibitions  against  the  great  crimes  that  disturb  the 
relations  of  society  and  government,  was  one  tablet,  written  with  a 
deeper  brand  of  guilt,  with  a  more  hideous  memory  of  blood,  with  a 
more  awful  terror  of  torture,  than  when  the  like  superscription  was 
affixed  at  the  top  of  a  cross  that  stood  between  two  thieves  on  a  little 
hill  outside  Jerusalem.  Its  daily  and  familiar  sight  startled  ever  and 
anon  the  peasant  to  clasp  hands  and  utter  a  fresh  prayer,  the  bonze 
to  add  new  venom  to  his  maledictions,  the  magistrate  to  shake  his 
head,  and  to  the  mother  a  ready  word  to  hush  the  crying  of  her  fret- 
ful babe.  That  name  was  Christ.  So  thoroughly  was  Christianity, 
or  the  "JasAm  mon''''  (corrupt  sect),  supposed  to  be  eradicated  before 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  that  its  existence  was  historical, 
remembered  only  as  an  awful  scar  on  the  national  memory.  No  ves- 
tiges were  supposed  to  be  left  of  it,  and  no  knowledge  of  its  tenets 
was  held,  save  by  a  very  few  scholars  in  Yedo,  trained  experts,  who 
were  kept,  as  a  sort  of  spiritual  blood-hounds,  to  scent  out  the  adher- 
ents of  the  accursed  creed. 

So  perfect  was  the  work  done,  that  the  Government  believed  fully, 
as  Europeans,  and  among  them  Mr.  Lecky,  who  uses  the  example  to 
strengthen  his  argument,  that  "  persecution  had  extirpated  Christian- 
ity in  Japan."  It  was  left  to  our  day,  since  the  recent  opening  of 
Japan,  for  them  to  discover  that  a  mighty  fire  had  been  smoldering 
for  over  two  centuries  beneath  the  ashes  of  persecutions.  As  late  as 
1829,  seven  persons,  six  men  and  an  old  woman,  were  crucified  in 
Ozaka,  on  suspicion  of  being  Christians  and  communicating  with  for- 
eigners, AVhen  the  French  brethren  of  the  Mission  Apostolique,  of 
Paris,  came  to  Nagasaki  in  1860,  they  found  in  the  villages  around 
them  over  ten  thousand  people  who  held  the  faith  of  their  fathers  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

A  few  interesting  traces  and  relics  of  the  century  of  Christianity 
and  foreigners  still  exist  in  Japan.     In  the  language  the  names  of 


260 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


God  {Deus),  Holy  Spirit  {Espiritu  Santo),  Jesus  {Yesu),  and  Christ 
(Kirishito)  have  remained.  Castira  is  still  the  name  of  sponge-cake, 
so  universally  used,  and  the  making  of  which  w^as  first  taught  by  the 
men  of  Castile  ;  and  the  Japanese  having  no  I,  change  that  letter  into  r. 
The  Japanese  have  no  word  for  bread  ;  they  use  the  Latin  jmn-  The 
words  taffel  (table),  Dontaku  (Sunday),  cuppu  (cup),  rauda  (lauda- 
num), yerikter  (electricity),  bouton  (button),  hriki  (tin),  and  many  of 
the  names  of  drugs  and  medicines,  and  rare  metals  and  substances, 
terms  in  science,  etc.,  and  even  some  in  common  use,  are  but  the  Jap- 
anized  forms  of  the  Dutch  words.     I  have  seen  "  Weird  Specifica " 


Hollander  ou  Deshiraa  lookiug  for  the  Arrival  of  a  Ship. 

and  "  Voum  Von  Mitter  "  in  large  Roman  letters,  or  in  katagana,  ad- 
vertised on  the  hanging  signs  of  the  drug-shops  in  every  part  of  the 
country  I  have  been  in,  from  Kobe  to  near  Niigata,  and  other  trav- 
elers have  noticed  it  nearly  everywhere  in  Japan.  It  is  the  old  or 
incorrect  spelling  of  the  name  of  some  Dutch  nostrum. 

The  natives  speak  of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the  "  Lord  of 
Heaven."  The  destruction  of  the  Christian  churches,  crosses,  images, 
etc.,  was  so  thorough  that  the  discovery  of  relics  by  modern  seekers 
has  been  very  rare.     A  few  years  ago,  shortly  after  Perry's  arrival, 


CHMISTIANITT  AND  FOREIGNERS.  261 

there  was  in  Suruga  a  cave,  to  which  the  country  people  resorted  in 
large  numbers,  on  account  of  the  great  efficacy  believed  to  reside  in  an 
image  of  the  mother  of  Shaka  (Buddha),  with  her  infant  in  her  arms. 
The  idol  was  reputed  to  have  healed  many  diseases.  An  educated 
samurai,  who  hated  all  foreigners  and  their  ways  and  works,  especially 
the  "  Jesus  doctrine,"  happening  to  enter  the  cave,  perceived  in  a  mo- 
ment that  the  image  was  a  relic  of  the  old  Christian  worship.  It  was 
notliing  else  than  an  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  the  infant  Jesus. 
The  samurai  dashed  it  to  pieces. 

The  attempts  of  the  English  and  French  to  open  a  permanent  trade 
with  Japan  are  described  in  Hildredth's  "Japan  as  It  Was  and  Is." 
Captain  John  Saris,  with  the  ships  Clove.,  Thomas,  and  Hector,  left 
England  in  April,  1611,  with  letters  from  the  king,  James  I.  of  En- 
gland, to  the  "  emperor  "  (shogun)  of  Japan.  Landing  at  Hirado,  he 
was  well  received,  and  established  a  factory  in  charge  of  Mr.  Richard 
Cocks.  With  Will  Adams  and  seventeen  of  his  company.  Saris  set 
out  to  see  lyeyasu,  who  was  then  living  at  the  modern  Shidzuoka. 
He  touched  at  Hakata,  traversed  the  Inland  Sea,  past  Shimonoseki,  to 
Ozaka ;  thence  by  boat  to  Fushimi,  thence  by  horse  and  palanquin  to 
Surapu  (Shidzuoka).  In  the  interview  accorded  the  English  captain, 
lyeyasu  invited  him  to  visit  his  son,  Hidetada,  the  ruling  shogun  at 
Yedo.  Saris  went  to  Yedo,  visiting,  on  his  way,  Kamakura  and  the 
great  copper  image  of  Dai  Butsu,  some  of  the  Englishmen  going  in- 
side of  it  and  shouting  in  it  for  the  fun  of  the  thing.  They  also 
wrote  their  own  names  inside  of  it,  as  foreign  tourists,  visitors,  and 
even  personal  friends  of  republican  rulers  do  to  this  day,  and  as  the 
natives  have  ahva3"s  done,  to  immortalize  themselves.  After  a  stay 
in  Yedo,  they  touched  at  Uraga  ;  thence  returned  to  Sumpu,  where  a 
treaty,  or  privileges  of  trade,  in  eight  articles,  was  signed  and  given  to 
Saris.     It  bore  the  signature  of  Minamoto  lyeyasu. 

After  a  tour  of  three  months,  Saris  arrived  at  Hirado  again,  having 
visited  Kioto,  where  he  saw  the  splendid  Christian  churches  and  Jes- 
uit colleges,  on  his  way.  After  discouraging  attempts  to  open  a  trade 
with  Siam,  Corea,  and  China,  and  hostilities  having  broken  out  be- 
tween them  and  the  Dutch,  the  English  abandoned  the  project  of  per- 
manent trade  with  Japan ;  and  all  subsequent  attempts  to  reopen  it 
failed. 

Will  Adams,  who  was  an  English  pilot,  and  the  first  of  his  nation 
in  Japan,  is  spoken  of  frequently,  and  in  no  flattering  terms,  by  the 
Jesuit  fathers.     He  arrived  in  Japan  in  1607,  and  lived  in  or  near 


262  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Yedo  till  he  died,  in  1620.  By  tlie  sheer  force  of  a  manly,  honest 
character,  this  sturdy  Briton,  "  who  may  have  seen  Shakspeare  and 
Ben  Jonson"  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  rose  into  favor  with  lyeyasu, 
and  gained  the  regard  of  the  people.  His  knowledge  of  ship-build-- 
ing,  mathematics,  and  foreign  affairs  made  him  a  very  useful  man. 
Although  treated  with  honor  and  kindness,  he  was  not  allowed  to 
leave  Japan.  He  had  a  wife  and  daughter  in  England.  He  was 
made  an  officer,  and  given  the  revenues  of  the  village  of  Hemi,  in  Sa- 
gami,  near  the  modern  Yokosuka,  where  are  situated  the  dry-docks, 
machine-shops,  and  ship-building  houses  in  which  the  modern  war-ves- 
sels of  the  imperial  navy  are  built  and  launched — a  fitting  location,  so 
near  the  ground  made  classic  by  this  exile  from  the  greatest  marine 
nation  in  the  world.  Will  Adams  had  a  son  and  daughter  born  to 
him  in  Japan,  and  there  are  still  living  Japanese  who  claim  descent 
from  him.  One  of  the  streets  of  Yedo  was  named  after  him,  Anjin 
Cho  (Pilot  Street),  and  the  people  of  that  street  still  hold  an  annual 
celebration  on  the  15th  of  June  in  his  honor,  one  of  which  I  attended 
in  1873.  Wlien  Adams  died,  he,  and  afterward  his  Japanese  wife, 
were  buried  on  the  summit  of  one  of  the  lovely  hills  overlooking  the 
Bay  of  Yedo,  Groldsborough  Inlet,  and  the  surrounding  beautiful  and 
classic  landscape.  Adams  chose  the  spot  himself.  Tli£  people  of 
Yedo  erected  memorial-stone  lanterns  at  his  tomb.  Perry's  fleet,  in 
1854,  anchored  within  the  very  shadow  of  the  Englishman's  sepul- 
chre. In  May,  1872,  Mr.  Walters,  of  Yokohama,  after  a  study  of  Hil- 
dreth  and  some  search,  discovered  the  tomb,  which  others  had  sought 
for  in  vain.  Two  neat  stone  shafts,  in  the  characteristic  style  of  na- 
tive monumental  architecture,  set  on  a  stone  pediment,  mark  the  spot. 
I  visited  it,  in  company  of  the  bonze  in  charge  of  the  Shin  shiu  tem- 
ple of  the  village,  in  July,  1873. 

In  Charlevoix's  "  Histoire  du  Christianisme  au  Japon,"  it  is  related 
that  the  Abbe  Sidotti,  an  Italian  priest,  came  to  Manila,  with  the  in- 
tention of  landing  in  Japan,  and  once  more  attempting  to  regain  Japan 
to  Christianity.  After  several  years'  waiting,  he  persuaded  the  cap- 
tain of  a  vessel  to  take  him  to  Satsuma  and  set  him  ashore.  This 
was  done  in  1709.  He  was  arrested  and  sent  to  Yedo.  There  he  was 
confined  in  a  house  in  the  city  district,  called  Koishikawa,  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  ever  since  called  Kirishitan  zaka  (Christian  slope),  as 
the  valley  at  the  foot  is  called  Kirishitan  dane  (Christian  valley),  and 
the  place  Kirishitan  gui  (Christian  neighborhood).  Here  the  censors, 
judges,  scholars,  and  interpreters  assembled,  and  for  many  days  ex- 


CHRISTIANITY  AND  FOBEIONERS.  263 

amined  him,  asking  many  questions  and  gaining  much  information 
concerning  foreign  countries.  In  another  building  near  by,  an  old 
man  and  woman  who  had  professed  Christianity,  and  had  been  com- 
pelled to  recant,  were  confined.  After  the  abbe's  arrival,  exhorted  by 
him,  they  again  embraced  their  old  faith.  The  abbe  gave  his  name 
as  Jean  Baptiste.  He  made  a  cross  of  red  paper,  which  he  pasted  on 
the  wall  of  his  room.  He  was  kept  prisoner,  living  for  several  years 
after  his  arrival,  in  Yedo,  and  probably  died  a  natural  death. 

About  ten  years  ago,  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Brown,  D.D.,  discovered  a 
book  called  Sei  Yo  Ki  Bun  (Annals  of  Western  Nations),  in  three 
volumes,  written  by  the  Japanese  scholar  who  examined  the  abbe. 
The  books  contain  a  summary  of  the  history  and  judicial  proceedings 
in  the  case,  and  the  information  gained  from  the  Italian.  The  whole 
narrative  is  of  intensest  interest.  While  in  Tokio,  in  1874, 1  endeaV' 
ored  to  find  the  site  of  the  Inquisition,  and  the  martyr's  tomb. 

Tradition  says  that  the  abbe  was  buried  on  the  opposite  slope  of 
the  valley  corresponding  to  that  on  which  he  lived,  under  an  old  pine^ 
tree,  near  a  spring.  Pushing  my  way  through  scrub  bamboo  along  a 
narrow  path  scarcely  perceptible  for  the  undergrowth,  I  saw  a  name- 
less stone  near  a  hollow,  evidently  left  by  a  tree  that  had  long  since 
fallen  and  rotted  away.  A  little  run  of  water  issued  from  a  spring 
hard  by.  At  the  foot  was  a  rude  block  of  stone,  with  a  hollow  for 
water.  Both  were  roughly  hewn,  and  scarcely  dressed  with  the  chisel. 
Such  stones  in  Japan  mark  the  graves  of  those  who  die  in  disgrace, 
or  unknown,  or  uncared  for.  This  was  all  that  was  visible  to  remind 
the  visitor  of  one  whose  heroic  life  deserved  a  nobler  monument. 

The  influence  of  a  century  of  Papal  Christianity  in  Japan  on  the 
national  ethics  and  character  was  nil.  A  careful  examination  has  not 
revealed  any  trace  of  new  principles  of  morals  adopted  by  the  Japa- 
nese from  foreigners  in  the  sixteenth,  as  has  been  gained  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  though  the  literary,  scientific,  and  material  gains  were 
great.  The  Japanese  mental  constitution  and  moral  character  have 
been  profoundly  modified  in  turn  by  Buddhism  and  Confucianism, 
but  the  successive  waves  of  Christianism  that  passed  over  Japan  left 
no  sediment  teeming  with  fertility,  rather  a  barren  waste  like  that 
which  the  river-floods  leave  in  autumn.  I  should  be  glad  to  see  these 
statements  disproved.  Let  us  hope  that  the  Christianity  of  the  present, 
whether  Catholic,  Protestant,  or  Russo-Greek,  may  work  a  profounder 
and  more  beneficent  revolution  in  faith  and  moral  practice,  and  that 
only  that  kingdom  may  be  established  which  is  not  of  this  world. 


264  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XXVI. 

ITJEIYASU,  THE  FOUNDER   OF  TEDO. 

The  last  of  struggles  of  rival  military  factions  for  the  possession  of 
power  is  now  to  be  narrated,  and  the  weary  record  of  war  and  strife 
closed.  Since  1159,  when  the  Taira  and  Minamoto  came  to  blows  in 
the  capital,  and  the  imperial  palace  fell  into  the  hands  of  armed  men, 
and  the  domination  of  the  military  families  began,  mitil  the  opening 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  history  of  Japan  is  but  that  of  civil 
war  and  slaughter.  The  history  of  two  centuries  and  a  half  that  fol- 
lowed the  triumphs  of  lyeyasu  is  that  of  profound  peace.  Few  na- 
tions in  the  world  have  enjoyed  peace  so  long. 

The  man  who  now  stood  foremost  among  men,  who  was  a  legislator 
as  well  as  warrior,  who  could  win  a  victory  and  garner  the  fruits  of  it, 
was  Tokugawa  lyeyasu,  the  hero  of  Sekigahara,  the  most  decisive  bat- 
tle in  Japanese  history,  the  creator  of  the  perfected  dual  system  and 
of  feudalism,  and  the  founder  of  Yedo. 

Yedo  is  not  an  ancient  city.  Its  site  becomes  historic  when  Yama- 
to  Dake,  in  the  second  century  of  our  era,  marched  to  conquer  the 
Eastern  tribes.  In  later  times,  the  Minamoto  chieftains  subdued  the 
plains  of  the  Kuanto.  Until  the  twelfth  century,  the  region  around 
the  Bay  of  Yedo  was  wild,  uncivilized,  and  sparsely  populated,  and 
the  inhabitants  were  called  by  the  polished  Kioto  people  "Adzuma 
Ebisu,"  or  Eastern  boors. 

In  the  fifteenth  century,  a  small  castle  was  built  on  the  rising 
ground  within  the  western  circuit  of  the  present  stronghold,  and  near 
Koji  machi  (Yeast  Street),  where  now  stands  the  British  Legation. 
East  of  the  castle  was  a  small  relay  village,  0  Temma  Cho,  near  the 
modern  site  of  the  prison,  at  which  officials  or  travelers,  on  their  way 
to  Kamakura  or  Kioto,  via  the  Tokaido,  might  stop  for  rest  and  re- 
freshment, or  to  obtain  fresh  kagos  (palanquins),  bearers,  and  bag- 
gage-carriers. The  name  of  the  commander  of  the  castle,  Ota  Do- 
kuan,  a  retainer  of  the  shogun  at  Kamakura,  and  a  doughty  warrior, 
is  still  preserved  in  the  memories  of  the  people,  and  in  poetry,  song. 


lYEYASU,  THE  FOUNDER  OF  YEDO.  265 

art,  and  local  lore.  A  hill  in  the  north  of  the  city,  a  delightful  pic- 
nic resort,  bears  his  name,  and  the  neighborhood  of  Sliiba  was  his 
favorite  drill-ground  and  rendezvous  before  setting  out  on  forays  or 
campaigns. 

One  romantic  incident,  in  which  a  maiden  of  equal  wit  and  beauty 
bore  chief  part,  has  made  him  immortal,  though  the  name  of  the  fair 
one  has  been  forgotten.  One  day,  while  out  hawking  near  Yedo,  a 
heavy  shower  of  rain  fell.  Dismounting  from  his  horse,  he,  with  his 
attendant,  approached  a  house,  and  in  very  polite  terms  begged  the 
loan  of  a  grass  rain-coat  {mino).  A  pretty  girl,  daughter  of  the  man 
of  the  house,  came  out,  listened,  blushing,  to  the  request,  but,  answer- 
ing not  a  word,  ran  to  the  garden,  plucked  a  flower,  handed  it,  with 
mischief  in  her  eyes,  to  the  hero,  and  then  coquettishly  ran  away. 
Ota,  chagrined  and  vexed  at  such  apparently  frivolous  manners  and 
boorish  inhospitality,  and  the  seeming  slight  put  upon  his  rank,  re- 
turned in  wrath,  and  through  the  rain,  to  his  castle,  inwardly  cursing 
the  "Adzuma  Ebisu,"  who  did  not  know  how  to  treat  a  gentleman. 
It  happened  that,  shortly  after,  some  court  nobles  from  Kioto  were 
present,  sharing  the  hospitalities  of  the  castle  at  Yedo,  to  whom  he 
related  the  incident.  To  his  own  astonishment,  the  guests  were  de- 
lighted. "  Here,"  said  they,  "  in  the  wilderness,  and  among  the  'Ad- 
zuma Ebisu,'  is  a  gentle  girl,  who  is  not  only  versed  in  classic  poetry, 
but  had  the  wit  and  maidenly  grace  to  apply  it  in  felicitous  style." 
Ota  had  asked  for  a  rain-coat  [mino) ;  the  little  coquette  was  too  po- 
lite to  acknowledge  she  had  none.  How  could  she  say  "  no  "  to  such 
a  gallant  ?  Rather,  to  disguise  her  negative,  she  had  handed  him  a 
mountain  camellia ;  and  of  this  flower  the  poet  of  Yamato  had,  centu- 
ries ago,  sung:  "Although  the  mountain  camellia  has  seven  or  eight 
petals,  yet  I  grieve  to  say  it  has  no  seed  "  [mino). 

After  the  death  of  Ota,  no  name  of  any  great  note  is  attached  to 
the  unimportant  village  or  fortress;  but  in  1590,  at  the  siege  of  Oda- 
wara,  Hideyoshi  suggested  to  his  general,  lyeyasii,  Yedo  as  the  best 
site  for  the  capital  of  the  Kuanto.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  "  later 
Hojo  "  clan,  and  the  capture  of  their  castle  at  Odawara,  lyeyasu  went 
to  Yedo  and  began  to  found  a  city.  He  set  up  his  court,  and  watched 
his  chances. 

lyeyasu  was  bom  at  Okasaki,  in  Mikawa,  in  1542  ;  he  served  with 
Nobunaga  and  with  Hideyoshi ;  again  fought  with  the  latter,  and 
again  made  terms  with  him.  His  first  possessions  were  Mikawa  and 
Suruga.     In  the  latter  province  he  built  a  fine  castle  at  Sumpu  (now 


266  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

called  Shidzuoka),  and  made  it  his  residence  for  many  years.  He 
seems  to  have  had  little  to  do  with  the  Corean  expedition.  While 
busy  in  building  Yedo  in  1598,  he  received  news  of  the  taiko's  sick- 
ness, attended  his  death-bed,  and  was  urged  to  swear  to  protect  the 
interests  of  Hideyori,  then  six  years  old.     He  evasively  declined. 

The  prospects  of  the  boy  were  not  very  fine.  In  the  first  place,  few 
people  believed  him  to  be  the  son  of  the  taiko.  In  the  second  place, 
the  high-spirited  lords  and  nobles,  who  prided  themselves  on  their  blood 
and  lineage,  detested  Hideyoshi  as  an  upstart,  and  had  been  kept  in 
curb  only  by  his  indomitable  will  and  genius.  They  were  still  more 
incensed  at  the  idea  of  his  son  Hidey#ri,  even  if  a  true  son,  succeed- 
ing. Again :  Hidenobu*  the  nephew  of  Nobunaga,  was  living,  and 
put  in  a  claim  for  power.  His  professed  conversion  to  Christianity 
gave  him  a  show  of  support  among  the  Christian  malcontents.  As 
for  lyeyasu,  he  was  suspected  of  wishing  to  seize  the  military  power 
of  the  whole  empire.  The  strong  hand  of  the  taiko  was  no  longer 
felt.  The  abandonment  of  the  Corean  invasion  brought  back  a  host 
of  men  and  leaders,  flushed  with  victory  and  ambition.  Differences 
sprung  up  among  the  five  governors.  With  such  elements  at  work — 
thousands  of  men,  idle,  to  whom  war  was  pastime  and  delight,  princes 
eager  for  a  fray  in  which  land  was  the  spoil,  more  than  one  man  aspir- 
ing to  fill  the  dead  master's  place — only  a  spark  was  needed  to  kindle 
the  blaze  of  war. 

The  governors  suspected  lyeyasu.  They  began  to  raise  an  army, 
lyeyasu  was  not  to  be  surprised.  He  followed  the  example  of  his 
rivals,  and  watched.  I  shall  not  tax  the  patience  of  the  reader  to  fol- 
low through  the  mazes  of  the  intricate  quarrels  which  preceded  the 
final  appeal  to  arms.  SuflBce  to  say,  that  after  the  seizure  and  reseiz- 
ure  of  the  citadel  of  Ozaka  and  the  burning  of  the  taiko's  splendid 
palace  in  Fushimi,  the  army  of  the  league  and  the  army  of  lyeyasu 
met  at  Sekigahara  (plain  of  the  barrier),  in  Omi,  near  Lake  Biwa. 

By  this  battle  were  decided  the  condition  of  Japan  for  over  two 
centuries,  the  extinction  of  the  claims  of  the  line  of  Nobunaga  and 
Hideyoshi,  the  settlement  of  the  Tokugawa  family  in  hereditary  suc- 
cession to  the  shogunate,  the  fate  of  Christianity,  the  isolation  of  Ja- 
pan from  the  world,  the  fixing  into  permanency  of  the  dual  system 
and  of  feudalism,  the  glory  and  greatness  of  Yedo,  and  peace  in  Japan 
for  two  hundred  and  sixty-eight  years. 

In  the  army  of  the  league  were  the  five  governors  appointed  by  the 
taiko,  and  the  lords  and  vassals  of  Hideyoshi,  and  most  of  the  generals 


iyi:yasu,  the  fouxder  of  YEDO.  267 

and  soldiers  who  had  served  in  the  Corean  campaigns.  Among  them 
were  the  clans  of  Satsuma,  Choshiu,  Uyesugi,  and  Ukita,  with  the 
famous  Christian  generals,  Konishi  and  Ishida.  This  army,  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  thousand  strong,  was  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  veter- 
ans, acting  under  various  leaders,  and  animated  by  various  interests. 
As  the  leaders  lacked  unity  of  purpose,  so  the  array  was  made  the  vic- 
tim of  discordant  counsels  and  orders.  On  the  other  hand,  the  army 
of  one  man,  lyeyasu,  had  one  soul,  one  discipline,  and  one  purpose. 
The  Castle  of  Gifu,  in  Mino,  was  captured  by  one  of  his  captains.  On 
the  1st  of  October,  1600,  lyeyasu  marched  from  Yedo  over  the  To- 
kaido  with  a  re-enforcement  of  thirty  thousand  troops.  His  standard 
was  a  golden  fan  and  a  white  flag  embroidered  with  hollyhocks.  The 
diviners  had  declared  "  the  road  to  the  West  was  shut."  lyeyasu 
answered,  "  Then  I  shall  open  it  by  knocking."  On  the  thirteenth 
day  he  arrived  at  Gifu,  where  he  effected  a  junction  with  his  main 
body.  Some  one  offered  him  a  persimmon  (ogaki).  He  said,  as  it 
fell  in  his  hand,  "  Ogaki  waga  te  ni  otsuru  "  ("  Ogaki  has  fallen  into 
my  hand  ").  He  threw  it  down,  and  allowed  his  attendants  to  eat  the 
good-omened  and  luscious  pieces. 

The  battle-field  at  Sekigahara  is  an  open,  rolling  space  of  gTound, 
lying  just  inside  the  eastern  slope  of  hills  on  the  west  wall  of  Lake 
Biwa,  and  part  of  the  populous  plain  drained  by  the  Kiso  gawa,  a 
branch  of  which  crosses  the  field  and  winds  round  the  hill,  on  which, 
at  that  time,  stood  a  residence  of  the  Portuguese  missionaries.  The 
Nakasendo,*  one  of  the  main  roads  between  Yedo  and  Kioto,  enters 
from  Omi,  and  bisects  the  field  from  west  to  east,  while  from  the  north- 
w^est,  near  the  village  of  Sekigahara,  the  road  enters  from  Echizen.    By 

*  The  Nakasendo  (Central  Mountain  Road)  is  three  hundred  and  eighty-one 
miles  long.  It  begins  at  the  Bridge  of  Sanjo,  over  the  river  at  Kioto,  and  ends  at 
Nihon  Bridge  in  Tokio.  It  was  used,  in  part,  as  early  as  the  second  century,  but 
■was  more  fully  opened  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century.  It  passes  through 
Omi,  Mino,  Shinano,  Kodzuke,  terminating  in  Musashi.  It  can  be  easily  trav- 
ersed in  fourteen  days;  but  the  tourist  who  can  understand  and  appreciate  all 
he  sees  would  be  reluctant  to  perform  the  tour,  if  for  pleasure,  in  less  than  a 
month.  There  are  on  the  route  nine  toge  (mountain  passes).  It  carries  the  trav- 
eler through  the  splendid  scenery  of  Shinano,  which  averages  twSnty-five  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  sea-level,  along  Lake  Biwa,  and  nearly  its  whole  length  is 
classic  ground.  The  Nakasendo  is  sometimes  called  the  Kisokaido.  An  excel- 
lent guide-book,  in  seven  volumes,  full  of  good  engravings,  published  in  1805, 
called  Kisoji  JleUho  Dztaje  ("Collection  of  Pictures  of  Famous  Places  on  the  Na- 
kasendo"), furnishes  the  information  that  makes  a  sight  of  the  famous  places 
very  enjoyable.  The  heights  of  the  toge  are  as  follows  :  620,  2150,  3060, 4340,  3680, 
5590,  3240,  and  4130  feet,  respectively. 


268  THE  IIIKABO'S  E3IPIRK 

this  road  tlie  writer,  in  1872,  came  to  reach  the  classic  site  and  study 
the  spot  around  which  chister  so  many  stirring  memories.  The  lead- 
ers of  the  army  of  the  league,  having  arranged  their  plans,  marched 
out  from  the  Castle  of  Ogaki  at  early  morn  on  the  fifteenth  day  of 
the  Ninth  month.  They  built  a  fire  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  narrow 
path,  to  guide  them  as  they  walked  without  keeping  step.  It  was 
raining,  and  the  armor  and  clothes  of  the  soldiers  were  very  wet.  At 
five  o'clock  they  reached  the  field,  the  Satsuma  clan  taking  up  their 
position  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  facing  east.  Konishi,  the  Christian  hero 
of  Corea,  commanded  the  left  centre,  Ishida  the  extreme  left.  Four 
famous  commanders  formed,  with  their  corps,  the  right  wing.  Re- 
serves were  stationed  on  and  about  the  hills  facing  north.  The  cav- 
alry and  infantry,  according  to  the  Guai  Shi  figures,  numbered  one 
hundred  and  twenty-eight  thousand. 

At  early  morn  of  the  same  day  one  of  the  pickets  of  lyeyasu's  out- 
posts hastened  to  the  tent  of  his  general  and  reported  that  all  the  en- 
emy had  left  the  Castle  of  Ogaki.  Other  pickets,  from  other  points, 
announced  the  same  reports  simultaneously.  lyeyasu,  in  high  glee, 
exclaimed,  "  The  enemy  has  indeed  fallen  into  my  hand."  He  order- 
ed his  generals  to  advance  and  take  positions  on  the  field,  himself 
leading  the  centre.     His  force  numbered  seventy-five  thousand. 

This  was  the  supi'eme  moment  of  lyeyasu's  life.  The  picture  as 
given  us  by  native  artist  and  tradition  is  that  of  a  medium-sized  and 
rotund  man,  of  full,  round,  and  merry  face,  who  loved  mirth  at  the 
right  time  and  place,  and  even  when  others  could  not  relish  or  see  its 
appropriateness.  Of  indomitable  will  and  energy,  and  having  a  gen- 
ius for  understanding  men's  natures,  he  astonished  his  enemies  by  ce- 
lerity of  movement  and  the  promptitude  with  which  he  followed  up 
his  advantages.  Nevertheless,  he  was  fond  of  whims.  One  of  these 
was  to  take  a  hot  bath  before  beginning  a  battle ;  another  was  to  is- 
sue ambiguous  orders  purposely  when  he  wished  to  leave  a  subordi- 
nate to  act  according  to  his  own  judgment.  On  the  present  occasion, 
his  whim  was  to  go  into  battle  with  armor  donned,  but  with  no  hel- 
met on,  knotting  his  handkerchief  over  his  bare  forehead.  A  dense 
fog  hung  like  a  pall  over  the  battle-field,  so  that  one  could  not  see  far- 
ther than  a  few  feet. 

The  two  armies,  invisible,  stood  facing  each  other.  However,  lye- 
yasu sent  an  officer  with  a  body  of  men  with  white  flags,  who  ad- 
vanced six  hundred  feet  in  front  of  the  main  army,  to  prevent  surprise. 
At  eight  o'clock  the  fog  lifted  and  rolled  away,  and  the  two  hosts  de- 


lYiJTASU,  THE  FOUNDER  OF  YEDO.  269 

scried  eacli  other.  After  a  few  moments'  waiting,  the  drums  and 
conchs  of  the  centre  of  each  army  sounded,  and  a  sharp  fire  of  match- 
locks and  a  shower  of  arrows  opened  the  battle.  The  easterners  at 
first  wavered,  and  till  noon  the  issue  was  doubtful.  Cannon  were 
used  during  the  battle,  but  the  bloodiest  work  was  done  with  the 
sword  and  spear.  One  of  the  corps  in  the  army  of  the  league  deserted 
and  joined  the  side  of  lyeyasu.  At  noon,  the  discipline  and  unity  of 
the  eastern  army  and  the  prowess  and  skill  of  lyeyasu  triumphed. 
Ordering  his  conch-blowers  and  drummers  to  beat  a  final  charge,  and 
the  reserves  having  joined  the  main  body,  a  charge  was  made  along 
the  whole  line.  The  enemy,  routed,  broke  and  fled.  Nearly  all  the 
wounded,  and  hundreds  of  unscathed  on  the  battle-field,  committed 
hara-kiri  in  order  not  to  survive  the  disgrace.  The  pursuers  cut  off 
the  heads  of  all  overtaken,  and  the  butchery  was  frightful.  The  grass 
was  dyed  red,  and  the  moor  became  literally,  not  only  an  Aceldama, 
but  a  Golgotha.  According  to  the  Guai  Shi's  exaggerated  figures, 
forty  thousand  heads  were  cut  off.  Of  the  Eastern  army  four  thousand 
w^ere  slain,  but  no  general  was  killed.  The  soldiers  assembled,  accord- 
ing to  custom,  after  the  battle  in  the  centre  of  the  field,  to  show  their 
captives  and  heads.  On  this  spot  now  stands  a  memorial  mound  of 
granite  masonry  within  a  raised  earthen  embankment,  surrounded  and 
approached  fi'om  the  road  by  rows  of  pine-trees.  On  the  Kioto  side 
of  the  village,  near  the  shrine  of  Hachiman,  may  be  seen  a  kubidzuka 
(barrow,  or  pile  of  heads),  the  monument  of  this  awful  slaughter,  and 
one  of  the  many  such  evidences  of  former  wars  which  careful  travelers 
in  Japan  so  often  notice. 

lyeyasu  went  into  the  fight  bare-headed.  After  the  battle  he  sat 
down  upon  his  camp-stool,  and  ordered  his  helmet  to  be  brought.  All 
wondered  at  this.  Donning  it  with  a  smile,  and  fastening  it  securely, 
he  said,  quoting  the  old  proverb,  "After  victory,  knot  the  cords  of 
your  helmet."  The  hint  was  taken  and  acted  upon.  Neither  rest  nor 
negligence  was  allowed. 

The  Castle  of  Hikone,  on  Lake  Biwa,  was  immediately  invested  and 
captured.  Ozaka  was  entered  in  great  triumph.  Fushimi  and  Kioto 
were  held ;  Choshiu  and  Satsuma  yielded.  Konishi  and  Mitsuda  were 
executed  on  the  execution -ground  in  Kioto.  The  final  and  speedy 
result  was  that  all  Japan  submitted  to  the  hero  who,  after  victory,  had 
knotted  the  cords  of  his  helmet. 

18 


270  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XXVII. 

THE  PERFECTION  OF  DUARCHY  AND  FEUDALISM. 

We  have  traced  tlie  rise  and  fall  of  no  fewer  than  six  families  that 
held  governing  power  in  their  persons  or  in  reality.  These  were  in 
succession  the  Sugawara,  Fujiwara,  Taira,  Minamoto,  Hojo,  and  Ashi- 
kaga.  The  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  witnessed  the  rise,  not 
of  great  families,  but  of  individuals,  the  mark  of  whose  genius  and  en- 
ergy is  stamped  upon  Japanese  history.  These  three  individuals  were 
Nobunaga,  Hideyoshi,  and  lyeyasu.     Who  and  what  were  they  ? 

Nobunaga  was  one  of  many  clan-leaders  who,  by  genius  and  dar- 
ing, rose  above  the  crowd,  and  planned  to  bring  all  the  others  in  sub- 
jection to  himself,  that  he  might  rule  them  in  the  mikado's  name. 
From  having  been  called  Baka  Dono  (Lord  Fool)  by  his  enemies,  he 
rose  to  be  Nai  Dai  Jin,  and  swayed  power  equal  to  a  shogun,  but  he 
never  received  that  name  or  honor ;  for  not  being  a  Minamoto,  he  was 
ineligible.  But  for  this  inviolable  precedent,  Nobunaga  might  have  be- 
come Sei-i  Tai  Shogun,  and  founded  a  family  line  as  proud  and  pow- 
erful as  that  of  the  Tokugawas  of  later  time. 

Who  was  Hideyoshi  ?  This  question  was  often  asked,  in  his  own 
time,  by  men  who  felt  only  too  keenly  what  he  was.  This  man,  who 
manufactured  his  own  ancestry  on  paper,  was  a  parvenu  from  the 
peasant  class,  who,  from  grooming  his  master's  horses  in  the  stable, 
continued  his  master's  work,  as  shogun,  in  the  field,  and,  trampling 
on  all  precedent,  amazed  the  Fujiwara  peers  by  getting  the  office  of 
kuambaku. 

Who  was  lyeyasii  ?  Neither  of  his  two  predecessors  had  Minamoto 
blood.  lyeyasii,  though  at  first  an  obscure  captain  under  Nobunaga, 
was  of  true  Genji  stock.  The  blood  of  mikados,  and  of  the  great 
conquerors  of  Eastern  Japan,  was  in  his  veins.  He  was  destined  to 
eclipse  even  the  splendor  of  his  forefathers.  He  was  eligible,  by  right 
of  descent,  to  become  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun,  or  chief  of  all  the  daimios. 

The  family  of  Tokugawa  took  its  name  from  a  place  and  river  in 
Shimotsuke,  near  Ashikaga  and  Nitta — which  are  geographical  as 


THE  PERFECTION  OF  DUARCHY  AND  FEUDALISM.         2Yl 

well  as  personal  names  —  claimed  descent  from  the  mikado  Seiwa 
througli  the  Minamoto  Yoshiiye,  thence  through  that  of  Nitta  Yoshi- 
sada.  Tokugawa  Shiro,  the  father  of  lyeyasii,  lived  in  the  village  of 
Matsudaira,  in  Mikawa.  lyeyasu  always  signed  the  documents  sent 
to  foreigners,  Minamoto  no  lyeyasu. 

As  it  is  the  custom  in  Japan,  as  in  Europe,  to  name  families  after 
places,  the  name  of  this  obscure  village,  Matsudaira,  was  also  taken  as 
a  family  name  by  nearly  all  vassals,  who  held  their  lands  by  direct 
grant  from  lyeyasu.  In  1867,  no  fewer  than  fifty-four  daimios  were 
holding  the  name  Matsudaira.  The  title  of  the  daimio  in  whose  capi- 
tal the  writer  lived  in  1871,  was  Matsudaira  Echizen  no  Kami. 


Crest  of  the  Tokugawa  Family. 

The  Tokugawa  crest  was  a  circle  inclosing  three  leaves  of  the  awoi 
(a  species  of  mallow,  found  in  Central  Japan)  joined  at  the  tips,  the 
stalks  touching  the  circle.  This  gilded  trefoil  gleamed  on  the  Govern- 
ment buildings  and  property  of  the  shogun,  and  on  the  ofiicial  docu- 
ments, boats,  robes,  flags,  and  tombs.  On  Kaempfer's  and  Hildreth's 
books  there  is  printed  under  it  the  misleading  legend,  "  Insignia  Im- 
peratoris  Japonici."  The  trefoil  flag  fluttered  in  the  breeze  when 
Commodore  Perry  made  his  treaty  under  its  shadow.  To  this  day 
many  foreigners  suppose  it  to  be  the  national  flag  of  Japan.  It  was 
simply  the  family  crest  of  the  chief  daimio  in  Japan. 

The  imperial  court,  yearning  for  peace,  and  finding  in  lyeyasu  the 
person  to  keep  the  empire  in  order,  command  universal  obedience,  and 


272  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

satisfy  tlie  blood  requirements  of  precedent  to  the  office,  created  him 
Sei-i  Tai  Shogun,  and  it  was  left  to  Minamoto  Tokugawa  lyeyasu  to 
achieve  the  perfection  of  duarchy  and  Japanese  feudalism. 

Let  us  see  how  he  arranged  the  chess-board  of  the  empire.  There 
were  his  twelve  children,  a  number  of  powerful  princes  of  large  landed 
possessions  whom  he  had  not  conquered,  but  conciliated ;  the  lesser 
daimios,  who  had  joined  him  in  his  career ;  his  own  retainers  of  every 
grade ;  and  a  vast  and  miscellaneous  array  of  petty  feudal  superiors, 
having  grants  of  land  and  retinues  of  from  three  to  one  hundred  fol- 
lowers. The  long  hereditary  occupation  of  certain  lands  had  given 
the  holders  a  right  which  even  lyeyasu  could  not  dispute.  Out  of 
such  complexity  and  chaos,  how  was  such  a  motley  array  of  proud 
and  turbulent  men  to  be  reduced  to  discipline  and  obedience  ?  Upon 
such  a  palimpsest,  how  was  an  accurate  map  to  be  drawn,  or  a  durable 
legible  record  to  be  written  ?  lyeyasu  had  force,  resources,  and  pa- 
tience. He  was  master  of  the  arts  of  conciliation  and  of  letting  alone. 
He  could  wait  for  time  to  do  its  work.  He  would  give  men  the  op- 
portunity of  being  conquered  by  their  own  good  sense. 

Of  lyeyasu's  twelve  children,  three  daughters  married  the  daimios 
of  Mimasaka,  Sagami,  and  Hida.  Of  his  nine  sons,  Nobuyasii  died 
before  his  father  became  shogun.  Hideyasii,  his  second  son,  had  been 
adopted  by  the  taiko,  but  a  son  was  born  to  the  latter.  lyeyasu  then 
gave  his  son  the  province  of  Echizen,  Hence  the  Echizen  clansmen, 
as  relatives  of  the  shogunal  family,  were  ever  their  stanchest  sup- 
porters, even  until  the  cannon  fired  at  Fushimi  in  1868,  Their  crest 
was  the  same  trefoil  as  that  of  their  suzerain,  Wlien  Hideyasu  was 
enfeoffed  with  Echizen,  many  prominent  men  and  heads  of  old  families, 
supposing  that  he  would,  of  course,  succeed  his  father  in  office,  followed 
him  to  his  domain,  and  lived  there.  Hence  in  Fukui,  the  capital  of 
Echizen,  in  which  I  lived  during  the  year  1871,  I  became  acquainted 
with  the  descendants  of  many  proud  families,  whose  ancestors  had 
nursed  a  profound  disappointment  for  over  two  centuries  ;  for  lyeyasu 
chose  his  third  son,  Hidetada,  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  the 
taiko,  to  succeed  him  in  the  shogunate, 

Tadayashi,  fifth  son  of  lyeyasu,  whose  title  was  Matsudaira  Satsuma 
no  Kami,  died  young.  At  his  death  five  of  his  retainers  disemboweled 
themselves,  that  they  might  follow  their  young  master  into  the  happy 
land.  This  is  said  to  be  the  last  instance  of  the  ancient  custom  of 
jun-shi  (dying  with  the  master),  such  as  we  have  noticed  in  a  former 
chapter.     During  the  early  and  mediaeval  centuries  occur  authentic  in- 


THE  PERFECTION  OF  DUARCHY  AND  FEUDALISM.  273 

stances  of  such  immolation,  or  the  more  horrible  test  of  loyalty  m  the 
burial  of  living  retainers  to  their  necks  in  the  earth,  with  only  the  head 
above  ground,  who  were  left  to  starve  slowly  to  death.  Burying  a  man 
alive  under  the  foundations  of  a  castle  about  to  be  built  or  in  the  pier 
of  a  new  bridge,  was  a  similar  instance  of  lingering  superstitions. 

In  the  Bu  Kan  ("  Mirror  of  the  Military  Families  of  Japan  "),  a  com- 
plete list  of  the"Yedo  nobility,"  or  clans,  no  record  is  given  of  lye- 
yasu's  sixth  and  ninth  male  children.  On  his  three  last  sons  were 
bestowed  the  richest  fiefs  in  the  empire,  excepting  those  of  Satsuma, 
Kaga,  Mutsu,  Higo,  and  a  few  others  —  all-powerful  daimios,  whose 
lands  l3^eyasu  could  not  touch,  and  whose  allegiance  was  only  secured 
by  a  policy  of  conciliation.  These  three  sons  were  invested  with  the 
principalities  of  Owari,  Kii,  and  Mito.  They  founded  three  families, 
who  were  called  Gosanke  (the  three  illustrious  families),  and  from 
these,  in  case  of  failure  of  heirs  in  the  direct  line,  the  shogun  was 
to  be  chosen.  The  assessed  revenue  of  these  families  were  610,500, 
555,000,  and  350,000  koku  of  rice,  respectively.  They  were  held  in 
great  respect,  and  wielded  immense  influence.  Their  yashikis  in  Yedo 
were  among  the  largest,  and  placed  in  the  most  conspicuous  and  com- 
manding sites  of  the  city.  At  the  tombs  of  the  shoguns  at  Shiba  and 
Uyeno,  the  bronze  memorial  lanterns  presented  in  honor  of  the  de- 
ceased ruler  are  pre-eminent  above  all  others  for  their  size  and  beauty. 

In  the  course  of  history  down  to  1868,  it  resulted  that  the  first  sev- 
en shoguns  were  descendants  of  lyeyasu  in  the  line  of  direct  heirs.* 
From  the  eighth,  and  thence  downw^ard  to  the  sixteenth,  or  next  to  the 
last,  the  shoguns  were  all  really  of  the  blood  of  Kii.  The  Owari  fam- 
ily was  never  represented  on  the  seat  of  lyeyasu.  It  was  generally 
believed,  and  is  popularly  stated,  that  as  the  first  Prince  of  Mito  had 

*   SHOGUNS   OF  THE   TOKCGAWA   FAMILY. 


1.  ly^jasu 1603-160-t 

2.  Hidetada 1605-1632 

3.  Iy<imitsu 1623-1649 

4.  Iy(5tsuna 1650-1680 

5.  Tsunayoshi 1681-1708 

6.  lyenobu 1709-1712 

7.  ly^tsuffu 1713-1716 

8.  Toshimun^ 1717-1744 


9.  lyeshig^ 1745-1762 

10.  lyeharu 1762-1786 

11.  lyenori 1787-1837 

12.  Iy(5yosM 183&-1852 

13.  lyesada* 1853-ia58  ) 

14.  lyemochi 1858-1866  > 

15.  Noriyoshit 186&-1868  J 


*  First  shogun  ever  styled  Tai-kun  ("  Tycoon  ")  in  a  treaty  docnment.  The  last  three 
shoguns  were  styled  Tai-knn  by  themselves  and  foreigners. 

t  Keiki,  or  Hitotsubashi,  the  last  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun,  still  living  (1876)  at  Shidauoka,  in  Su- 
rnsa. 


274  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

married  the  daughter  of  an  enemy  of  lyeyasu,  tlie  Mito  family  could 
not  furnish  an  heir  to  the  shogunate.  In  1867,  however,  as  we  shall 
see,  Keiki,  a  son  of  Mito,  but  adopted  into  the  Hitotsubashi  family,  be- 
came the  thirty-ninth  and  last  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun  of  Japan,  the  fifteenth 
and  last  of  Tokugawa,  and  the  fourth  and  last  "  Tycoon  "  of  Japan. 

Next  to  the  Gosanke  ranked  the  Kokushiu  {koku,  province ;  shiu, 
ruler)  daimios,  the  powerful  leaders  whom  lyeyasu  defeated,  or  won 
over  to  obedience,  but  never  tamed  or  conquered.  He  treated  them 
rather  as  equals  less  fortunate  in  the  game  of  war  than  himself.  Some 
of  them  were  direct  descendants  of  the  Kokushiu  appointed  by  Yori- 
tomo,  but  most  were  merely  successful  military  adventurers  like  lye- 
yasu himself.  Of  these,  Kaga  was  the  wealthiest.  He  ruled  over 
Kaga,  Noto,  and  Etchiu,  his  chief  city  and  castle  being  at  Kanezawa. 
His  income  was  1,027,000  koku.  The  family  name  was  Maeda. 
There  were  three  cadet  families  ranking  as  Tozama,  two  with  incomes 
of  100,000,  the  other  of  10,000  koku.  The  Maeda  crest  consisted  of 
five  circles,  around  ten  short  rays  representing  sword-punctures.  The 
Shimadzu  family  of  Satsuma  ruled  over  Satsuma,  Ozumi,  Hiuga,  and 
the  Liu  Kiu  Islands — revenue,  710,000  koku;  chief  city,  Kagoshima. 
There  was  one  cadet  of  the  house  of  Shimadzu,  with  a  revenue  of 
27,000  koku.     The  crest  was  a  white  cross*  within  a  circle. 

The  Datte  family  ruled  over  the  old  northern  division  of  Hondo, 
called  Mutsu;  capital,  Sendai;  revenue,  325,000  koku.  There  were 
three  cadet  families,  two  having  30,000  koku ;  and  one,  Uwajima,  in 
lyo,  100,000.  Their  crest  was  two  sparrows  within  a  circle  of  bamboo 
and  leaves. 

The  Hosokawa  family  ruled  Higo  ;  income  540,000  :  the  chief  city 
is  Kumamoto,  in  which  is  one  of  the  finest  castles  in  Japan,  built  by 
Kato  Kiyomasa.  Of  three  cadets  whose  united  incomes  were  81,300 
koku,  two  had  cities  in  Higo,  and  one  in  Hitachi ;  crest,  eight  disks 
around  a  central  smaller  disk. 

The  Kuroda  family  ruled  Chikuzen ;  revenue,  520,000 ;  chief  city 
Fukuoka;  crest,  a  black  disk.  One  cadet  in  Kadzusa  had  30,000 
koku ;  crest,  a  slice  of  cucumber.  Another  in  Chikuzen ;  revenue, 
50,000  ;  crest.  Wistaria  flowers. 

*  This  cruciform  figure  of  the  Greek  pattern  puzzled  Xavier,  who  suspected 
theology  in  it.  It  has  been  a  perpetual  mare's-nest  to  the  many  would-be  anti- 
quarians, who  burn  to  immortalize  themselves  by  unearthing  Christian  relics  in 
Japan.  It  is  a  standard  subject  of  dissertation  by  new-comers,  who  help  to  give 
a  show  of  truth  to  the  platitude  of  the  ports,  that  "the  longer  one  lives  in 
Japan,  the  less  he  knows  about  it."    It  is  simply  a  horse's  bit-ring. 


THE  PERFECTION  OF  DUARCHT  AND  FEUDALISM.         275 

The  Asano  family  ruled  Aki ;  chief  city,  Hiroshima ;  revenue, 
426,000 ;  one  cadet. 

The  Mori  family  ruled  Choshiu ;  chief  city,  Hagi;  revenue,  369,000. 
Of  three  cadet  families,  two  were  in  Nagato,  one  was  in  Suwo.  Their 
united  incomes,  100,000  koku ;  crest,  a  kind  of  water-plant. 

The  above  are  a  few  specimens  from  the  thirty-six  families  outside 
of  the  Tokugawa,  and  the  subject  (fudai)  clans,  who,  though  not  of 
the  shogunal  family,  took  the  name  of  Matsudaira.  There  were,  in 
1862,  two  hundred  and  sixty-seven  feudal  families,  and  as  many  dai- 
mios  of  various  rank,  income,  and  landed  possessions.  Japan  was  thus 
divided  into  petty  fragments,  without  real  nationality,  and  utterly  un- 
prepared to  bear  the  shock  of  contact  with  foreigners. 

The  Tozama  [outside  (of  the  shogunal  family)  nobility]  were  cadet 
families  of  the  Kokushiu,  or  the  smaller  landed  lords,  who  held  heredi- 
tary possessions,  and  who  sided  with  lyeyasu  in  his  rise  to  power. 
There  were,  in  1862,  ninety  whose  assessed  revenue  ranged  from  ten 
to  one  hundred  thousand  koku  each. 

The  Fudai  (literally,  successive  generations)  were  the  generals,  cap- 
tains, and  retainers,  both  civil  and  military,  on  whom  lyeyasu  be- 
stowed land  as  rewards.  They  were  the  direct  vassals  of  the  Toku- 
gawa family.  The  shogun  could  order  any  of  them  to  exchange  their 
fiefs,  or  could  increase  or  curtail  their  revenues  at  will.  They  were  to 
the  shogun  as  the  old  "  Six  Guards  "  of  Kioto,  or  household  troops  of 
the  mediaeval  mikadoate.  There  were,  in  1862,  one  hundred  and  fif- 
teen of  this  class,  with  lands  assessed  at  from  ten  to  one  hundred 
thousand  koku.  It  was  only  the  fudai,  or  lower-grade  daimios,  who 
could  hold  oflice  under  the  Yedo  bakufu,  and  one  became  regent,  as 
we  shall  see. 

When  once  firmly  seated  on  the  throne,  lyeyasu  found  himself 
master  of  almost  all  Japan.  His  greatest  care  was  to  make  such  a 
disposal  of  his  lands  as  to  strike  a  balance  of  power,  and  to  insure 
harmony  among  the  host  of  territorial  nobility,  who  already  held  or 
were  about  to  be  given  lands.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  lyeyasu 
and  his  successors  were,  both  in  theory  and  reality,  vassals  of  the  em- 
peror, though  they  assumed  the  protection  of  the  imperial  person. 
Neither  the  shogun  nor  the  daimios  were  acknowledged  at  Kioto  as 
nobles  of  the  empire.  The  lowest  kuge  was  above  the  shogun  in 
rank.  The  shogun  could  obtain  his  appointment  only  from  the  mi- 
kado. He  was  simply  the  most  powerful  among  the  daimios,  who 
had  won  that  pre-eminence  by  the  sword,  and  who,  by  wealth  and 


276  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIBK 

power,  and  a  skillfully  wrought  plan  of  division  of  land  among  the 
other  daimios,  was  able  to  rule  for  over  two  and  a  half  centuries. 
Theoretically,  he  was  primus  inter  pares  ;  in  actuality,  he  was  supreme 
over  inferiors.  The  mikado  was  left  with  merely  nominal  power,  de- 
pendent upon  the  Yedo  treasury  for  revenue  and  protection,  but  he 
was  still  the  fountain  of  honor  and  preferment,  and,  with  his  court, 
formed  what  was  the  lawful,  and,  in  the  last  analysis,  the  only  true 
power.  There  was  formed  at  Yedo  the  de  facto,  actual  administrative 
government  of  the  empire.  With  the  imperial  family,  court,  and  no- 
bles, Ij^eyasii  had  nothing  to  do  except  as  vassal  and  guardian.  He 
simply  undertook  to  settle  the  position  and  grade  the  power  of  the 
territorial  nobles,  and  rule  them  by  the  strong  hand  of  military  force. 
Nevertheless,  real  titles  were  bestowed  only  by  the  emperor ;  and  an 
honor  granted,  however  empty  of  actual  power,  from  the  Son  of 
Heaven  in  Kioto  was  considered  immeasurably  superior  to  any  gift 
which  the  awe-compelling  chief  daimio  in  Yedo  could  bestow.  The 
possession  of  rank  and  official  title  is  the  ruling  passion  of  a  Japanese. 
The  richest  daimios,  not  content  with  their  power  and  revenue,  spent 
vast  sums  of  money,  and  used  every  influence  at  the  Kioto  court,  to 
win  titles,  once,  indeed,  the  exponent  of  a  reality  that  existed,  but, 
since  the  creation  of  the  duarchy  and  the  decay  of  the  mikado's  ac- 
tual power,  as  absurdly  empty  as  those  of  the  mediatized  princes  of 
Germany,  and  having  no  more  connection  with  the  duties  implied 
than  the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus  has  with  those  of  Chief  Bridge- 
builder  in  Rome. 

The  head  of  the  proud  Shimadzu  family,  with  his  vast  provinces 
of  Satsuma,  Hiuga,  Ozumi,  and  the  Liu  Kiu  Islands,  cared  as  much 
for  the  pompous  vacuity  of  Shuri  no  daibu  ("  Chief  of  the  Office  of 
Ecclesiastical  Carpenters  ")  as  to  be  styled  Lord  of  Satsuma. 

It  is  in  the  geographical  distribution  of  his  feudal  vassals  that  the 
genius  of  lyeyasu  is  seen.  Wherever  two  powerful  clans  that  still 
bore  a  grudge  against  the  Tokugawa  name  were  neighbors,  he  put  be- 
tween them  one  of  his  own  relatives  or  direct  vassals,  which  served  to 
prevent  the  two  daimios  from  combining  or  intriguing.  Besides  dis- 
posing of  his  enemies  so  as  to  make  them  harmless,  his  object  was 
to  guard  the  capital,  Kioto,  so  that  aspiring  leaders  could  never  again 
seize  the  person  of  the  mikado,  as  had  been  repeatedly  done  in  times 
past.     He  thus  removed  a  chronic  element  of  disorder. 

Echizen  commands  Kioto  from  the  north  ;  it  was  given  to  his  eldest 
son.     Omi  guards  it  from  the  east;  it  was  divided  among  his  direct 


THE  TERFECTION  OF  DUARCHY  AND  FEUDALISM-  277 

vassals,  while  Owari  and  Kii  were  assigned  to  his  sons.  His  fudai 
vassals,  or  "  household  troops,"  were  also  ranged  on  the  west,  while 
to  the  south-west  was  Ozaka,  a  city  in  the  government  domain,  ruled 
by  his  own  officials.  Thus  the  capital  was  completely  walled  in  by 
friends  of  Tokugawa,  and  isolated  from  their  enemies. 

Mori,  once  the  lord  of  ten  provinces,  and  the  enemy  of  Tokugawa, 
was  put  away  into  the  extreme  south-west  of  Hondo,  all  his  territories 
except  Nagato  and  Suwo  being  taken  from  him,  and  given  to  Toku- 
gawa's  direct  vassals.  Opposite  to  Nagato  were  Kokura  and  Chikuzen, 
enemies  of  Nagato.  We  shall  see  the  significance  of  this  when  we 
treat  of  events  leading  to  the  Restoration  (1853-1868).  Shikoku 
was  properly  divided,  so  as  to  secure  a  preponderance  of  Tokugawa's 
most  loyal  vassals.  Kiushiu  was  the  weakest  part  of  the  system  ;  yet 
even  here  Satsuma  was  last  and  farthest  away,  and  Higo,  his  feudal 
rival  and  enemy,  was  put  next,  and  the  most  skillful  disposition  possi- 
ble made  of  the  vassals  and  friends  of  Tokugawa. 

In  the  daimioates  succession  to  their  lands  was  hereditary,  but  not 
always  to  the  oldest  son,  since  the  custom  of  adoption  was  very  preva- 
lent, and  all  the  rights  of  a  son  were  conferred  on  the  adopted  one. 
Often  the  adopted  child  was  no  relation  of  the  ruler.  Sickly  infants 
were  often  made  to  adopt  a  son,  to  succeed  to  the  inheritance  and  keep 
up  the  succession.  One  of  the  most  curious  sights  on  occasions  of 
important  gatherings  of  samurai,  was  to  see  babies  and  little  boys 
dressed  in  men's  clothes,  as  "  heads  of  families,"  sustaining  the  dignity 
of  representing  the  family  in  the  clan.     I  saw  such  a  sight  in  1871. 

One  great  difference  between  the  Japanese  system  and  that  of  en- 
tails in  Europe  lay  in  this,  that  the  estate  granted  to  each  dairaio 
could  not  be  added  to,  or  diminished,  either  by  marriage,  or  by  pur- 
chase,  or  by  might,  except  by  express  permission  and  grant  from  the 
shogun,  the  superior  of  all. 

Next  to  the  daimios  ranked  the  katamoto,  or  flag-supporters  {hata, 
flag ;  moto,  root,  under),  who  were  vassals  of  the  shogun — his  special 
dependence  in  war  time — having  less  than  ten  thousand  koku  reve- 
nue. Each  had  from  three  to  thirty  retainers  in  his  train.  They 
were,  in  most  cases,  of  good  family,  descendants  of  noted  warriors. 
They  numbered  eighty  thousand  in  various  parts  of  the  empire,  but 
the  majority  lived  in  Yedo.  They  formed  the  great  body  of  military 
and  civil  officials.  The  ffokenin,  many  of  the  descendants  of  lyeya- 
su's  private  soldiers,  were  inferior  in  wealth  and  rank  to  the  hatamoto, 
but  with  them  formed  the  hereditary  personal  following  of  the  sho- 


278  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

gun,  and  constituted  the  Tokugawa  clan  proper,  whose  united  reve- 
nues amounted  to  nearly  nine  million  koku.  The  shogun,  or  chief 
daimio  of  the  empire,  has  thus  unapproachable  military  resources,  fol- 
lowing, and  revenue,  and  could  overawe  court  and  emperor  above, 
princes  and  vassals  beneath. 

All  included  within  the  above  classes  and  their  military  retainers 
were  samurai,  receiving  hereditary  incomes  of  rice  from  the  Govern- 
ment. They  were  privileged  to  wear  two  swords,  to  be  exempt  from 
taxes.  They  may  be  styled  the  military-literati  of  the  country.  To  the 
great  bulk  of  these  samurai  were  given  simply  their  daily  portion  of 
rice ;  to  others,  rations  of  rice  for  from  two  to  five  persons.  Some  of 
them  received  small  offices  or  positions,  to  which  land  or  other  sources 
of  income  were  attached.  The  samurai's  ideas  of  honor  forbade  him 
to  do  any  work  or  engage  in  any  business.  His  only  duty  was  to  keep 
perfunctory  watch  at  the  castle  or  his  lord's  house,  walk  in  his  lord's 
retinue,  or  on  stated  occasions  appear  in  ceremonial  dress.  His  life 
was  one  of  idleness  and  ease ;  and,  as  may  be  imagined,  the  long  cent- 
uries of  peace  served  only  to  develop  the  dangerous  character  of  this 
large  class  of  armed  idlers.  Some,  indeed,  were  studious,  or  engaged 
with  zeal  in  martial  exercises,  or  became  teachers ;  but  the  majority 
spent  their  life  in  eating,  smoking,  and  lounging  in  brothels  and  tea- 
houses, or  led  a  wild  life  of  crime  in  one  of  the  great  cities.  When 
too  deeply  in  debt,  or  having  committed  a  crime,  they  left  their  homes 
and  the  service  of  their  masters,  and  roamed  at  large.  Such  men  were 
called  ronins,  or  "  wave-men."  Usually  they  were  villains,  ready  for 
any  deed  of  blood,  the  reserve  mercenaries  from  which  every  conspir- 
ator could  recruit  a  squad.  Occasionally,  the  ronin  was  a  virtuous  cit- 
izen, who  had  left  the  service  of  his  lord  for  an  honorable  purpose. 

Ill  fared  it  with  the  merchants.  They  were  considered  so  low  in 
the  social  scale  that  they  had  no  right  in  any  way  to  oppose  or  to 
remonstrate  with  the  samurai.  Among  the  latter  were  many  noble 
examples  of  chivalry,  men  who  were  ever  ready  to  assist  the  oppress- 
ed and  redress  their  wrongs,  often  becoming  knights-errant  for  the  ben- 
efit of  the  wronged  orphan  and  the  widow,  made  so  by  a  murderer's 
hand.  But  among  the  hatamoto  and  gokenin,  especially  among  the 
victors  of  Sekigahara,  cruelties  and  acts  of  violence  were  not  only  fre- 
quent and  outrageous,  but  winked  at  by  the  Government  officials. 
These  blackmailers,  in  need  of  funds  for  a  spree,  would  extort  money 
under  various  pretexts,  or  none  at  all,  from  helpless  tradesmen  ;  or 
their  servants  would  sally  out  to  a  tea-house,  and,  having  eaten   or 


THE  PERFECTION  OF  DUARCHT  AND  FEUDALISM.         279 

drunk  tlieir  fill,  would  leave  without  paying,  swaggering,  drunk,  and 
singing  between  their  tipsy  hiccoughs.  Remonstrances  from  the 
landlord  would  be  met  with  threats  of  violence,  and  it  was  no  rare 
thing  for  them,  in  their  drunken  fury,  to  slash  off  his  head.  Yet 
these  same  non-producers  and  genteel  loafers  were  intensely  sensitive 
on  many  points  of  honor,  and  would  be  ready  at  any  moment  to  die 
for  their  master.  The  possession  of  swords,  and  the  arrogance  bred 
of  their  superiority  as  a  privileged  class,  acted  continually  as  a  temp- 
tation to  brawls  and  murder. 

Edinburgh,  in  the  old  days  of  the  clans,  is  perhaps  the  best  illustra- 
tion of  Yedo  during  the  Tokugawa  times.  Certain  localities  in  Yedo 
at  night  would  not  suffer  by  a  comparison  with  the  mining  regions 
of  California  during  the  first  opening  of  the  diggings,  when  to  "  eat " 
a  man,  or  to  kill  an  Indian  before  breakfast,  was  a  feather  in  the  cap 
of  men  who  lived  with  revolvers  constantly  in  their  belts.  As  there 
were  always  men  in  the  gulches  of  whom  it  was  a  standing  prophecy 
that  they  would  "  die  with  their  boots  on,"  so  there  was  many  a  man 
in  every  city  of  Japan  of  whom  it  would  be  a  nine  days'  wonder 
should  he  die  with  his  head  on.  Of  such  men  it  was  said  that  their 
death  would  be  inujini  (in  a  dog's  place). 

Yet  the  merchant  and  farmer  were  not  left  utterly  helpless.  The 
Otokodate  were  gallant  and  noble  fellows,  not  of  the  samurai  class, 
but  their  bitter  enemies.  The  swash-bucklers  often  met  their  match 
in  these  men,  who  took  upon  themselves  to  redress  the  grievances  of 
the  unarmed  classes.  The  Otokodate  were  bound  together  into  a 
sort  of  guild  to  help  each  other  in  sickness,  to  succor  each  other  in 
peril,  to  scrupulously  tell  the  truth  and  keep  their  promises,  and  never 
to  be  guilty  of  meanness  or  cowardice.  They  lived  in  various  parts 
of  Japan,  though  the  most  famous  dwelt  in  Yedo.  They  were  the 
champions  of  the  people,  who  loved  and  applauded  them.  Many  a 
bitter  conflict  took  place  between  them  and  the  overbearing  samurai, 
especially  the  "  white-hilts."  The  story  of  their  gallant  deeds  forms 
the  staple  of  many  a  popular  story,  read  with  delight  by  the  common 
people. 

Below  the  samurai,  or  gentry,  the  three  great  classes  were  the  farm- 
ers, artisans,  and  merchants.  These  were  the  common  people.  Be- 
neath them  were  the  etas,  who  were  skinners,  tanners,  leather-dressers, 
grave-diggers,  or  those  who  in  any  way  handled  raw -hide  or  buried 
animals.  They  were  the  pariahs,  or  social  outcasts,  of  Japan.  They 
were  not  allowed  to  enter  a  house,  or  to  eat  or  drink,  sit  or  cook  at 


280  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  same  fire  with  other  persons.  These  people  were  said  by  some  to 
be  descendants  of  Corean  prisoners ;  by  others,  to  have  been  original- 
ly the  people  who  killed  animals  for  feeding  the  imperial  falcons.  As 
Buddhism  prohibited  the  eating  of  animals  as  food,  the  eta  were  left 
out  of  the  pale  of  society.  The  hinin  (not  human)  were  the  lowest 
class  of  beggars,  the  squatters  on  waste  lands,  who  built  huts  along  the 
road,  and  existed  by  soliciting  alms.  They  also  attended  to  the  execu- 
tion of  criminals  and  the  disposal  of  their  corpses.  In  general,  they 
were  filthy  and  disgusting,  in  their  rags  and  dirt. 

There  were  thus,  according  to  one  division,  eight  classes  of  society : 
1st,  the  kuge,  Ki5to  or  court  nobility;  2d,  the  daimios,  Yedo  or  ter- 
ritorial nobles ;  3d,  the  buke,  or  hatamoto,  or  samurai  of  lower  rank 
than  that  of  daimio  and  priest ;  4th,  landed  proprietors  without  title, 
and  farmers,  called  hiyakusho ;  oth,  artisans,  carpenters,  etc.,  called 
shokonin ;  6tli,  merchants,  sbop-keepers,  and  traders,  called  ahindo ; 
7th,  actors,  prostitutes,  genteel  beggars,  etc. ;  8th,  tanners,  skinners, 
hinin,  and  eta. 

Another  division  is  that  into  four  classes:  1st,  military  and  official 
—  samurai;  2d,  agricultural  —  farmer;  3d,  laboring  —  artisan;  4th, 
trading  —  merchant.  Below  the  level  of  humanity  were  the  eta  and 
hinin. 

This  was  the  constitution  of  society  in  Japan  during  the  rule  of 
the  Tokugawa  until  1868. 

lyeyasu,  in  1600  and  the  years  following,  employed  an  army  of 
300,000  laborers  in  Yedo,  in  enlarging  the  castle,  digging  moats  and 
canals,  grading  streets,  filling  marshes,  and  erecting  buildings.  His 
fleets  of  junks  brought  granite  from  Hiogo  for  the  citadel  and  gate 
buttresses,  and  the  river -boats  the  dark  stone  for  the  walls  of  the  en- 
ceinte. His  faith  in  the  future  of  the  city  was  shown  in  his  ordering 
an  immense  outer  ditch  to  be  dug,  which  far  more  than  completely 
encircled  both  castle  and  city,  and  gates  and  towers  to  be  built,  when 
as  yet  there  was  no  wall  connecting,  or  dwelling  -  houses  within  them, 
and  city  people  sauntered  out  into  the  country  to  see  and  laugh  at 
them.  According  to  tradition,  the  great  founder  declared  that  walls 
would  be  built,  and  the  city  extend  far  beyond  them.  The  prediction 
was  verified ;  for  it  is  probable  that  within  fifty  years,  as  we  know 
from  old  maps  of  Yedo,  the  land  east  of  the  river  was  built  upon,  and 
the  city  had  spread  to  within  two -thirds  of  its  present  proportions, 
and  before  the  year  1700  had  a  population  of  over  500,000  souls. 
Yedo  never  did  have,  as  the  Hollanders  guessed,  and  as  our  old  text- 


THE  PEIiFECTIOX  OF  DUARCHT  AND  FEUDALL'iM.         283 

books,  in  stereotyped  phrase,  told  us,  2,500,000  souls.  It  Ls  probable 
that,  in  1857,  when  Mr,  Townsend  Harris,  the  American  envoy,  first 
entered  it,  it  had  as  many  as  1,000,000.  In  1872,  by  official  census, 
the  population  of  Tokio,  including  that  of  the  nllages  around  it  and 
under  the  municipal  jurisdiction,  was  925,000 ;  of  the  city  proper, 
790,000  permanent  residents,  to  which  should  be  added  nearly  100,000 
floating  population. 

Outside  of  Yedo,  the  strength  of  the  great  unifier  was  spent  on  the 
public  roads  and  highways,  especially  the  Tokaido,  or  road  skirting 
the  Eastern  Sea,  which  begins  at  Kioto  and  ends  at  Tokio.  lie  ar- 
ranged fifty -three  stations  (.sA^Atm,  relays,  or  post  -  stations),  at  which 
were  hotels,  pack-horses,  baggage  -  coolies,  and  palanquin -bearers.  A 
regular  code  of  regulations  to  govern  the  movements  of  the  daimios 
and  nobles  when  traveling — the  etiquette  to  be  observed,  the  scale  of 
prices  to  be  charged — wa.s  duly  arranged,  and  continued  in  force  until 
1868.  The  roads,  especially  the  mountain-passes,  bridges,  and  ferries, 
were  improved,  and  one  ri  (measure  of  two  and  two -fifth  miles)  hill- 
ocks to  mark  the  distances  set  up.  The  regulations  required  that  the 
main  roads  should  be  thirty -six  feet  wide,  and  be  planted  with  pine- 
trees  along  their  length.  Cross-roads  should  have  a  width  of  eighteen 
feet ;  foot  -  paths,  six ;  and  of  by  -  paths  through  the  fields,  three  feet. 
At  the  ferry-landing  on  either  bank  of  a  river  there  was  to  be  an  open 
space  of  about  three  hundred  and  sixty  feet.  Various  other  regula- 
tions, pertaining  to  minute  details  of  life,  sumptuary  laws,  and  feudal 
regulations,  were  promulgated,  and  gradually  came  into  force  through- 
out the  empire. 

To  defend  the  Kuanto,  and  strengthen  his  position  as  military  ruler 
of  the  empire,  he  buUt  or  improved  the  nine  castles  of  Mito,  Utsuno- 
miya,  Takasaki,  Odawara,  and  five  others  in  the  Kuanto.  At  Sumpo, 
Ozaka,  and  Xijo,  in  Kioto,  were  also  fine  castles,  and  to  their  command 
officers  were  assigned.  All  these,  and  many  other  enterprises,  required 
a  vast  outlay  of  money.  The  revenue  of  the  empire  amounted  to  near- 
ly 30,000,000  koku  (165,000,000  bushels)  of  rice.  Of  this,  nearly 
9,000,000  koku  were  retained  as  the  revenue  of  the  Tokugawas.  The 
mines  were  government  property ;  and  at  this  time  the  gold  of  Sado 
was  discovered,  which  furnished  lyeyasu  with  the  sinews  of  war  and 
peace.  This  island  may  be  said  to  be  a  mass  of  auriferous  quartz,  and 
has  ever  since  been  the  natural  treasure-house  of  Japan. 

lyeyasu  had  now  the  opportunity  to  prove  himself  a  legislator,  as 
well  as  a  warrior.     He  began  by  granting  amnesty  to  all  who  would 


284  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

accept  it.  He  wished  the  past  forgotten.  He  regretted  that  so  much 
blood  had  been  spilled.  He  entered  upon  a  policy  of  conciliation  that 
rapidly  won  to  his  side  all  the  neutral  and  nearly  all  the  hostile  clans. 
There  were  some  who  were  still  too  proud  or  sullen  to  submit  or  ac- 
cept pardon.  These  were  left  quietly  alone,  the  great  unifier  waiting 
for  the  healing  hand  of  time.  He  felt  sure  of  his  present  power,  and 
set  himself  diligently  to  work  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  con- 
solidate and  strengthen  that  power  so  that  it  would  last  for  centuries. 

lyeyasu  was  created  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun  in  1603.  Only  twice  during 
his  life-time  was  peace  interrupted.  The  persecution  of  the  Christians 
was  one  instance,  and  the  brief  campaign  against  Hideyori,  the  son 
of  the  taiko,  was  the  second.  Around  this  young  man  had  gather- 
ed most  of  the  malcontents  of  the  empire.  lyeyasti  found  or  sought 
a  ground  of  quarrel  against  him,  and  on  the  3d  of  June,  1615,  at- 
tacked the  Castle  of  Ozaka,  which  was  set  on  fire.  A  bloody  battle, 
the  last  fought  on  the  soil  for  two  hundred  and  fifty-three  years,  re- 
sulted in  the  triumph  of  lyeyasu,  and  the  disappearance  of  Hideyori 
and  his  mother,  who  were  probably  consumed  in  the  flames.  His 
tomb,  however,  is  said  to  be  in  Kagoshima.  It  is  most  probably  a 
cenotaph. 

The  greatest  of  the  Tokugawas  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  at 
Sumpu  (Shidziioka),  engaged  in  erasing  the  scars  of  war,  securing  the 
triumphs  of  peace,  perfecting  his  plans  for  fixing  in  stability  his  sys- 
tem of  government,  and  in  collecting  books  and  manuscripts.  He  be- 
queathed his  "  Legacy,"  or  code  of  laws  (see  Appendix),  to  his  chief 
retainers,  and  advised  his  sons  to  govern  in  the  spirit  of  kindness. 
He  died  on  the  8th  of  March,  1616.  His  remains  were  deposited  tem- 
porarily at  Kuno  Zan,  a  few  miles  from  Sumpu,  on  the  side  of  a  love- 
ly mountain  overlooking  the  sea,  where  the  solemnity  of  the  forest 
monarchs  and  the  grandeur  of  sea  and  sky  are  blended  together. 
Acting  upon  the  dying  wish  of  his  father,  Hidetada  had  caused  to  be 
erected  at  Nikko  Zan,  one  hundred  miles  north  of  Yedo,  a  gorgeous 
shrine  and  mausoleum.  The  spot  chosen  was  on  the  slope  of  a  hill, 
on  which,  eight  centuries  before,  the  saintly  bonze  Shodo,  following 
Kob5  Daishi's  theology,  had  declared  the  ancient  Shinto  deity  of  the 
mountain  to  be  a  manifestation  of  Buddha  to  Japan,  and  named  him 
the  Gongen  of  Nikko.  Here  Nature  has  glorified  herself  in  snow- 
ranges  of  mighty  mountains,  of  which  glorious  Nantaizan  reigns  king, 
his  feet  laved  by  the  blue  splendors  of  the  Lake  Chiuzenji,  on  which 
his  mighty  form   is  mirrored.     Nikko  means  sunny  splendor;  and 


THE  PERFECTION  OF  DUARCHT  AND  FEUDALISM.         285 

through  Japanese  poetry  and  impassioned  rhetoric  ever  sparkle  the 
glories  of  the  morning's  mirror  in  Chiuzenji,  and  the  golden  floods  of 
light  that  bathe  Nantaizan.  The  water-fall  of  Kiri  Furi  (falling  mist) ; 
and  of  Kegon,  the  lake's  outlet,  over  seven  hundred  feet  high;  the 
foaming  river,  grassy  green  in  its  velocity ;  the  colossal  forests  and 
inspiring  scenery,  made  it  the  fit  resting-place  of  the  greatest  char- 
acter in  Japanese  history. 

In  1617,  his  remains  were  removed  from  Kuno,  and  in  solemn  pag- 
eantry moved  to  Nikko,  where  the  imperial  envoy,  vicar  of  the  mikado, 
court  nobles  from  Kioto,  many  of  his  old  lords  and  captains,  daimios, 
and  the  shogun  Hidetada,  awaited  the  arrival  of  the  august  ashes. 
The  corpse  was  laid  in  its  gorgeous  tomb,  before  which  the  vicar  of 
majesty  presented  the  gohei,  significant  of  the  apotheosis  of  the  mighty 
warrior,  deified  by  the  mikado  as  the  divine  vice-regent  of  the  gods  of 
heaven  and  earth,  under  the  title  Sho  ichi  i  To  Sho  Dai  Gongen,  or 
"  Noble  of  the  first  Degree  of  the  first  Rank,  Great  Light  of  the  East, 
Great  Incarnation  of  Buddha."  During  three  days,  a  choir  of  Bud- 
dhist priests,  in  their  full  canonical  robes,  intoned  the  Hokke  sacred 
classic  ten  thousand  times.  It  was  ordained  that  ever  afterward  the 
chief  priest  of  Nikko  should  be  a  prince  of  the  imperial  blood,  under 
the  title  of  Rinnoji  no  miya. 

Of  Hidetada,  the  successor  of  lyeyasu,  there  is  little  to  record.  The 
chief  business  of  his  life  seems  to  have  been  to  follow  out  the  policy 
of  his  father,  execute  his  plans,  consolidate  the  central  power,  establish 
good  government  throughout  the  empire,  and  beautify,  strengthen,  and 
adorn  Yedo. 

lyemitsu,  the  grandson  of  lyeyasu,  is  acknowledged  to  have  been 
the  ablest  ruler  of  all  the  Tokugawas  after  the  founder,  whose  system 
he  brought  to  perfection.  In  162.3,  he  went  to  Kioto  to  do  homage 
to  the  mikado,  who  invested  him  with  the  title  of  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun. 
By  this  time  many  of  the  leaders  and  captains  who  had  fought  under 
lyeyasu,  or  those  who  most  respected  him  for  his  prowess,  were  dead 
or  superannuated,  and  had  been  succeeded  by  their  sons,  who,  as 
though  fated  to  follow  historical  precedent,  failed  to  possess  the  vigor 
of  their  fathers,  their  associations  being  those  of  peace,  luxury,  and 
the  effeminacy  which  follows  war. 

lyemitsii  was  a  martinet  as  well  as  a  statesman.  He  proposed  that 
all  the  daimios  should  visit  and  reside  in  Yedo  during  half  the  year. 
Being  at  first  treated  as  guests,  the  shogun  coming  out  to  meet  them 
in  the  suburbs,  they  swore  allegiance  to  his  rules,  sealing  their  signa- 

19 


286 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


tures,  according  to  custom,  with  blood  drawn  from  the  third  finger  of 
the  right  hand.  Gradually,  however,  these  rules  became  more  and 
more  restrictive,  until  the  honorable  position  degenerated  into  a  con- 
dition tantamount  to  mere  vassalage.  Their  wives  and  children  were 
kept  as  hostages  in  Yedo,  and  the  rendition  of  certain  tokens  of  re- 
spect, almost  equivalent  to  homage  to  the  shogun,  became  imperative. 
During  his  rule  the  Christian  insurrection  and  massacre  at  Shimabara 
took  place.     The  Dutch  were  confined  to  Deshima.     Yedo  was  vastly 

improved.  Aqueducts,  still 
in  excellent  use,  were  laid,  to 
supply  the  city  with  water. 
To  guard  against  the  ev- 
er-threatening enemy,  fire, 
watch-towers,  or  lookouts, 
such  as  are  to  be  seen  in 
every  city,  were  erected  in 
great  numbers.  Bells  are 
hung  at  the  top  and  a  code 
of  signals,  and  a  prescribed 
number  of  taps  give  the  lo- 
cality and  progress  of  the 
conflagration.  Mints  were 
established,  coins  struck, 
weights  and  measures  fixed ; 
the  system  of  official  espion- 
age, checks,  and  counter- 
checks established ;  a  gen- 
eral survey  of  the  empire 
executed ;  maps  of  the  vari- 

Fire-lookonts  in  Yedo.     (Height  shown  by  a  kite    ous  provinces   and  plans   of 
flown  by  a  boy  in  the  street.)  ^^^     daimios'     Castles     were 

made,  and  their  pedigrees  made  out  and  published ;  the  councils  called 
Hiojo-sho  (Discussion  and  Decision),  and  Wakadoshiyori  (Assembly 
of  Elders),  established,  and  Corean  envoys  received. 

The  height  of  pride  and  ambition  which  lyemitsu  had  already 
reached  is  seen  in  the  fact  that,  in  a  letter  of  reply  from  the  bakufu 
to  Corea,  the  shogun  is  referred  to  as  Tai  Kun  ("  Tycoon "),  a  title 
never  conferred  by  the  mikado  on  any  one,  nor  had  lyemitsu  any  le- 
gal right  to  it.  It  was  assumed  in  a  sense  honorary  or  meaningless  to 
any  Japanese,  unless  highly  jealous  of  the  mikado's  sovereignty,  and 


THE  PERFECTION  OF  DUARCHT  AND  FEUDALISM.         287 

was  intended  to  overawe  the  "barbarian"  Coreans.  It  is  best  explain- 
able in  the  light  of  the  Virgilian  phrase,  magna  pars  fui,  or  the  less 
dignified  "  Big  Indian  I." 

The  building  of  the  fine  temples  of  Toyeizan,  at  Uyeno,  in  Yedo, 
and  at  Nikko,  were  completed  in  lyemitsu's  time,  he  making  five  jour- 
neys thither.  He  died  in  1649,  after  a  prosperous  rule  of  twenty-six 
years,  and  was  buried  with  his  grandfather  at  Nikko. 

The  successors  of  lyeyasii,  the  shoguns  of  the  Tokugawa  dynasty, 
fourteen  in  all,  were,  with  one  exception,  buried  alternately  in  the 
cemeteries  of  Zozoji  and  Toyeizan,  in  the  city  districts  of  Shiba  and 
Uyeno.  These  twin  necropolises  of  the  illustrious  departed  were  the 
chief  glories  of  Yedo,  which  was  emphatically  the  city  of  the  Toku- 
gawas.  The  remains  of  six  of  them  lie  in  Uyeno,  and  six  in  Shiba, 
while  two  are  at  Nikko. 

During  the  summer  of  1872,  in  company  with  an  American  friend 
and  three  of  my  brightest  students,  I  made  a  journey  to  Nikko,  and 
for  nearly  a  week  reveled  in  its  inspiring  scenery  and  solemn  asso- 
ciations. During  my  three  years'  residence  in  Tokio,  I  visited  these 
twin  sacred  places  many  times,  spending  a  half -day  at  a  visit.  No 
one  has  described  these  places  better  than  Mr.  Mitford,  in  his  "  Tales 
of  Old  Japan."  He  says :  "  It  is  very  difficult  to  do  justice  to  their 
beauty  in  words.  I  have  the  memory  before  me  of  a  place  green  in 
winter,  pleasant  and  cool  in  the  hottest  summer,  of  peaceful  cloisters, 
of  the  fragrance  of  incense,  of  the  subdued  chant  of  richly  robed 
priests,  and  the  music  of  bells  of  exquisite  designs,  harmonious  color- 
ing, and  rich  gilding.  The  hum  of  the  vast  city  outside  is  unheard  here, 
lyeyasu  himself,  in  the  mountains  of  Nikko,  has  no  quieter  resting-place 
than  his  descendants  in  the  heart  of  the  city  over  which  he  ruled." 

Passing  through  an  immense  red  portal  on  the  north  side  of  Shiba, 
we  enter  the  precincts  of  the  sacred  place  through  a  long,  wide  ave- 
nue, lined  by  overarching  firs,  and  rendered  solemnly  beautiful  by 
their  shade.  A  runner  is  usually  on  hand  to  conduct  visitors  to  the 
gate,  inside  of  which  a  priest  is  waiting.  We  enter  a  pebbled  court- 
yard, in  which  are  ranged  over  two  hundred  large  stone  lanterns. 
These  are  the  gifts  of  the  fudai  daimios.  Each  lantern  is  inscribed 
with  the  name  of  the  donor,  the  posthumous  title  of  the  deceased  sho- 
gun,  the  name  of  the  temple  at  Shiba,  and  the  province  in  which  it  is 
situated,  the  date  of  the  offering,  and  a  legend,  which  states  that  it  is 
reverently  offered.  On  the  following  page  is  the  reading  on  one,  and 
will  serve  as  a  specimen  : 


288  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

TO    THE 

ILLUSTRIOUS  TEMPLE  OF  LEARNING* 

[Posthumous  title  of  the  sisth  Shogun  lyenobu] 

THIS  STONE  LANTERN, 

SET  UP  BEFORE  THE  TOMB  AT  THE  TEMPLE  OF  ZOZOJI, 

IN  MUSASHI, 

IS    REVERENTLY    OFFERED 

BY    THE 

RULING    DAIMIO, 

NOBLE    OF    THE    FIFTH    RANK, 

MASUYAMA  FUJIWARA  MASATO, 

LORD    OF    TSUSHIMA, 

IN    THE    SECOND    YEAR    OF    THE    PERIOD    OF    STRICT    VIRTUE, 

IN    THE    CYCLE    OF    THE    WATER    DRAGON 

[1711]. 

Passing  through  a  handsomely  gilt  and  carved  gate-way,  we  enter 
another  court -yard,  the  sides  of  which  are  gorgeously  adorned. 
Within  the  area  are  bronze  lanterns,  the  gift  of  the  Kokushiu  daimios. 
The  six  very  large  gilded  lanterns  standing  by  themselves  are  from 
the  Go  San  Ke,  the  three  princely  families,  in  which  the  succession  to 
the  office  of  shogun  was  vested.  To  the  left  is  a  monolith  lavatory ; 
and  to  the  right  is  a  splendid  building,  used  as  a  depository  of  sacred 
utensils,  such  as  bells,  gongs,  lanterns,  etc.,  used  only  on  matsuri,  or 
festival  days.  Passing  through  another  handsome  gate  which  eclipses 
the  last  in  richness  of  design,  we  enter  a  roofed  gallery  somewhat  like 
a  series  of  cloisters.  In  front  is  the  shrine,  a  magnificent  specimen  of 
native  architecture. 

Sitting  down  upon  the  lacquered  steps,  we  remove  our  shoes,  while 
the  shaven  bonze  swings  open  the  gilt  doors,  and  reveals  a  transept 
and  nave,  laid  with  finest  white  matting,  and  ceiled  in  squares  wrought 
with  elaborate  art.  The  walls  of  the  transept  are  arabesqued,  and  the 
panels  carved  with  birds  and  flowers — the  fauna  of  Japan,  both  real 
and  mythical — and  the  various  objects  in  Japanese  sacred  and  legend- 
ary art.     In  each  panel  the  subjects  are  different,  and  richly  repay 

*  The  homio,  or  posthumous  titles  of  thirteen  Tokugawa  shoguns,  are  :  1,  Great 
Light  of  the  East;  2,  Chief  Virtue;  3,  Illustrious  Enterprise;  4,  Strict  Holding; 
5,  Constant  System ;  6,  Literary  Brightness ;  7,  Upholder  of  the  Plan ;  8,  Up- 
holder of  Virtue;  9,  Profound  Faith;  10,  Steady  Brightness;  11,  Learned  Rever- 
ence ;  13,  Learned  Carefulness ;  13,  Rigid  Virtue. 


THE  PERFECTION  OF  DUARCHY  AND  FEUDALISM.  289 

study.  The  glory  of  motion,  the  passionate  life  of  the  corolla,  and 
the  perfection  of  nature's  colors  have  been  here  reproduced  in  inani- 
mate wood  by  the  artist.  At  the  extremity  of  the  nave  is  a  short 
flight  of  steps.  Two  massive  gilt  doors  swing  asunder  at  the  touch  of 
priestly  hands,  and  across  the  threshold  we  behold  an  apocalypse  of 
splendor.  Behind  the  sacred  offertories,  on  carved  and  lacquered 
tables,  are  three  reliquaries  rising  to  the  ceiling,  and  by  their  outer 
covering  simulating  masses  of  solid  gold.  Inside  are  treasured  the 
tablets  and  posthumous  titles  of  the  august  deceased.  Descending 
from  this  sanctum  into  the  transept  again,  we  examine  the  canonical 
rolls,  bell,  book,  and  candles,  drums  and  musical  instruments,  with 
which  the  Buddhist  rites  are  celebrated  and  the  liturgies  read.  Don- 
ning our  shoes,  we  pass  up  a  stone  court  fragrant  with  blossoming 
flowers,  and  shaded  with  rare  and  costly  trees  of  every  variety,  form, 
and  height,  but  overshadowed  by  the  towering  firs.  We  ascend  a 
flight  of  steps,  and  are  in  another  pebbled  and  stone-laid  court,  in 
which  stands  a  smaller  building,  called  a  haiden,  formerly  used  by  the 
living  shogun  as  a  place  of  meditation  and  prayer  when  making  his 
annual  visit  to  the  tombs  of  his  forefathers.  Beyond  it  is  still  another 
flight  of  stone  steps,  and  in  the  inclosure  is  a  plain  monumental  urn, 
"This  is  the  simple  ending  to  so  much  magnificence" — the  solemn 
application  of  the  gorgeous  sermon. 

The  visitor,  on  entering  the  cemetery  by  the  small  gate  to  the  right 
of  the  temple,  and  a  few  feet  distant  from  the  great  belfr}^  will  see 
three  tombs  side  by  side.  The  first  to  the  left  is  that  of  lyenobu, 
the  sixth  of  the  line,  who  ruled  in  1709-1713.  The  urn  and  gates  of 
the  tomb  are  of  bronze.  The  tomb  in  the  centre  is  that  of  lyeyoshi, 
the  twelfth,  who  ruled  1838-1854.  The  third,  to  the  right,  is  that  of 
lyemochi,  the  fourteenth  shogun,  who  ruled  1858-1866,  and  was  the 
last  of  his  line  who  died  in  power. 

From  the  tomb  of  lyemochi,  facing  the  east  and  looking  to  the 
left,  we  may  see  the  tombs  of  lyetsugu  (I7l3-l7l6),  the  seventh,  and 
of  lyeshige  (1745-1762),  the  ninth,  shogun.  Descending  the  steps 
and  reaching  the  next  stone  platform,  we  may,  by  looking  down  to 
the  left,  see  the  tombs  of  a  shogun's  wife  and  two  of  his  children. 
The  court -yards  and  shrines  leading  to  the  tombs  of  lyetsugu  and 
lyeshige  are  fully  as  handsome  as  the  others.  Hidetada  (1606- 
1623),  the  second  prince  of  the  line,  is  buried  a  few  hundred  yards 
south  of  the  other  tombs.  The  place  is  easily  found.  Passing  down 
the  main  avenue,  and  turning  to  the  right,  we  have  a  walk  of  a  fur- 


290  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

long  or  two  up  a  hill,  on  the  top  of  which,  surrounded  by  cameilia- 
trees,  and  within  a  heavy  stone  palisade,  is  a  handsome  octagon  edi- 
fice of  the  same  material.  A  mausoleum  of  gold  lacquer  rests  up- 
right on  a  pedestal.  The  tomb,  a  very  costly  one,  is  in  a  state  of 
perfect  preservation.  On  one  side  of  the  path  is  a  curiously  carved 
stone,  representing  Buddha  on  his  death-bed.  The  great  temple  of 
Zoz5ji  belonged  to  the  Jodo  sect,  within  whose  pale  the  Tokugawas 
lived  and  died.* 

*  This  splendid  temple  and  belfry  was  reduced  to  ashes  on  the  night  of  Decem- 
ber 31st,  1874,  by  a  fanatic  incendiary.  It  had  been  sequestrated  by  the  Imperial 
Government,  and  converted  into  a  Shinto  miya.  On  a  perfectly  calm  midnight, 
during  a  heavy  fall  of  snow,  the  sparks  and  the  flakes  mingled  together  with  in- 
describable eflfect.  The  new  year  was  ushered  in  by  a  perpendicular  flood  of 
dazzling  green  flame  poured  up  to  an  immense  height.  The  background  of  tall 
cryptomeria  trees  heightened  the  grandeur  of  the  tiery  picture.  As  the  volatil- 
ized gases  of  the  various  metals  in  the  impure  copper  sheathing  of  the  roof  and 
sides  glowed  and  sparkled,  and  streaked  the  iridescent  mass  of  flame,  it  afforded 
a  spectacle  only  to  be  likened  to  a  near  observation  of  the  sun,  or  a  view  through 
a  colossal  spectroscope.  The  great  bell,  whose  casting  had  been  superintended 
by  ly^mitsu,  and  by  him  presented  to  the  temple,  had  for  two  hundred  years 
been  the  solemn  monitor,  inviting  the  people  to  their  devotions.  Its  liquid 
notes  could  be  heard,  it  is  said,  at  Odawara.  On  the  night  of  the  fire  the  old 
bell-ringer  leaped  to  his  post,  and,  in  place  of  the  usual  solemn  monotone,  gave 
the  double  stroke  of  alarm,  until  the  heat  had  changed  one  side  of  the  bell  to 
white,  the  note  deepening  in  tone,  until,  in  red  heat,  the  ponderous  link  softened 
and  bent,  dropping  its  burden  to  the  earth.  It  is  to  be  greatly  regretted  that 
the  once  sacred  grounds  of  Shiba  groves  are  now  desecrated  and  common.  ^^  Sic 
transit  gloria  Tokugawarum.^' 

The  family  of  Tokugawa,  the  city  of  Yedo,  and  the  institutions  of  peaceful 
feudalism  took  their  rise  and  had  their  fall  together.  When  the  last  shogun  re- 
signed in  1868,  Yedo  became  the  Tokio,  or  national  capital,  and  with  Old  Ycdo, 
feudalism  and  Old  Japan  passed  away.  The  desperate  eff"orts  afterward  made  in 
1874  at  Saga,  in  Hizen  (p.  575),  in  1876  at  Kumamoto,  in  Higo  (p.  619),  and  in  Sat- 
suma  in  1877  (p.  621),  to  overthrow  the  mikado's  government,  were  but  the  ex- 
piring throes  of  feudalism.  Old  Japan  has  forever  passed  away,  to  live  only  in 
art,  drama,  and  literature.  The  student  will  find  the  following  monographs  val- 
uable and  interesting:  "The  Streets  and  Street  Names  of  Yedo,"  in  "Transac- 
tions of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,"  1873.  "  The  Tokio  Guide,"  and  "  Map  of 
Tokio,  with  Notes  Historical  and  Explanatory ;"  Yokohama,  1872.  "  The  Castle 
of  Yedo,"  by  T.  R.  H.  M'Clatchie,  a  valuable  paper  read  before  the  Asiatic  So- 
ciety, Dec.  22d,  1877,  and  printed  in  the  Japan  Mail  for  Jan.  12th,  1878,  and  in  the 
society's  "Transactions"  for  1878.  Mitford's  "Tales  of  Old  Japan."  "Chiu- 
shingura ;  or.  The  Loyal  League,"  a  Japanese  Romance  (of  the  47  Ronins),  enrich- 
ed with  native  illustrations,  notes,  and  appendix;  New  York,  1876.  "Japanese 
Heraldry,"  by  T.  R.  H.  M'Clatchie,  in  Asiatic  Society's  "  Transactions"  for  1877. 
The  best  glimpse  into  every-day  humble  liTe  is  alforded  in  "Our  Neighborhood; 
or.  Sketches  in  the  Suburbs  of  Yedo,"  by  T.  A.  P.  (T.  A.  Purcell,  M.D.);  Yoko- 
hama, 1874.  In  Alcock's  "Three  Years  in  Japan"  (New  York,  Harper  &  Broth- 
ers) and  Hildredth's  "  Japan  "  are  also  some  good  pictures  as  seen  by  foreign  eyes. 


THE  MECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAFAN.  291 


XXVIII. 

THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN* 

It  is  the  popular  impression  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe 
that  the  immediate  cause  of  the  fall  of  the  shogun's  Government,  the 
restoration  of  the  mikado  to  supreme  power,  and  the  abolition  of  the 
dual  and  feudal  systems  was  the  presence  of  foreigners  on  the  soil  of 
Japan.  No  one  who  has  lived  in  Dai  Nippon,  and  made  himself  fa- 
miliar with  the  currents  of  thought  among  the  natives,  or  who  has 
studied  the  history  of  the  country,  can  share  this  opinion.  The  for- 
eigners and  their  ideas  were  the  occasion,  not  the  cause,  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  dual  system  of  government,  which  would  certainly 
have  resulted  from  the  operation  of  causes  already  at  work  before  the 
foreigners  arrived.  Their  presence  served  merely  to  hasten  what  was 
already  inevitable. 

I  purpose  in  this  chapter  to  expose  the  true  causes  of  the  recent 
marvelous  changes  in  Japan.  These  comprise  a  three-fold  political 
revolution  within,  a  profound  alteration  in  the  national  policy  toward 
foreigners,  and  the  inauguration  of  social  reforms  which  lead  us  to 
hope  that  Japan  has  rejected  the  Asiatic,  and  adopted  the  European, 
ideal  of  civilization.  I  shall  attempt  to  prove  that  these  causes  oper- 
ated mainly  from  within,  not  from  without ;  from  impulse,  not  from 
impact ;  and  that  they  were  largely  intellectual. 

The  history  of  Japan,  as  manifested  in  the  current  of  events  since 
the  advent  of  Commodore  Perry,  has  its  sources  in  a  number  of  dis- 
tinct movements,  some  logically  connected,  others  totally  distinct  from 
the  rest.  These  were  intended  to  effect:  1.  The  overthrow  of  the 
shogun,  and  his  reduction  to  his  proper  level  as  a  vassal ;  2.  The  res- 
toration of  the  true  emperor  to  supreme  power;  3.  The  abolition  of 
the  feudal  system  and  a  return  to  the  ancient  imperial  regime;  4. 
The  abolition  of  Buddhism,  and  the  establishment  of  pure  Shinto  as 

*  Reprinted  and  enlarged  from  the  North  American  Review  of  April,  1875. 


292  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  national  faith  and  the  engine  of  government.  These  four  move- 
ments were  historically  and  logically  connected.  The  fifth  was  the 
expulsion  of  the  foreign  "  barbarians,"  and  the  dictatorial  isolation 
of  Japan  from  the  rest  of  the  world;  the  sixth,  the  abandonment  of 
this  design,  the  adoption  of  Western  civilization,  and  the  entrance  of 
Japan  into  the  comity  of  nations.  The  origin  of  the  first  and  second 
movements  must  be  referred  to  a  time  distant  from  the  present  by  a 
century  and  a  half ;  the  third  and  fourth,  to  a  period  within  the  past 
century ;  the  fifth  and  sixth,  to  an  impulse  developed  mainly  within 
the  memory  of  young  men  now  living. 

There  existed,  long  before  the  advent  of  Perry,  definite  conceptions 
of  the  objects  to  be  accomplished.  These  lay  in  the  minds  of  earnest 
thinkers,  to  whom  life  under  the  dual  system  was  a  perpetual  winter 
of  discontent,  like  snow  upon  the  hills.  In  due  season  the  spring 
would  have  come  that  was  to  make  the  flood.  The  presence  of  Perry 
in  the  Bay  of  Yedo  was  like  an  untimely  thaw,  or  a  hot  south-wind  in 
February.  The  snow  melted,  the  streams  gathered.  Like  houses  built 
upon  the  sand,  the  shogunate  and  the  feudal  system  were  swept  away. 
They  were  already  too  rotten  and  worm-eaten  to  have  the  great  fall 
which  the  simile  might  suggest.  The  mikado  and  the  ancient  ark  of 
state  floated  into  power.  Buddhism  stood  as  upon  a  rock,  damaged, 
but  firm.  The  foreigner,  moored  to  the  pile-driven  foundations  of  his 
treaties,  held  his  own  more  firmly  than  before.  The  flood  in  full  mo- 
mentum was  swollen  by  a  new  stream  and  deflected  into  a  new  chan- 
nel. Abandoning  the  attempt  to  defy  the  gravitation  of  events,  to 
run  up  the  hill  of  a  past  forever  sloping  backward  into  the  impossi- 
ble, the  flood  found  surcease  with  the  rivers  of  nations  that  make  the 
ocean  of  human  solidarity. 

The  chief  motors  of  these  movements  were  intellectual.  Neither 
the  impact  of  foreign  cannon-balls  at  Kagoshima  or  Shimonoseki  (see 
Appendix),  nor  the  heavy  and  unjust  indemnities  demanded  from  the 
Japanese,  wrought  of  themselves  the  events  of  the  last  ten  years,  as 
foreigners  so  complacently  believe.  An  English  writer  resident  in 
Japan  concludes  his  translation  of  the  "  Legacy  of  lyeyasu  "  by  refer- 
ring to  it  as  the  "  constitution  under  v/hich  this  country  [Japan]  was 
governed  until  the  time  within  the  recollection  of  all,  when  it  gave 
way  to  the  irresistible  momentum  of  a  higher  civilization."  The 
translator  evidently  means  that  the  fall  of  the  dual  form  of  govern- 
ment and  the  feudal  system  was  the  direct  result  of  contact  with  the 
higher  civilization  of  Europe  and  America.     English  writers  on  Japan 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  293 

seem  to  imply  that  the  bombardment  of  Kagoshiraa  was  the  para- 
mount cause  that  impelled  Japan  to  adopt  the  foreign  civilization. 

Much,  also,  has  been  said  and  written  in  praise  of  Japan  for  her 
abolition  of  the  feudal  system  by  a  "  stroke  of  the  pen,"  and  thus 
"  achieving  in  one  day  what  it  required  Europe  centuries  to  accom- 
plish." An  outsider,  whose  knowledge  of  Dai  Nippon  is  derived  from 
our  old  text-books  and  cyclopedias,  or  from  non-resident  book-makers, 
may  be  so  far  dazed  as  to  imagine  the  Japanese  demi-gods  in  state- 
craft, even  as  the  American  newspapers  make  them  all  princes.  To 
the  writer,  who  has  lived  in  a  daimi5's  capital  before,  during,  and 
after  the  abolition  of  feudalism,  the  comparison  suggests  the  reason 
why  the  Irish  recruit  cut  off  the  leg  instead  of  the  head  of  his  enemy. 
Long  before  its  abolition,  Japanese  feudalism  was  ready  for  its  grave. 
The  overthrow  of  the  shogun  left  it  a  headless  trunk.  To  cut  off  its 
legs  and  bury  it  was  easy,  and  in  reality  this  was  what  the  mikado's 
Government  did,  as  I  shall  show. 

As  it  would  be  vain  to  attempt  to  comprehend  our  own  late  civil 
war  by  beginning  at  Sumter,  or  even  with  the  Compromise  measures 
of  1851 ;  so  one  will  be  misled  who,  in  attempting  to  understand  the 
Japan  of  to-day,  looks  only  at  events  since  Perry's  time.  The  roots 
of  the  momentous  growth  of  1868  are  to  be  found  within  the  past 
centuries. 

Yoritomo's  acts  were  in  reality  the  culmination  of  a  long  series  of 
usurpations,  begun  by  the  Taira.  Under  the  plea  of  military  necessity, 
he  had  become  an  arch-usurper.  In  the  period  1184-1199  a.d.  began 
that  dual  system  of  government  which  has  been  the  political  puzzle 
of  the  world ;  which  neither  Kaempfer,  nor  the  Deshima  Hollanders, 
nor  the  Portuguese  Jesuits  seem  ever  to  have  fully  understood ;  which 
has  filled  our  cyclopedias  and  school-books  with  the  misleading  non- 
sense about  "  two  emperors,"  one  "  spiritual  "  and  the  other  "  secular ;" 
which  led  the  astute  Perry  and  his  successors  to  make  treaties  with  an 
underling ;  which  gave  rise  to  a  vast  mass  of  what  is  now  very  amus- 
ing reading,  embracing  much  prophecy,  fiction,  and  lamentations,  in 
the  Diplomatic  Correspondence  from  Japan ;  and  which  keeps  alive 
that  venerable  solecism  heard  among  a  few  Rip  Van  AVinkles  in  Ja- 
pan, who  talk,  both  in  Japanese  and  English,  about  the  "return  of  the 
tycoon  to  power."  There  never  was  but  one  emperor  in  Japan ;  the 
shogim  was  a  military  usurper,  and  the  bombastic  title  "  tycoon  "  a 
diplomatic  fraud. 

We  have  seen  how  the  policy  of  Yoritomo  was  continued  by  the 


294  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Hojo,  the  Asliikaga,  and  the  Tokugawas,  who  consummated  the  per- 
manent separation  of  the  throne  and  the  camp.  The  custom  of  the 
shoguns  going  to  Kioto  to  do  the  mikado  homage  fell  into  desuetude 
after  the  visit  of  lyemitsu.  The  iron-handed  rule  of  the  great  com- 
mander at  Yedo  was  felt  all  over  the  empire,  and  after  centuries  of 
war  it  had  perfect  peace.  Learning  flourished,  the  arts  prospered. 
So  perfect  was  the  political  machinery  of  the  bakufu  that  the  power 
of  the  mikado  seemed  but  a  shadow,  though  in  reality  it  was  vastly 
greater  than  foreigners  ever  imagined. 

The  dwellings  of  the  two  rulers  at  Yedo  and  Kioto,  of  the  domi- 
neering general  and  the  overawed  emperor,  were  typical  of  their  posi- 
tions. The  mikado  dwelt,  unguarded,  in  a  mansion  surrounded  by 
gardens  inclosed  within  a  plaster  wall,  in  a  city  which  was  the  chosen 
centre  of  nobles  of  simple  life,  highest  rank,  and  purest  blood,  men  of 
letters,  students,  and  priests,  and  noted  for  its  classic  history  and 
sacred  associations,  monasteries,  gardens,  and  people  of  courtly  man- 
ners and  gentle  life.  The  shogun  lived  in  a  fortified  and  garrisoned 
castle,  overlooking  an  upstart  city  full  of  arsenals,  vassal  princes,  and 
military  retainers.  The  feelings  of  the  people  found  truest  expression 
in  the  maxim,  "  The  shogun  all  men  fear ;  the  mikado  all  men  love." 

The  successors  of  lyeyasu,  carrying  out  his  policy,  having  extermi- 
nated the  "  corrupt  sect "  (Christianity),  swept  all  foreigners  out  of 
the  empire,  and  bolting  its  sea-barred  gates,  proceeded  to  devise  and 
execute  measures  to  eliminate  all  disturbing  causes,  and  fix  in  eternal 
stability  the  peaceful  conditions  which  were  the  fruit  of  the  toils  of 
his  arduous  life.  They  deliberately  attempted  to  prevent  Chronos 
from  devouring  his  children. 

According  to  their  scheme,  the  intellect  of  the  nation  was  to  be 
bounded  by  the  Great  Wall  of  the  Chinese  classics,  while  to  the  hie- 
rarchy of  Buddhism — one  of  the  most  potent  engines  ever  devised  for 
crushing  and  keeping  crushed  the  intellect  of  the  Asiatic  masses — was 
given  the  ample  encouragement  of  government  example  and  patron- 
age. An  embargo  was  laid  upon  all  foreign  ideas.  Edicts  commanded 
the  destruction  of  all  boats  built  upon  a  foreign  model,  and  forbade 
the  building  of  vessels  of  any  size  or  shape  superior  to  that  of  a  junk. 
Death  was  the  penalty  of  believing  in  Christianity,  of  traveling  abroad, 
of  studying  foreign  languages,  of  introducing  foreign  customs.  Be- 
fore the  august  train  of  the  shogun  men  must  seal  their  upper  win- 
dows, and  bow  their  faces  to  the  earth.  Even  to  his  tea-jars  and  cook- 
ing-pots the  populace  must  do  obeisance  with  face  in  the  dust.     To 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  295 

study  ancient  history,  whicli  might  expose  the  origin  of  the  shogun- 
ate,  was  forbidden  to  the  vulgar,  and  discouraged  among  the  higher. 
A  rigid  censorship  dried  the  life-blood  of  many  a  master  spirit,  while 
the  manufacture  and  concoction  of  false  and  garbled  histories  which 
extolled  the  reigning  dynasty,  or  glorified  the  dual  system  of  govern- 
ment as  the  best  and  only  one  for  Japan,  were  encouraged.  There 
were  not  wanting  poets,  fawning  flatterers,  and  even  historians,  who  in 
their  effusions  styled  the  august  usurper  the  0-gimi  (Chinese,  tai-kun, 
or  "  tycoon "),  a  term  meaning  great  prince,  or  exalted  ruler,  and 
properly  applied  only  to  the  mikado.  The  blunders,  cruelties,  and  op- 
pressions of  the  Tokugawa  rulers  were,  in  popular  fiction  and  drama, 
removed  from  the  present,  and  depicted  in  plots  laid  in  the  time  of 
the  Ashikagas,  and  the  true  names  changed.  One  of  the  most  perfect 
systems  of  espionage  and  repression  ever  devised  was  elaborated  to 
fetter  all  men  in  helpless  subjection  to  the  great  usurper.  An  incred- 
ibly large  army  of  spies  was  kept  in  the  pay  of  the  Government. 
Within  such  a  hedge,  the  Government  itself  being  a  colossal  fraud, 
rapidly  grew  and  flourished  public  and  private  habits  of  lying,  and  de- 
ceit in  all  its  forms,  until  the  love  of  a  lie  apparently  for  its  own  sake 
became  a  national  habit.  Wlien  foreigners  arrived  in  the  Land  of  the 
Gods  during  the  decade  following  Perry's  arrival,  they  concluded  that 
the  lying  which  was  everywhere  persistently  carried  on  in  the  Govern- 
ment and  by  private  persons  with  such  marvelous  facility  and  unique 
originality  was  a  primal  characteristic  of  Japanese  human  nature.  The 
necessity  of  hoodwinking  the  prying  eyes  of  the  foreigners,  lest  they 
should  discover  the  fountain  of  authority,  and  the  true  relation  of  the 
shogun,  gave  rise  to  the  use  of  official  deception  that  seemed  as  varie- 
gated as  a  kaleidoscope  and  as  regular  as  the  laws  of  nature.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  daimios  who  had  received  lands  and  titles  from  the  sho- 
gun believed  their  allegiance  to  be  forever  due  to  him,  instead  of  to 
the  mikado,  a  belief  stigmatized  as  rank  treason  by  the  students  of 
history.  As  for  the  common  people,  the  great  mass  of  them  forgot, 
or  never  knew,  that  the  emperor  had  ever  held  power  or  governed  his 
people ;  and  being  officially  taught  to  believe  him  to  be  a  divine  per- 
sonage, supposed  he  had  lived  thus  from  time  immemorial.  Knowing 
only  of  the  troubled  war  times  before  the  "great  and  good"  Tokuga- 
was,  they  believed  devoutly  in  the  infallibility,  paternal  benevolence, 
and  divine  right  of  the  Yedo  rulers. 

The  line  of  shoguns,  founded  by  lyeyasu,  was  the  last  that  held,  or 
ever  will  hold,  the  military  power  in  Japan.     To  them  the  Japanese 


296  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE.      " 

people  owe  the  blessing  of  nearly  two  hundred  and  seventy  years  of 
peace.  Under  their  firm  rule  the  dual  form  of  government  seemed 
fixed  on  a  basis  unchangeable,  and  the  feudal  system  in  eternal  stabili- 
ty. There  did  not  exist,  nor  was  it  possible  there  should  arise,  causes 
such  as  undermined  the  feudalism  of  Europe.  The  Church,  the  Em- 
pire, free  cities,  industrialism — these  were  all  absent.  The  eight  classes 
of  the  people  were  kept  contented  and  happy.  A  fertile  soil  and  ge- 
nial clime  gave  food  in  unstinted  profusion,  and  thus  was  removed  a 
cause  which  is  a  chronic  source  of  insurrection  in  portions  of  China. 
As  there  was  no  commerce,  there  was  no  vast  wealth  to  be  accumu- 
lated, nor  could  the  mind  of  the  merchant  expand  to  a  limit  danger- 
ous to  despotism  by  fertilizing  contact  with  foreigners.  All  learning 
and  education,  properly  so  called,  were  confined  to  the  samurai,  to 
whom  also  belonged  the  sword  and  privilege.  The  perfection  of  the 
governmental  machinery  at  Yedo  kept,  as  was  the  design,  the  daimios 
poor  and  at  jealous  variance  with  each  other,  and  rendered  it  impossi- 
ble for  them  to  combine  their  power.  No  two  of  them  ever  were  al- 
lowed to  meet  in  private  or  to  visit  each  other  without  spies.  The 
vast  army  of  eighty  thousand  retainers  of  the  Tokugawas,  backed  by 
the  following  of  some  of  the  richest  clans,  such  as  Owari,  Kii,  Mito, 
and  Echizen  (see  Appendix),  who  were  near  relatives  of  the  shogunal 
family,  together  with  the  vast  resources  in  income  and  accumulation, 
made  it  appear,  as  many  believed,  that  the  overthrow  of  the  Tokuga- 
was, or  the  bakufu,  or  the  feudal  system,  was  a  moral  impossibility. 

Yet  all  these  fell  to  ruin  in  the  space  of  a  few  months !  The  baku- 
fu is  now  a  shadow  of  the  past.  The  Tokugawas,  once  princes  and 
the  gentry  of  the  land,  whose  hands  never  touched  other  tools  than 
pen  and  sword,  now  live  in  obscurity  or  poverty,  and  by  thousands 
keep  soul  and  body  together  by  picking  tea,  making  paper,  or  digging 
the  mud  of  rice-fields  they  once  owned,  like  the  laborers  they  once 
despised.  Their  ancestral  tombs  at  Kuno,  Shiba,  Uyeno,  and  Nikko, 
once  the  most  sacred  and  magnificently  adorned  of  Japanese  places 
of  honor,  are  now  dilapidating  in  unarrested  neglect,  dishonor,  and  de- 
cay. The  feudal  system,  at  the  toach  of  a  few  daring  parvenus,  crum- 
bled to  dust  like  the  long  undisturbed  tenants  of  catacombs  when  sud- 
denly moved  or  exposed  to  the  light  of  day.  Two  hundred  and  fifty 
princes,  resigning  lands,  retainers,  and  incomes,  retired  to  private  life  in 
Tokio  at  the  bidding  of  their  former  servants,  acting  in  the  name  of 
the  mikado.  They  are  now  quietly  waiting  to  die.  They  are  the 
"  dead  facts  stranded  on  the  shores  of  the  oblivious  years." 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  297 

What  were  the  causes  of  these  three  distinct  results?  When  be- 
gan the  first  gathering  of  the  waters  which  burst  into  flood  in  1868, 
sweeping  away  the  landmarks  of  centuries,  floating  the  old  ship  of 
state  into  power,  impelling  it,  manned  with  new  men  and  new  ma- 
chinery, into  the  stream  of  modern  thought,  as  though  Noah's  ark  had 
been  equipped  with  engines,  steam,  and  propellers  ?  To  understand 
the  movement,  we  must  know  the  currents  of  thought,  and  the  men 
who  produced  the  ideas. 

There  were  formerly  many  classes  of  people  in  Japan,  but  only 
three  of  these  were  students  and  thinkers.  The  first  comprised  the 
court  nobles,  the  literati  of  Kioto  ;  the  second,  the  priests,  who  brought 
into  existence  that  mass  of  Japanese  Buddhistic  literature,  and  origi- 
nated and  developed  those  phases  of  the  India  cultus  which  have 
made  Japanese  Buddhism  a  distinct  product  of  thought  and  life 
among  the  manifold  developments  of  the  once  most  widely  professed 
religion  in  the  world.  This  intellectual  activity  and  ecclesiastical 
growth  culminated  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Since  that  time  Japa- 
nese thought  has  been  led  by  the  samurai,  among  whom  \^e  may  in- 
clude the  priests  of  Shinto.  The  modern  secular  intellectual  activity 
of  Japan  attained  its  highest  point  during  the  latter  part  of  the  last 
and  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century.  Even  as  far  back  as  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  students  of  ancient  history  began  to  under- 
stand clearly  the  true  nature  of  the  duarchy,  and  to  see  that  the  sho- 
gunate  could  exist  only  while  the  people  were  kept  in  ignorance. 
From  that  tirtie  Buddhism  began  to  lose  its  hold  on  the  intellect  of 
the  samurai  and  lay  educated  classes.  The  revival  of  Chinese  learn- 
ing, especially  the  Confucian  and  Mencian  politico  -  ethics,  followed. 
Buddhism  was  almost  completely  supplanted  as  a  moral  force.  The 
invasion  of  Corea  was  one  of  the  causes  tributary  to  this  result,  which 
was  greatly  stimulated  by  the  presence  of  a  number  of  refugee  schol- 
ars, who  had  fled  from  China  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Ming  dynasty. 
The  secondary  influence  of  the  fall  of  Peking  and  the  accession  of 
the  Tartars  became  a  parallel  to  the  fall  of  Constantinople  and  the 
dispersion  of  the  Greek  scholars  through  Europe  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  relation  between  the  sovereign  (mikado)  and  vassal 
(shogun)  had  become  so  nearly  mythical,  that  most  Japanese  fathers 
could  not  satisfy  the  innocent  and  eager  questions  of  their  children 
as  to  who  was  sovereign  of  Japan.  The  study  of  the  Confucian  moral 
scheme  of  "  The  Five  Relations  "  {i.  e.,  sovereign  and  minister,  parent 
and  child,  husband  and  wife,  elder  and  younger  brother,  and  between 


298  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

friends),  in  whicli  the  first  and  great  requirement  is  the  obedience  of 
the  vassal  to  his  lord,  aroused  an  incoercible  desire  among  the  samurai 
to  restore  and  define  that  relation  so  long  obscured.  This  spirit  in- 
creased with  every  blunder  of  the  bakufu ;  and  when  the  revolution 
opened,  "  the  war-cry  that  led  the  imperial  party  to  victory  was  Daigi 
meibun,  or  the  'King  and  the  subject;'  whereby  it  was  understood 
that  the  distinction  between  them  must  be  restored,  and  the  shogun 
should  be  reduced  to  the  proper  relation  of  subject  or  servant  to  his 
sovereign."* 

The  province  of  Mito  was  especially  noted  for  the  number,  ability, 
and  activity  of  its  scholars.  In  it  dwelt  the  learned  Chinese  refugees 
as  guests  of  the  daimio.  The  classic,  which  has  had  so  powerful  an 
influence  in  forming  the  public  opinion  which  now  upholds  the  mi- 
kado's throne,  is  the  product  of  the  native  scholars,  who  submitted 
their  text  for  correction  to  the  Chinese  scholars.  The  second  Prince 
of  Mito,  who  was  born  1622,  and  died  1700,  is  to  be  considered,  as 
was  first  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Ernest  Satow,  as  "  the  real  author  of  the 
movement  which  culminated  in  the  revolution  of  1868."  Assembling 
around  him  a  host  of  scholars  from  all  parts  of  Japan,  he  began  the 
composition  of  the  Dai  Nlhon  Shi,  or  "  History  of  Japan."  It  is  writ- 
ten in  the  purest  Chinese,  which  is  to  Japan  what  Latin  is  to  learning 
in  Europe,  and  fills  two  hundred  and  forty-three  volumes,  or  matter 
about  equal  to  Mr.  Bancroft's  "  History  of  the  United  States."  It 
was  finished  in  1715,  and  immediately  became  a  classic.  Though  dil- 
igently studied,  it  remained  in  manuscript,  copied  from  hand  to  hand 
by  eager  students,  until  1851,  when  the  wide  demand  for  it  induced 
its  publication  in  print.  The  tendency  of  this  book,  as  of  most  of  the 
many  publications  of  Mito,f  was  to  direct  the  minds  of  the  people  to 
the  mikado  as  the  true  and  only  source  of  authority,  and  to  point  out 
the  historical  fact  that  the  shogun  was  a  military  usurper.  Mito,  be- 
ing a  near  relative  of  the  house  of  Tokugawa,  was  allowed  greater  lib- 
erty in  stating  his  views  than  could  have  been  granted  to  any  other 
person.  The  work  begun  by  Mito  was  followed  up  by  the  famous 
scholar,  Rai  Sanyo,  who  in  1827,  after  twenty  years  of  continuous  la- 
bor, coinpleted  his  Nikon  Guai  Shi  ("  External  History  of  Japan  "),  in 
which  he  gives  the  history  of  each  of  the  military  families,  Taira,  Mi- 
namoto.  Ho  jo,  Ashikaga,  etc.,  who  held  the  governing  power  from  the 


*  Arinori  Mori:  Introduction  to  "Education  in  Japan,"  p.  26. 
+  See  article  Japan,  Literature  of,  in  tlie  "American  CyclopiBdia." 


THE  RECEST  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  299 

period  of  tlie  decadence  of  the  mikados.  This  work  had  to  pass  the 
ordeal  of  the  censorate  at  Yedo,  and  some  of  the  volumes  were  re- 
peatedly purged  by  the  censors  before  they  were  allowed  to  be  pub- 
lished. The  unmistakable  animus  of  this  great  book  is  to  show  that 
the  mikado  is  the  only  true  ruler,  in  whom  is  the  fountain  of  power, 
and  to  whom  the  allegiance  of  every  Japanese  is  due,  and  that  even 
the  Tokugawas  were  not  free  from  the  guilt  of  usurpation. 

The  long  peace  of  two  centuries  gave  earnest  patriots  time  to  think. 
Though  the  great  body  of  the  people,  both  the  governing  and  the  gov- 
erned classes,  enervated  by  prolonged  prosperity  and  absence  of  dan- 
ger, cared  for  none  of  these  things,  the  serious  students  burned  to  see 
the  mikado  again  restored  to  his  ancient  authority.  This  motive  alone 
would  have  caused  revolution  in  due  time.  They  felt  that  Japan  had 
retrograded,  that  the  military  arts  had  sunk  into  neglect,  that  the  war 
spirit  slumbered.  Yet  on  all  sides  the  "  greedy  foreigners  "  were  ey- 
ing the  Holy  Country.  Already  the  ocean,  once  a  wall,  was  a  high- 
way for  wheeled  vessels.  The  settlement  of  California  and  the  Pacif- 
ic coast  made  the  restless  Americans  their  neighbors  on  the  east,  with 
only  a  wide  steam  ferry  between.  American  whalers  cruised  in  Japa- 
nese waters,  and  hunted  whales  in  sight  of  the  native  coasters.  Amer- 
ican ships  repeatedly  visited  their  harbors  to  restore  a  very  few  of  the 
human  waifs  which  for  centuries  in  unintermitted  stream  had  drifted 
up  the  Kuro  Shiwo  and  across  the  Pacific,  giving  to  America  wrecks 
and  spoils,  her  tribes  men,  her  tongues  words,  and  perhaps  the  civiliza- 
tion which  in  Peru  and  Mexico  awoke  the  wonder  and  tempted  the 
cupidity  of  the  Spanish  marauders  (see  Appendix).  Defying  all  prec- 
edent, and  trampling  on  Japanese  pride  and  isolation,  the  American 
captains  refused  to  do  as  the  Hollanders,  and  go  to  Nagasaki,  and  ap- 
peared even  in  the  Bay  of  Yedo.  The  long  scarfs  of  coal-smoke  were 
becoming  daily  matters  of  familiar  ugliness  and  prognostics  of  doom. 
The  steam-whistle  heard  by  the  junk  sailors — as  potent  as  the  rams' 
horns  of  old  —  had  already  thrown  down  their  walls  of  exclusion. 
The  "  black  ships "  of  the  "  barbarians "  passing  Matsumae  in  one 
year  numbered  eighty-six.  Russia,  on  the  north,  was  descending  upon 
Saghalin ;  the  English,  French,  Dutch,  and  Americans  were  pressing 
their  claims  for  trade  and  commerce.  The  bakufu  was  idle,  making 
few  or  no  preparations  to  resist  the  fierce  barbarians.  Far-sighted 
men  saw  that,  in  presence  of  foreigners,  a  collision  between  the  two 
centres  of  government,  Yedo  and  Kioto,  would  be  immediate  as  it  was 
inevitable.     When  it  should  come,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  sho- 


300  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE.       ^ 

gunate  must  fall.  The  samurai  would  adhere  to  the  mikado's  side, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  feudal  system  would  follow  as  a  logical  ne- 
cessity. It  was  the  time  of  luxury,  carousal,  and  the  stupor  of  licen- 
tious carnival  with  most  of  the  daimios,  but  with  others  of  gloomy 
forebodings. 

Another  current  of  thought  was  flowing  in  the  direction  of  a  re- 
stored mikadoate.  It  may  be  called  the  revival  of  the  study  of  pure 
Shinto,  and,  in  examining  the  causes  of  the  recent  revolution,  can  not 
be  overlooked.  The  introduction  of  Buddhism  and  Chinese  philoso- 
phy greatly  modified  or  "corrupted"  the  ancient  faith.  A  school  of 
modern  writers  has  attempted  to  purge  modern  Shinto,  and  present 
it  in  its  original  form. 

According  to  this  religion,  Japan  is  pre-eminently  the  Land  of  the 
Gods,  and  the  mikado  is  their  divine  representative  and  vicegerent. 
Hence  the  duty  of  all  Japanese  implicitly  to  obey  him.  During  the 
long  reign  of  the  shoguns,  and  of  Buddhism,  which  they  favored  and 
professed,  few,  indeed,  knew  what  pure  Shinto  was.  Its  Bible  is  the 
Kojiki,  compiled  a.d.  712.  Several  other  works,  such  as  the  Nihongi, 
Manyoshiu,  are  nearly  as  old  and  as  valuable  in  the  eyes  of  Shinto 
scholars  as  the  Kojiki.  They  are  written  in  ancient  Japanese,  and  can 
be  read  only  by  special  students  of  the  archaic  form  of  the  language. 
The  developments  of  a  taste  for  the  study  of  ancient  native  literature 
and  for  that  of  history  were  nearly  synchronous.  The  neglect  of 
pure  Japanese  learning  for  that  of  Chinese  had  been  almost  universal, 
until  Keichiu,  Kada,  and  other  scholars  revived  its  critical  study.  The 
bakufu  discouraged  all  such  investigation,  while  the  mikado  and  court 
at  Kioto  lent  it  all  their  aid,  both  moral  and,  as  it  is  said,  pecuniary. 
Mabuchi(l697-1769),  Motoori  (1730-1801),  and  Hirata  (1776-1843), 
each  successively  the  pupil  of  the  other,  are  the  greatest  lights  of  pure 
Shinto  ;  and  their  writings,  which  are  devoted  to  cosmogony,  ancient 
history,  and  language,  the  true  position  of  the  mikado  and  the  Shinto 
cultus,  exerted  a  lively  influence  at  Kioto,  in  Mito,  in  Echizen,  Satsuma, 
and  in  many  other  provinces,  where  a  political  party  was  already  form 
ing,  with  the  intention  of  accomplishing  the  abolition  of  the  bakufu 
and  a  return  to  the  Osei  era.  The  necessary  result  of  the  study  of 
Shinto  was  an  increase  of  reverence  for  the  mikado.  Buddhism,  Chi- 
nese influence,  Confucianism,  despotism,  usurpation,  and  the  bakufu 
were,  in  the  eyes  of  a  Shintoist,  all  one  and  the  same.  Shinto,  the 
ancient  true  religion,  all  which  a  patriot  could  desire,  good  govern- 
ment, national  purity,  the  Golden  Age,  and  a  life  best  explained  by  the 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  301 

conception  of  the  "  millennium  "  among  Christians,  were  synonymous 
with  the  mikado  and  his  return  to  power.  The  argumencs  of  the 
Shintoists  helped  to  swell  the  tide  that  came  to  its  flood  at  Fushimi. 
Throughout  and  after  the  war  of  1868-1870,  there  were  no  more  bit- 
ter partisans  who  urged  to  the  last  extremes  of  logic  and  severity  the 
issues  of  the  war  and  the  "  reformation."  It  was  the  study  of  the  lit- 
erature produced  by  the  Shinto  scholars  and  the  historical  writers  that 
formed  the  public  opinion  that  finally  overthrew  the  shogunate,  the 
bakufu,  and  feudalism. 

Long  before  foreigners  arrived,  the  seeds  of  revolution  were  above 
the  soil.  The  old  Prince  of  Mito,  a  worthy  descendant  of  his  illustri- 
ous ancestor,  tired  of  preaching  Shinto  and  of  persuading  the  shogiin 
to  hand  over  his  authority  to  the  mikado,  resolved,  in  1840,  to  take 
up  arms  and  to  try  the  wager  of  battle.  To  provide  the  sinews  of 
war,  he  seized  the  Buddhist  monasteries,  and  melted  down  their  enor- 
mous bronze  bells  and  cast  them  into  cannon.  By  prompt  measures 
the  bakufu  suppressed  his  preparations  for  war,  and  imprisoned  him 
for  twelve  years,  releasing  him  only  in  the  excitement  consequent  upon 
the  arrival  of  Perry. 

Meanwhile  Satsuma,  Choshiu,  and  other  Southern  clans  were  mak- 
ing extensive  military  preparations,  not  merely  to  be  in  readiness  to 
drive  out  the  possible  foreign  invaders,  but,  as  we  now  know,  and  as 
events  proved,  to  reduce  the  shogun  to  his  proper  level  as  one  of  many 
of  the  mikado's  vassals.  The  ancestors  of  these  most  powerful  clans 
had  of  old  held  equal  rank  and  power  with  lyeyasu,  until  the  fortunes 
of  war  turned  against  them.  They  had  been  overcome  by  force,  or 
had  sullenly  surrendered  in  face  of  overwhelming  odds.  Their  adhe» 
sion  to  the  Tokugawas  was  but  nominal,  and  only  the  strong  pressure 
of  superior  power  was  able  to  wring  from  them  a  haughty  semblance 
of  obedience.  They  chafed  perpetually  under  the  rule  of  one  who 
was  in  reality  a  vassal  like  themselves.  On  more  than  one  occasion 
they  openly  defied  and  ignored  the  bakuf u's  orders ;  and  the  purpose, 
scarcely  kept  secret,  of  the  Satsuma  and  Choshiu  clans  was  to  destroy 
the  shogunate,  and  acknowledge  no  authority  but  that  of  the  mikado. 

From  the  Southern  clans  rose,  finally,  the  voice  in  council,  the 
secret  plot,  the  coup  d'etat,  and  the  arms  in  the  field  that  wrought 
the  purpose  for  which  Mito  labored.  Yet  they  would  never  have  been 
successful,  had  not  a  public  sentiment  existed  to  support  them,  which 
the  historical  writers  had  already  created  by  their  writings.  The 
scholars  could  never  have  gratified  their  heart's  wish,  had  not  the 

20 


302  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

sword  and  pen,  brain  and  hand — both  equally  mighty — helped  each 
other. 

Notably  pre-eminent  among  the  Southern  daimios,  in  personal  char- 
acteristics, abilities,  energy,  and  far-sightedness,  was  the  Prince  of 
Satsuma.  Next  to  Kaga,  he  was  the  wealthiest  of  all  the  daimios 
(see  Appendix).  Had  he  lived,  he  would  doubtless  have  led  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  of  1868.  Besides  giving  encouragement  to  all 
students  of  the  ancient  literature  and  history,  he  was  most  active  in 
developing  the  material  resources  of  his  province,  and  in  perfecting 
the  military  organization,  so  that,  when  the  time  should  be  ripe  for 
the  onslaught  on  the  bakufu,  he  might  have  ready  for  the  mikado  the 
military  provision  to  make  his  government  a  complete  success.  To 
carry  out  his  plans,  he  encouraged  the  study  of  the  Dutch  and  English 
languages,  and  thus  learned  the  modern  art  of  war  and  scientific  im- 
provement. He  established  cannon  -  foundries  and  mills  on  foreign 
principles.  He  saw  that  something  more  was  needed.  Young  men 
must  visit  foreign  countries,  and  there  acquire  the  theory  and  practice 
of  the  arts  of  war  and  peace.  The  laws  of  the  country  forbade  any 
subject  to  leave  it,  and  the  bakufu  was  ever  on  the  alert  to  catch  run- 
aways. Later  on,  however,  by  a  clever  artifice,  a  number  of  the 
brightest  young  men,  about  twenty-seven  in  number,  got  away  in  one 
vessel  to  Europe,  and,  despite  the  surveillance  of  the  Yedo  officials, 
others  followed  to  England  and  the  United  States.  Among  these 
young  men  were  some  who  are  now  high  officials  of  the  Japanese 
Government. 

The  renown  of  this  prince  extended  all  over  the  empire,  and  num- 
bers of  young  men  from  all  parts  of  the  country  flocked  to  be  his 
pupils  or  students.  Kagoshima,  his  capital,  became  a  centre  of  busy 
manual  industry  and  intellectual  activity.  Keeping  pace  with  the  in- 
tense energy  of  mind  and  hand  was  the  growing  sentiment  that  the 
days  of  the  bakufu  were  numbered,  that  its  fall  was  certain,  and  that 
the  only  fountain  of  authority  was  the  mikado.  The  Satsuma  samurai 
and  students  all  looked  to  the  prince  as  the  man  for  the  coming  crisis, 
when,  to  the  inexpressible  grief  of  all,  he  sickened  and  died,  in  1858. 
He  was  succeeded  in  actual  power  by  Shimadzii  Saburo,  his  younger 
brother.  No  master  ever  left  more  worthy  pupils ;  and  those  most  trust- 
ed and  trusting,  among  many  others,  were  Saigo,  Okubo,  and  Katsu.  The 
mention  of  these  names  calls  up  to  a  native  the  most  stirring  memories 
of  the  war.  Saigo  became  the  leader  of  the  imperial  army.  Okubo, 
the  implacable  enemy  of  the  bakufu,  was  the  master-spirit  in  council, 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  303 

and  the  power  behind  the  throne  which  urged  the  movement  to  its 
logical  consequences.  At  this  moment,  the  annihilator  of  the  Saga 
rebellion,  crowned  with  diplomatic  laurels,  and  the  conqueror  of  a 
peace  at  Peking,  he  stands  leader  of  the  Cabinet,  and  the  foremost  man 
in  Japan.  Katsu  advised  the  bakufu  not  to  fight  Choshiu,  and  his 
master  to  resign  his  position,  thus  saving  Yedo  from  destruction.  The 
lesser  men  of  note,  pupils  of  Satsuma,  who  now  hold  positions  of  trust, 
or  who  have  become  disinterested  Cincinnati,  to  show  their  patriotism, 
are  too  many  to  mention. 

Familiarity  with  the  facts  above  exposed  will  enable  one  to  under- 
stand the  rush  of  events  that  followed  the  arrival  of  the  American  en- 
voy. The  bakufu  was  apparently  at  the  acme  of  power.  The  shogun 
lyeyoshi  at  Yedo  wan  faineant.  The  mikado  at  Kioto,  Komei  Tenno, 
father  of  the  present  emperor,  was  a  man  who  understood  well  his 
true  position,  hated  the  bakufu  as  a  nest  of  robbers,  and  all  foreigners 
as  unclean  beasts.  Within  the  empire,  all  was  ripe  for  revolution. 
Beneath  the  portentous  calm,  those  who  would  listen  could  hear  the 
rumble  of  the  political  earthquake.  From  without  came  puffs  of  news, 
like  atmospheric  pulses  portending  a  cyclone.  On  that  8th  day  of 
July,  1853,  the  natural  sea  and  sky  wearing  perfect  calm,  the  magnifi- 
cent fleet  of  the  "  barbarian  "  ships  sailed  up  the  Bay  of  Yedo.  It  was 
the  outer  edge  of  the  typhoon.  The  Susquehanna  was  leading  the 
squadrons  of  seventeen  nations. 

There  was  one  spectator  upon  the  bluffs  at  Yokohama  who  was  per- 
suaded in  his  own  mind  that  the  men  who  could  build  such  ships  as 
those ;  who  were  so  gentle,  kind,  patient,  firm ;  having  force,  yet  using 
it  not ;  demanding  to  be  treated  as  equals,  and  in  return  dealing  with 
Japanese  as  with  equals,  could  not  be  barbarians.  If  they  were,  it 
were  better  for  the  Japanese  to  become  barbarous.  That  man  was 
Katsu,  now  the  Secretary  of  the  Japanese  Navy, 

I'he  barbarian  envoy  was  a  strange  creature.  He  was  told  to  leave 
the  Bay  of  Yedo  and  go  to  Nagasaki,  He  impolitely  refused,  and 
staid  and  surveyed,  and  was  dignified.  This  was  anomalous.  Other 
barbarians  had  not  acted  so ;  they  had  quietly  obeyed  orders.  Fur- 
thermore, he  brought  letters  and  presents,  all  directed  "  To  the  Em- 
peror of  Japan."  The  shogun  was  not  emperor,  but  he  must  make 
believe  to  be  so.  It  would  not  do  to  call  himself  the  mikado's  general 
only.  This  title  awed  sufficiently  at  home ;  but  would  the  strangers 
respect  it  ?     A  pedantic  professor  ("  not  the  Prince  of  Dai  Gaku  ")  in 


304  THE  IIIK ADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  Chinese  college  (Dai  Gaku  Ko)  at  Yedo  was  sent  to  treat  with 
the  barbarian  Perry.  A  chopper  of  Chinese  logic,  and  a  stickler  for 
exact  terms,  the  pedant  must,  as  in  duty  bound,  exalt  his  master.  He 
inserted,  or  at  least  allowed  to  be  used  in  the  treaties  the  title  tai-kun, 
a  purely  Chinese  word,  which  in  those  official  documents  signified  that 
he  was  the  supreme  ruler  of  all  Japan.  This  title  had  never  been  be- 
stowed upon  the  shogun  by  the  mikado,  nor  had  it  ever  been  used  in 
the  imperial  official  documents.  The  bakufu  and  the  pedantic  pro- 
fessor, Hayashi,  did  not  mean  to  lie  to  the  true  sovereign  in  Kioto. 
The  bakufu,  like  a  frog,  whose  front  is  white,  whose  back  is  black, 
could  look  both  ways,  and  present  two  fronts.  Seen  from  Kioto,  the 
lie  was  white ;  that  is,  "  meant  nothing."  Looked  at  by  those  unsus- 
pecting dupes,  the  barbarians,  it  was  black ;  that  is,  "  The  august  Sov- 
ereign of  Japan,"  as  the  preamble  of  the  Perry  treaty  says.  Yet  to  the 
jealous  emperor  and  court  this  white  lie  was,  as  ever  white  lies  are,  the 
blackest  of  lies.  It  created  the  greatest  uneasiness  and  alarm.  The 
shogun  had  no  shadow  of  right  to  this  bombastic  figment  of  authority. 

It  was  a  new  illustration  in  diplomacy  of  ^sop's  Fable  No.  26. 
The  great  Yedo  frog  puffed  itself  to  its  utmost  to  equal  the  Kioto  ox, 
and  it  burst  in  the  attempt.  The  last  carcass  of  these  batrachians  in 
diplomacy  was  buried  in  Shidzuoka,  a  city  ninety-five  miles  south- 
west of  Tokio,  in  1868.  The  writer  visited  this  ancient  home  of  the 
Tokugawas  in  1872,  and  in  a  building  within  a  mile  of  the  actual 
presence  of  the  last  and  still  living  "  tycoon,"  and  within  shouting  dis- 
tance of  thousands  of  his  ex  -  retainers,  saw  scores  of  the  presents 
brought  by  Commodore  Perry  lying,  many  of  them,  in  mildew,  rust, 

or  neglect.     They  were  all  labeled  "  Presented  by  the of 

the  United  States  to  the  Emperor  of  Japan."  Yet  the  mikado  never 
saw  them.  The  Japanese  excel  at  a  jibe,  but  when  did  they  perpe- 
trate sarcasm  so  huge  ?  The  mikado's  government,  with  Pilate's  irony, 
had  allowed  the  tycoon  to  keep  the  presents,  with  the  labels  on  them ! 

We  may  fairly  infer  that  so  consummate  a  diplomatist  as  Perry, 
had  he  understood  the  true  state  of  affairs,  would  have  gone  with  his 
fleet  to  Ozaka,  and  opened  negotiations  with  the  mikado  at  Kioto,  in- 
stead of  with  his  lieutenant  at  Yedo.  Perhaps  he  never  knew  that  he 
had  treated  with  an  underling. 

The  immediate  results  of  the  opening  of  the  ports  to  foreign  com- 
merce in  1859  were  the  disarrangement  of  the  prices  of  the  necessaries 
of  life,  and  almost  universal  distress  consequent  thereon,  much  sickness 
and  mortality  from  the  importation  of  foreign  diseases,  to  which  was 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  305 

added  an  exceptional  succession  of  destructive  earthquakes,  typhoons, 
floods,  fires,  and  storms.  In  the  midst  of  these  calamities  the  shogun, 
lyesada,  died. 

An  heir  must  be  chosen.  His  selection  devolved  upon  the  tairo, 
or  regent,  11,  a  man  of  great  ability,  daring,  and,  as  his  enemies  say, 
of  unscrupulous  villainy.  li,*  though  socially  of  low  rank,  possessed 
almost  supreme  power.  Ignoring  the  popular  choice  of  Keiki  (the 
seventh  son  of  the  Daimio  of  Mito),  who  had  been  adopted  by  the 
house  of  Hitotsubashi,  he  chose  the  Prince  of  Kii,  a  boy  twelve  years 
of  age.  In  answer  to  the  indignant  protests  of  the  princes  of  Mito,f 
Echizen,  and  Owari,  he  shut  them  up  in  prison,  and  thus  alienated 
from  his  support  the  near  relatives  of  the  house  of  Tokugawa.  It 
was  his  deliberate  intention,  say  his  enemies,  to  depose  the  mikado, 
as  the  Hojo  did,  and  set  up  a  boy  emperor  again.  At  the  same  time, 
all  who  opposed  him  or  the  bakufu,  or  who,  in  either  Kioto,  Yedo,  or 
elsewhere,  agitated  the  restoration  of  the  mikado,  he  impoverished, 
imprisoned,  exiled,  or  beheaded.  Among  his  victims  were  many  noble 
scholars  and  patriots,  whose  fate  excited  universal  pity.J 


*  The  premier,  li,  was  the  Duimio  of  Hikone,  a  castled  town  and  fief  on  Lake 
Biwa,  in  Mino  ;  revenue,  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  koku.  He  was  at  the 
head  of  the  fudai.  His  personal  name  was  Nawosuk^ ;  his  title  at  the  emperor's 
court  was  kamon  no  kami — head  of  the  bureau  of  the  Ku  Nai  Sho  (imperial  house- 
hold)— having  in  charge  the  hangings,  curtains,  carpets,  mats,  and  the  sweeping 
of  the  palace  on  state  occasions.  His  rank  at  Kioto  was  Chiujo,  or  ''general  of 
the  second  class."  In  the  bakufu,  he  was  prime  minister,  or  "tairo."  He  had 
a  son,  who  was  afterward  educated  in  Brooklyn,  New  York. 

+  It  would  be  impossible  in  brief  space  to  narrate  the  plots  and  counterplots  at 
Yedo  and  Kioto  during  the  period  1860-1868.  As  a  friendly  critic  (in  The  Hiogo 
News,  June  9th,  1875)  has  pointed  out,  I  allow  that  the  Prince  of  Mito,  while 
wishing  to  overthrow  the  shogunate,  evidently  wished  to  see  the  restoration  ac- 
complished with  his  son,  Keiki,  in  a  post  of  high  honor  and  glory.  While  in 
banishment,  secret  instructions  were  sent  from  Kioto,  which  ran  thus:  "The 
bakufu  has  shown  great  disregard  of  public  opinion  in  concluding  treaties  with- 
out waiting  for  the  opinion  of  the  court,  and  in  disgracing  princes  so  closely  al- 
lied by  blood  to  the  shogun.  The  mikado's  rest  is  disturbed  by  the  spectacle  of 
such  misgovernment,  when  the  fierce  barbarian  is  at  our  very  door.  Do  you, 
therefore,  assist  the  bakufu  with  your  advice;  expel  the  barbarians;  content  the 
mind  of  the  people;  and  restore  tranquillity  to  his  majesty's  bosom." — Kinse 
Shiriaku,  p.  11,  Satow's  translation.  This  letter  was  afterward  delivered  up  to 
the  bakufu,  shortly  after  which  (September,  1861)  the  old  prince  died.  The  Mito 
clan  was  for  many  years  afterward  divided  into  two  factions,  the  "Righteous" 
and  the  "  Wicked."  There  is  no  proof  that  the  Prince  of  Mito  poisoned  ly^sada, 
except  the  baseless  guess  of  Sir  Rutherford  Alcock,  which  has  a  value  at  par  with 
most  of  that  writer's  statements  concerning  Japanese  history. 

X  Among  others  was  Yoshida  Shoin,  a  samurai  of  Choshiu,  and  a  student  of 


306  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

The  mikado  being  by  right  the  supreme  ruler,  and  the  shogun 
merely  a  vassal,  no  treaty  with  foreigners  could  be  binding  unless 
signed  by  the  mikado. 

The  shogun  or  his  ministers  had  no  right  whatever  to  sign  the 
treaties.  Here  was  a  dilemma.  The  foreigners  were  pressing  the 
ratification  of  the  treaties  on  the  bakufu,  while  the  mikado  and  court 
as  vigorously  refused  their  consent.  li  was  not  a  man  to  hesitate.  As 
the  native  chronicler  writes :  "  He  began  to  think  that  if,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  these  constant  arrivals  of  foreigners  of  different  nations,  he 
were  to  wait  for  the  Kioto  people  to  make  up  their  minds,  some  un- 
lucky accident  might  bring  the  same  disasters  upon  Japan  as  China 
had  already  experienced.  He,  therefore,  concluded  a  treaty  at  Kana- 
gawa,  and  affixed  his  seal  to  it,  after  which  he  reported  the  transac- 
tion to  Kioto." 

This  signature  to  the  treaties  without  the  mikado's  consent  stirred 
up  intense  indignation  at  Kioto  and  throughout  the  country,  which 
from  one  end  to  the  other  now  resounded  with  the  cry,  "  Honor  the 
mikado,  and  expel  the  barbarian."  In  the  eyes  of  patriots,  the  regent 
was  a  traitor.  His  act  gave  the  enemies  of  the  bakufu  a  legal  pretext 
of  enmity,  and  was  the  signal  of  the  regent's  doom.  All  over  the 
country  thousands  of  patriots  left  their  homes,  declaring  their  inten- 

European  learning.  He  was  the  man  who  tried  to  get  on  board  Commodore 
Perry's  ship  at  Shimoda  (Perry's  "  Narrative,"  p.  485-488).  He  had  been  kept  in 
prison  in  his  clan  since  1854.  He  wrote  a  pauiplilet  against  the  project  of  taking 
up  arms  against  the  bakufu,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  the  Yedo  rulers  with 
his  liberty.  After  li's  arbitrary  actions,  Yoshida  declared  that  the  shogunate 
could  not  be  saved,  and  must  fall.  When  the  shogun' s  ministers  were  arresting 
patriots  in  Kioto,  Yoshida  resolved  to  take  his  life.  For  this  plot,  after  detection, 
he  was  sent  to  Yedo  in  a  cage,  and  beheaded.  This  ardent  patriot,  whose  memo- 
ry is  revered  by  all  parties,  was  one  of  the  first  far-sighted  men  to  see  that  Japan 
must  adopt  foreign  civilization,  or  fall  before  foreign  progress,  like  India.  The 
national  enterprises  now  in  operation  were  urged  by  him  in  an  able  pamphlet 
written  before  his  death. 

Another  victim,  a  student  of  European  literature,  and  a  fine  scholar  in  Dutch 
and  Chinese,  named  Hashimoto  Sanai,  of  Fukui,  brother  of  my  friend  Dr.  Hashi- 
moto, surgeon  in  the  Japanese  army,  fell  a  martyr  to  his  loyalty  and  patriotism. 
This  gentleman  was  the  instrument  of  arousing  an  enthusiasm  for  foreign  science 
in  Fukui,  which  ultimately  resulted  in  the  writer's  appointment  to  Fukui.  Ha- 
shimoto saw  the  need  of  opening  peaceful  relations  with  foreigners,  but  believed 
that  it  could  safely  be  done  only  under  the  restored  and  unified  government. 
Under  a  system  of  divided  authority,  he  held  that  the  ruin  of  Japan  would  re- 
sult. Had  Perry  treated  with  the  mikado,  foreign  war  might  possibly  have  re- 
sulted, though  very  probably  not.  By  treating  with  the  counterfeit  emperor  in 
Yedo,  civil  war,  foreign  hostilities,  impoverishment  of  the  country,  and  national 
misery,  prolonged  for  years,  were  inevitable. 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  307 

tion  not  to  return  to  them  until  the  mikado,  restored  to  power,  should 
sweep  away  the  barbarians.  Boiling  over  with  patriotism,  bands  of 
assassins,  mostly  ronins,  roamed  the  country,  ready  to  slay  foreigners, 
or  the  regent,  and  to  die  for  the  mikado.  On  the  23d  of  March,  li 
was  assassinated  in  Yedo,  outside  the  Sakurada  gate  of  the  castle,  near 
the  spot  where  now  stand  the  offices  of  the  departments  of  War  and 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  the  Gothic  brick  buildings  of  the  Imperial  Col- 
lege of  Engineering.  Then  followed  the  slaughter  of  insolent  foreign- 
ers, and  in  some  cases  of  innocent  ones,  and  the  burning  of  their  lega- 
tions, the  chief  object  in  nearly  every  case  being  to  embroil  the  baku- 
fu  with  foreign  powers,  and  thus  hasten  its  fall.  Some  of  these  ama- 
teurs, who  in  foreign  eyes  were  incendiaries  and  assassins,  and  in  the 
native  view  noble  patriots,  are  now  high  officials  in  the  mikado's 
Government. 

The  prestige  of  the  bakufu  declined  daily,  and  the  tide  of  influence 
and  power  set  in  steadily  toward  the  true  capital.  The  custom  of  the 
shogun's  visiting  Kioto,  and  doing  homage  to  the  mikado,  after  an  in- 
terval of  two  hundred  and  thirty  years,  was  revived,  which  caused  his 
true  relation  to  be  clearly  understood  even  by  the  common  people,  who 
then  learned  for  the  first  time  the  fact  that  the  rule  existed,  and  had 
been  so  long  insolently  ignored.  The  Prince  of  Echizen,  by  a  special 
and  unprecedented  act  of  the  bakufu,  and  in  obedience  to  orders  from 
the  Kioto  court,  was  made  premier.  By  his  own  act,  as  many  believe, 
though  he  was  most  probably  only  the  willing  cat's-paw  of  the  South- 
ern daimios,  he  abolished  the  custom  of  the  daimios'  forced  residence 
in  Yedo.  Like  wild  birds  from  an  opened  cage,  they,  with  all  their 
retainers,  fled  from  the  city  in  less  than  a  week.  Yedo's  glory  faded 
like  a  dream,  and  the  power  and  greatness  of  the  Tokugawas  came  to 
naught.  Few  of  the  clans  obeyed  any  longer  the  command  of  the 
bakufu,  and  gradually  the  hearts  of  the  people  fell  away.  "  And  so," 
says  the  native  chronicler,  "the  prestige  of  the  Tokugawa  family, 
which  had  endured  for  three  hundred  years;  which  had  been  really 
more  brilliant  than  Kamakura  in  the  age  of  Yoritomo  on  a  moonlight 
night  when  the  stars  are  shining ;  which  for  more  than  two  hundred 
and  seventy  years  had  forced  the  daimios  to  come  breathlessly  to  take 
their  turn  of  duty  in  Yedo ;  and  which  had,  day  and  night,  eighty 
thousand  vassals  at  its  beck  and  call,  fell  to  ruin  in  the  space  of  one 
morning." 

The  clans  now  gathered  at  the  true  miako,  Kioto,  which  became  a 
scene  of  gayety  and  bustle  unknown  since  the  days  of  the  Taira 


308 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


Ending  tlieir  allegiance  to  the  bakufu,  they  began  to  act  either  ac- 
cording to  their  own  will,  or  only  at  the  bidding  of  the  court.  They 
filled  the  imperial  treasury  with  gold,  and  strengthened  the  hands  of 
the  Son  of  Heaven  with  their  loyal  devotion.  Hatred  of  the  foreign- 
er, and  a  desire  to  fill  their  empty  coffers  with  the  proceeds  of  com- 
merce, swayed  the  minds  of  many  of  them  like  the  wind  among  reeds. 
Others  wished  to  open  the  ports  in  their  fiefs,  so  as  to  pocket  the  prof- 


MatBudaira  Yoshiuaga,  ex-Dainiio  of  Echizen,  Chief  Minister  of  State  in  1SC2. 
carte-de-visite  presented  by  him.) 


(From  a 


its  of  foreign  commerce,  which  the  bakufu  enjoyed  as  its  monopoly. 
A  war  of  pamphlets  ensued,  some  writers  attempting  to  show  that  the 
clans  owed  allegiance  to  the  bakufu ;  others  condemning  the  idea  as 
treasonable,  and,  having  the  historic  facts  on  their  side,  proved  the  mi- 
kado to  be  the  sole  sovereign.  The  bakufu,  acting  upon  the  pressure 
of  public  opinion  in  Kioto,  and  in  hopes  of  restoring  its  prestige,  bent 
all  its  effoi'ts  to  close  the  ports  and  persuade  the  foreigners  to  leave 
Japan.     For  this  purpose  they  sent  an  embassy  to  Europe.     To  has- 


THE  RECEXT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  309 

ten  their  steps,  the  renins  now  began  the  systematic  assassination  of  all 
who  opposed  their  plans,  pillorying  their  heads  in  the  dry  bed  of  the 
river  in  front  of  the  city.  As  a  hint  to  the  Tokugawa  "  usurpers," 
they  cut  off  the  heads  of  wooden  images  of  the  first  three  Ashikaga 
shoguns,  and  stuck  them  on  poles  in  public.  The  ronins  were  ar- 
rested ;  Choshiu  espoused  their  side,  while  Aidzu,  who  was  governor 
of  the  city,  threw  them  into  prison.  The  mikado,  urged  by  the  clam- 
orous braves,  and  by  kuge  who  had  never  seen  one  of  the  "  hairy  for- 
eigners," nor  dreamed  of  their  power,  issued  an  order  for  their  expul- 
sion from  Japan.  The  Choshiu  men,  the  first  to  act,  erected  batteries 
at  Shimonoseki.  The  bakufu,  which  was  responsible  to  foreigners, 
commanded  the  clan  to  disarm.  They  refused,  and  in  July,  1863,  fired 
on  foreign  vessels.  They  obeyed  the  mikado,  and  disobeyed  the  sho- 
gun.  During  the  next  month,  Kagoshima  was  bombarded  by  a  Brit- 
ish squadron. 

On  the  4th  of  September,  the  Choshiu  cannoneers  fired  on  a  bakufu 
steamer,  containing  some  men  of  the  Kokura  clan  who  were  enemies 
of  Choshiu,  and  who  had  given  certain  aid  and  comfort  to  foreign  ves- 
sels, and  refused  to  fire  on  the  latter.  The  Choshiu  men  in  Kioto  be- 
sought the  mikado  to  make  a  progress  to  Yamato,  to  show  to  the  em- 
pire his  intention  of  taking  the  field  in  person  against  the  barbarians. 
The  proposal  was  accepted,  and  the  preliminaries  arranged,  when  sud- 
denly all  preparations  were  stopped,  Choshiu  became  an  object  of 
blackest  suspicion,  the  palace  gates  were  doubly  guarded,  the  city  was 
thrown  into  violent  commotion ;  while  the  deliberations  of  the  palace 
ended  in  the  expulsion  of  Sanjo  Saneyoshi  (now  Dai  Jo  Dai  Jin), 
Sawa  (Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  1870-'7l),  and  five  other  court 
nobles,  who  were  deprived  of  their  rank  and  titles,  while  eighteen  oth- 
ers were  punished,  and  all  retainers  or  members  of  the  family  of  Mori 
(Choshiu)  were  peremptorily  "  forbidden  to  enter  the  capital "  —  a 
phrase  that  made  them  outlaws.  An  army  was  levied,  and  the  city 
put  in  a  state  of  defense. 

The  reason  of  this  was,  that  the  Choshiu  men  were  accused  of  plot- 
ting to  get  possession  of  the  mikado's  person,  in  order  to  dictate  the 
policy  of  the  empire.  The  eighteen  kuge  and  the  six  ringleaders  were 
suspected  of  abetting  the  plot.  This,  and  the  firing  on  the  steamer 
containing  their  envoys,  roused  the  indignation  of  the  bakufu,  and  the 
clans  loyal  to  it,  especially  Aidzu,  to  the  highest  pitch.  The  men  of 
Choshiu,  accompanied  by  the  seven  kuge,  fled,  September  30th,  1863, 
to  their  province. 


310  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Clioshiu  now  became  the  rendezvous  of  deserters  and  ronins  from 
all  parts  of  Japan.  In  July  of  the  following  year,  1864,  a  body  of 
many  hundred  of  irresponsible  men  of  various  clans,  calling  themselves 
"  Irregulars,"  arrived  in  Kioto  from  the  South,  to  petition  the  mikado 
to  restore  Mori  and  the  seven  nobles  to  honor,  and  to  drive  out  the 
barbarians.  Aidzu  and  the  shogun's  vassals  were  for  attacking  these 
men  with  arms  at  once.  The  mikado,  not  adopting  the  views  of  the 
petitioners,  returned  them  no  answer.  On  July  30th,  the  "  Irregulars" 
were  increased  by  many  hitherto  calm,  but  now  exasperated,  Choshiu 
men,  and  encamped  in  battle  array  in  the  suburbs,  where  they  were 
joined,  August  1 5th,  by  two  karos,  and  two  hundred  men  from  Choshiu, 
sent  by  Prince  Mori  to  restrain  his  followers  from  violence.  While 
thus  patiently  waiting,  a  notification  that  they  were  to  be  punished  was 
issued,  August  1 9th,  to  them  by  the  court,  then  under  the  influence  of 
Aidzu,  and  Keiki  was  put  in  command  of  the  army  of  chastisement. 

With  tears  and  letters  of  sorrowful  regret  to  their  friends  at  court, 
the  Choshiu  men  and  the  ronins,  in  a  written  manifesto  vindicated  the 
justness  of  their  cause,  swore  vengeance  against  Aidzu,  whose  troops 
were  encamped  in  the  imperial  flower-garden,  and  then  asking  pardon 
of  the  Son  of  Heaven  "  for  making  a  disturbance  so  near  the  base  of 
the  chariot "  (the  throne),  they  accepted  the  wager  of  battle,  and  rushed 
to  the  attack.  "  The  crisis  had  arrived,"  says  the  native  chronicler, 
"  and  the  spirit  of  murder  filled  and  overflowed  heaven  and  earth. 
The  term  choteki,  which  for  centuries  had  been  obsolete,  now  again 
came  into  being.  Many  myriads  of  habitations  were  destroyed,  and 
millions  of  people  were  plunged  into  a  fiery  pit."  On  the  20th  of 
August,  1864,  at  day-dawn,  the  battle  began,  the  Choshiu  men  advan- 
cing in  three  divisions,  numbering  in  all  thirteen  hundred  men,  their 
design  being  to  attack  the  nine  gates  of  the  imperial  palace  and  sur- 
round the  flower-garden.  The  Tokugawa  and  Aidzu  troops  were 
backed  by  those  of  Echizcn,  Hikone,  Kuwana,  and  others.  The  bat-, 
tie  raged  furiously  for  two  days,  involving  the  city  in  a  conflagration, 
which,  fanned  by  a  gale,  reduced  large  quarters  of  it  to  a  level  of  ashes. 
The  fighting  was  by  men  in  armor,  equipped  mostly  with  sword,  ar- 
row, cannon,  and  musket:  811  streets,  27,400  houses,  18  palaces,  44 
large  and  630  small  yashikis,  60  Shinto  shrines,  115  Buddhist  temples, 
40  bridges,  400  beggar's  huts,  and  one  eta  village  were  destroyed  by 
the  flames;  1216  fire-proof  store-houses  were  knocked  to  pieces  by 
the  cannonading  kept  up  after  the  battle  to  prevent  the  Choshiu  men 
from  hiding  in  them.     "  The  capital,  suiTounded  by  a  nine-fold  circle 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  311 

of  flowers,  entirely  disappeared  in  one  morning  in  the  smoke  of  the 
flames  of  a  war  fire."  The  homeless  city  populace  fled  to  the  suburbs, 
dwelling  on  roofless  earth,  pestered  by  the  heat  and  clouds  of  mos- 
quitoes, while  men  in  soldiers'  dress  played  the  robber  without  fear 
or  shame.  "  The  Blossom  Capital  became  a  scorched  desert."  The 
Chdshiu  were  utterly  defeated,  and  driven  out  of  the  city.  Thirty- 
seven  of  them  were  decapitated  in  prison. 

The  next  month  the  bakufu  begged  the  imperial  court  to  deprive 
the  Mori  family  and  all  its  branches  of  their  titles.  Elated  with  suc- 
cess, an  order  was  issued  to  all  the  clans  to  march  to  the  chastisement 
of  the  two  provinces  of  Nagato  and  Suwo.  The  Tokugawa  intended 
thus  to  set  an  example  to  the  wavering  clans,  and  give  proof  of  the 
power  it  still  possessed.  During  the  same  month,  September  5th  and 
6th,  1864,  Shimonoseki  was  bombarded  by  an  allied  fleet  bearing  the 
flags  of  four  foreign  nations.  After  great  destruction  of  life  and 
property,  the  generous  victors  demanded  an  "  indemnity  "  of  three 
million  Mexican  dollars  (see  Appendix).  The  brave  clan,  having  de- 
fied the  bakufu  at  Kioto,  dared  the  prowess  of  the  "  civilized  world," 
and  stood  to  their  guns  at  Shimonoseki  till  driven  away  by  over- 
whelming numbers  of  balls  and  men,  now  prepared  to  face  the  com- 
bined armies  of  the  shogunate. 

Then  was  revealed  the  result  of  the  long  previous  preparation  in 
the  South  for  war.  The  Choshiu  clansmen,  united  and  alert,  were 
lightly  dressed,  armed  with  English  and  American  rifles,  drilled  in  Eu- 
ropean tactics,  and  abundantly  provided  with  artillery,  which  they 
fired  rapidly  and  with  precision.  They  had  cast  away  armor,  sword, 
and  spear.  Choshiu  had  long  been  the  seat  of  Dutch  learning,  and 
translations  of  Dutch  military  works  were  numerously  made  and  used 
there.  Their  disciplined  battalions  were  recruited  from  the  common 
people,  not  from  the  samurai  alone,  were  well  paid,  and  full  of  enthu- 
siasm. The  bakufu  had  but  a  motley,  half-hearted  army,  many  of 
whom,  when  the  order  was  given  to  march,  straightway  fell  ill,  having 
no  stomach  for  the  fight.  Some  of  the  most  influential  clans  declined 
or  refused  outright  to  join  the  expedition,  whose  purpose  was  con- 
demned by  almost  all  the  wisest  leaders,  notably  by  Katsu,  the  sho- 
gun's  adviser. 

A  campaign  of  three  months,  in  the  summer  of  1866,  ended  in  the 
utter  and  disgraceful  defeat  of  the  bakufu,  and  the  triumph  of  Cho- 
shiu, The  clans  not  yet  in  the  field  refused  to  go  to  the  front.  The 
prestige  of  the  shogunate  was  now  irretrievably  ruined. 


312  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

The  young  sbogun,  worn  out  with  ceaseless  anxiety,  died  at  Ozaka, 
September  19th,  1866.  He  had  secured  the  mikado's  consent  to  the 
treaties,  on  the  condition  that  they  should  be  revised,  and  that  Hiogo 
should  never  be  opened  as  a  port  of  foreign  commerce.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Keiki,  his  former  rival,  who  was  appointed  head  of  the  To- 
kugawa  family  by  the  court  October,  1866.  On  the  6th  of  January, 
1867,  he  was  made  sh5gun.  He  had  repeatedly  declined  the  position. 
He  brought  to  it  numerous  private  virtues,  but  only  the  firmness  of  a 
feather  for  the  crisis  at  hand.  The  average  Japanese  lacks  the  stolid- 
ity and  obstinacy  of  the  Chinaman,  and  fickleness  is  supposed  to  be 
his  chief  characteristic.  Keiki,  as  some  of  his  once  best  friends  say, 
was  fickleness  personified.  If,  with  the  help  of  counselors,  he  could 
make  up  his  mind  to  one  course  of  action,  the  keenest  observers  could 
never  forecast  the  change  liable  to  ensue  when  new  advisers  appeared. 
It  is  evident  that  the  appointment  of  such  a  man  at  this  crisis  served 
only  to  precipitate  the  issue.  His  popularity  at  the  court  most  prob- 
ably arose  from  the  fact  that  he  was  opposed  to  the  opening  of  Hio- 
go and  Ozaka  to  the  foreigners. 

In  October,  1867,  the  Prince  of  Tosa  openly  urged  the  new  shogun 
to  resign ;  while  many  able  samurai,  Saigo,  Okubo,  Goto,  Kido,  Hiro- 
zawa,  Komatsti,  backed  by  such  men  of  rank  as  Shimadzu  Saburo, 
and  the  ex-princes  of  Echizen,  Uwajima,  Hizen,  and  Tosa,  urged  the 
formation  of  the  Government  on  the  basis  of  the  ante-shogun  era  pri- 
or to  1200  A.D.  They  formed  so  powerful  a  combination  that  on  the 
9th  of  November,  1867,  the  vacillating  Keiki,  yielding  to  the  force  of 
public  opinion,  tendered  his  resignation  as  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun. 

This  was  a  long  step  toward  the  ancient  regime.  Yet,  as  in  Japan, 
whichever  party  or  leader  has  possession  of  the  mikado  is  master  of 
the  situation ;  and  as  the  Aidzu  clan,  the  most  stanchly  loyal  to  the 
Tokugawa  family,  kept  guard  at  the  gates  of  the  imperial  palace,  it 
was  still  uncertain  where  the  actual  power  would  reside — whether  in 
the  Tokugawa  clan,  in  the  council  of  daimios,  or,  where  it  rightfully 
belonged,  with  the  imperial  court.  The  influential  samurai  of  Satsu- 
ma,  and  Choshiu,  and  the  princes  of  Tosa,  Echizen,  and  Uwajima  were 
determined  not  to  let  the  question  hang  in  suspense.  Gradually,  small 
parties  of  the  soldiers  of  the  combination  assembled  in  the  capital. 
Saigo  and  Okubo,  Kido,  Goto,  and  Iwakura,  were  too  much  in  earnest 
to  let  the  supreme  opportunity  slip.  They  began  to  stir  up  the  court 
to  take  advantage  of  the  critical  moment,  the  mikado  Komei  being 
dead,  and,  by  a  bold  coup  d'etat^  abolish  the  ofiice  of  shogun  and  the 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  313 

bakufu,  and  re-establisli  the  Government  on  the  ancient  basis,  with 
the  young  emperor  at  the  head. 

On  the  3d  of  January,  1868,  the  troops  of  the  combination  (Satsu- 
raa,  Tosa,  Echizen,  Aki,  and  Owari)  suddenly  took  possession  of  the 
palace  gates.  The  court  nobles  hitherto  surrounding  the  boy  emper- 
or were  dismissed,  and  only  those  favoring  the  views  of  the  combina- 
tion were  admitted  to  the  palace.  The  court,  thus  purged,  issued  an 
edict  in  the  name  of  the  mikado,  which  stated  that  the  government  of 
the  country  was  now  solely  in  the  hands  of  the  imperial  court.  The 
bakufu  and  office  of  shogun  were  abolished.  A  provisional  govern- 
ment, with  three  grades  of  office,  was  formed,  and  the  positions  were 
at  once  filled  by  men  loyal  to  the  new  rulers.  The  family  of  Mori 
was  rehabilitated,  and  the  seven  banished  nobles  were  recalled.  Sanjo 
and  Iwakura  were  made  assistants  to  the  supreme  administrator,  Ari- 
sugawa  Miya,  a  prince  of  the  blood. 

The  indignation  of  the  retainers  of  Tokugawa  knew  no  bounds. 
The  vacillating  shogun  now  regretted  his  resignation,  and  wished  him- 
self back  in  power.  He  left  Kioto  with  the  clans  still  loyal  to  him, 
with  the  professed  intention  of  calming  the  passions  of  his  followers, 
but  in  reality  of  seizing  Ozaka,  and  blocking  up  the  communications 
of  the  Southerners.  Shortly  after,  in  Yedo,  on  the  19th  of  January, 
the  yashikis  of  the  Satsuma  clan  were  stormed  and  burned  by  the 
bakufu  troops.  The  Princes  of  Owari  and  Echizen  were  sent  by  the 
court  to  invite  Keiki  to  join  the  new  Government,  and  receive  an  ap- 
pointment to  office  even  higher  than  he  had  held  before.  He  prom- 
ised to  do  so,  but  no  sooner  were  they  gone  than  he  yielded  to  Aidzu's 
warlike  counsel  to  re-enter  Kioto  in  force,  drive  out  the  "  bad  counsel- 
ors of  the  young  emperor,"  and  "try  the  issue  with  the  sword."  He 
was  forbidden  by  the  court  to  approach  the  city  with  a  military  fol- 
lowing. Barriers  were  erected  across  the  two  roads  leading  to  the 
capital,  and  the  Southern  clansmen,  numbering  about  two  thousand, 
posted  themselves  behind  them,  with  artillery.  Keiki  set  out  from 
Ozaka  on  the  evening  of  the  27th  of  January,  with  the  Aidzu  and 
Kuwana  clans  in  the  front  of  his  following,  amounting  to  over  ten,  or, 
as  some  say,  thirty  thousand  men.  At  Fushimi  his  messengers  were 
refused  passage  through  the  barriers.  The  kuan-gun  (loyal  army, 
Kioto  forces)  fired  their  cannon,  and  the  war  was  opened.  The  sho- 
gun's  followers,  by  their  last  move  on  the  political  chess-board,  had 
made  themselves  choteki.     Their  prestige  had  flown. 

The  battle  lasted  three  days.     In  the  presence  of  overwhelming 


314 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


forces,  the  Southern  samurai  showed  not  only  undaunted  valor,  but 
the  result  of  previous  years  of  military  training.  The  battle  was  not 
to  the  strong.  It  was  to  the  side  of  intelligence,  energy,  coolness, 
and  valor.  The  shogun's  army  was  beaten,  and  in  wild  disorder  fled 
to  Ozaka,  the  historic  castle  of  which  was  burned  by  the  loyal  army. 
The  chief,  unrecognized,  found  refuge  upon  an  American  vessel,  and, 
reaching  Yedo  on  one  of  his  own  ships,  sought  the  seclusion  of  his 


Reiki,  the  last  Shogun  of  Japau.     (From  a  photograph.) 

castle.  His  own  family  retainers  and  most  of  the  subject  clans  (fudai), 
and  the  daimios  of  Aidzu,  Sendai,  and  others  of  the  North  and  East, 
urged  him  to  renew  the  fight  and  restore  his  prestige.  One  of  his  min- 
isters earnestly  begged  him  to  commit  hara-kiri,  urging  its  necessity 
to  preserve  the  honor  of  the  Tokugawa  clan.  His  exhortation  being 
unsuccessful,  the  proposer  solemnly  opened  his  own  bowels.  With  a 
large  army,  arsenals,  munitions  of  war,  and  fleet  of  ships  vastly  exceed- 
ing those  of  the  mikado,  his  chances  of  success  were  very  fair.     But 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  315 

this  time  the  vassal  was  loyal,  the  waverer  wavered  no  more.  Refus- 
ing to  listen  to  those  who  advised  war,  abhorring  the  very  idea  of  be- 
ing a  choteki,  he  hearkened  to  the  counsel  of  his  two  highest  minis- 
ters, Katsu  and  Okubo  Ichio,  and  declaring  that  he  would  never  take 
up  arms  against  his  lord,  the  mikado,  he  retired  to  private  life.  The 
comparison  of  this  man  with  Washington  because  he  refused  to  head 
an  army,  and  thus  save  the  country  from  a  long  civil  war,  does  not 
seem  to  be  very  happy,  though  I  have  heard  it  made.  Personal- 
ly, Keiki  is  a  highly  accomplished  gentleman,  though  ambitious  and 
weak.  Politically,  he  simply  did  his  duty,  and  made  discretion  the 
better  part  of  valor.  It  is  difficult  to  see  in  him  any  exalted  traits  of 
character  or  evidences  of  genius ;  to  Katsu  and  Okubo  is  due  the  last  and 
best  decision  of  his  life.  Katsu,  the  old  pupil  of  Satsuma  and  com- 
rade of  Saigo,  had  long  foreseen  that  the  governing  power  must  and 
ought  of  right  to  revert  to  the  mikado,  and,  braving  odium  and  assas- 
sination, he  advised  his  master  to  resign.  The  victorious  Southerners, 
led  by  Saigo,  were  in  the  southern  suburb  of  Yedo,  waiting  to  attack 
the  city.  To  reduce  a  Japanese  city  needs  but  a  torch,  and  the  im- 
patient victors  would  have  left  of  Yedo  little  but  ashes  had  there  been 
resistance.  Katsti,  meeting  Saigo,  assured  him  of  the  submissive  tem- 
per of  the  shogun,  and  begged  him  to  spare  the  city.  It  was  done. 
The  fanatical  retainers  of  Keiki  made  the  temple  grounds  of  Uyeno 
their  stronghold.  On  the  4th  of  July  they  were  attacked  and  routed, 
and  the  magnificent  temple,  the  pride  of  the  city,  laid  in  ashes.  The 
theatre  of  war  was  then  transferred  to  the  highlands  of  Aidzu  at 
Wakamatsu,  and  thence  to  Matsumae  and  Hakodate  in  Yezo.  Victory 
everywhere  perched  upon  the  mikado's  brocade  banner.  By  July  1st, 
1869,  all  vestiges  of  the  rebellion  had  ceased,  and  "the  empire  was 
grateful  for  universal  peace." 

The  mikado's  party  was  composed  of  the  heterogeneous  elements 
which  a  revolution  usually  brings  forth.  Side  by  side  with  high-soul- 
ed  patriots  were  disreputable  vagrants  and  scalawags  of  every  descrip- 
tion, ronins,  or  low,  two-swordedmen,  jo-i,  or  "  foreigner-haters,"  "  port- 
closers,"  and  Shinto  priests  and  students.  There  were  a  few  earnest 
men  whose  darling  hope  was  to  see  a  representative  government  estab- 
lished, while  fewer  yet  eagerly  wished  Japan  to  adopt  the  civilization 
of  the  West,  and  join  the  brotherhood  of  nations.  These  men  had 
utilized  every  current  and  eddy  of  opinion  to  forward  their  own  views 
and  achieve  their  own  purpose.  The  object  common  to  all  was  the 
exaltation  of  the  mikado.     The  bond  of  union  which  held  the  major- 


316  THE  IIIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ity  together  was  a  determiuation  to  expel  the  foreigners  or  to  revise 
the  treaties  so  as  to  expunge  the  odious  extra-territoriality  clause — the 
thorn  that  still  rankles  in  the  side  of  every  Japanese  patriot.  For 
eighteen  months  the  energies  of  the  jo-i,  or  "  foreigner-haters,"  were 
utilized  in  the  camp  in  fighting  the  rebellious  Tokugawa  retainers. 
The  war  over,  the  trials  of  the  new  Government  began.  The  low, 
two-sworded  men  clamored  for  the  fulfillment  of  the  promise  that  the 
foreigners  should  be  expelled  from  Japan  and  the  ports  closed.  The 
Shinto  officials  induced  the  Government  to  persecute  the  native 
"  Christians,"  demanded  the  abolition  of  Buddhism,  the  establishment 
of  Shinto  by  edict,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Government  on  a  purely 
theocratic  basis,  and  echoed  the  cry  of  "  Expel  the  barbarian."  Even 
with  the  majority  of  the  high  officials  there  was  no  abandonment  of 
the  purpose  to  expel  foreigners.  They  intended  to  do  it,  but  the 
wisest  of  them  knew  that  in  their  present  condition  they  were  not 
able.  Hence  they  simply  wished  to  bide  their  time,  and  gain  strength. 
It  was  a  matter  of  difficulty  to  keep  patient  thousands  of  swaggering 
braves  whose  only  tools  for  earning  bread  were  their  swords.  The 
first  attention  was  given  to  reorganizing  a  national  army,  and  to  devel- 
oping the  military  resources  of  the  empire.  All  this  was  done  with 
the  cherished  end  in  view  of  driving  out  the  aliens,  closing  the  ports 
of  commerce,  and  bringing  back  the  days  of  dictatorial  isolation.  The 
desire  for  foreign  civilization  existed  rather  among  the  adherents  of 
Tokugawa,  among  whom  were  many  enlightened  gentlemen,  besides 
students  and  travelers,  who  had  been  to  Europe  and  America,  and  who 
wished  their  country  to  take  advantage  of  the  inventions  of  the  for- 
eigners. Yet  many  of  the  \qv\  men  who  once  wished  the  foreigners 
expelled,  the  ports  closed,  the  treaties  repudiated,  who  were  jo-i.,  or 
"  foreigner-haters,"  and  who  considered  all  aliens  as  only  a  few  degrees 
above  the  level  of  beasts,  are  now  members  of  the  mikado's  Govern- 
ment, the  exponents  of  advanced  ideas,  the  defenders  and  executors 
of  philo-Europeanism,  or  Western  civilization. 

What  caused  the  change  that  came  over  the  spirit  of  their  dreams  ? 
Why  do  they  now  preach  the  faith  they  once  destroyed  ?  "  It  was 
the  lessons  taught  them  at  Kagoshima  and  Shimonoseki,"  say  some. 
"It  was  the  benefits  they  saw  would  arise  from  commerce,"  say  others. 
"The  child  of  the  revolution  was  changed  at  nurse,  and  the  Govern- 
ment now  in  power  was  put  into  its  cradle  by  mistake  or  design,"  say 
others. 

Cannon-balls,  commerce,  and  actual  contact  with  foreigners  doubt 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  317 

less  helped  the  scales  to  fall  from  their  eyes,  but  these  were  helps  only. 
All  such  means  had  failed  in  China,  though  tried  for  half  a  century. 
They  would  hav'e  failed  in  Japan  also.  It  was  an  impulse  from  with- 
in that  urged  the  Japanese  to  join  the  comity  of  nations.  The  noblest 
trait  in  the  character  of  a  Japanese  is  his  willingness  to  change  for  the 
better  when  he  discovers  his  wrong  or  inferiority.  This  led  the  leaders 
to  preach  the  faith  they  once  destroyed,  to  destroy  the  faith  they  once 
preached. 

The  great  work  of  enlightening  the  mikado's  followers  was  begun 
by  the  Japanese  leaders,  Okubo,  Kido,  Goto,  all  of  them  students, 
both  of  the  ancient  native  literature  and  of  foreign  ideas.  It  was  fin- 
ished by  Japanese  writers.  The  kuge,  or  court  nobles,  wished  to  ig- 
nore the  existence  of  foreigners,  drive  them  out  of  the  country,  or 
worry  them  by  appointing  officers  of  low  rank  in  the  Foreign  Office, 
then  an  inferior  sub -bureau.  Okubo,  Goto,  and  Kido  promptly  op- 
posed this  plan,  and  sent  a  noble  of  the  imperial  court,  Higashi  Knze, 
to  Hiogo  with  Datte,  Prince  of  Uwajima  (see  Appendix),  to  give  the 
mikado's  consent  to  the  treaties,  and  to  invite  the  foreign  ministers  to 
an  audience  with  the  emperor  in  Kioto.  The  British  and  Dutch  min- 
isters accepted  the  invitation ;  the  others  declined.  The  train  of  the 
British  envoy  was  assaulted  by  fanatic  assassins,  one  resisting  bullet, 
lance,  and  sabre  of  the  English  dragoons,  only  to  lose  his  head  by  the 
sweep  of  the  sword  of  Got5,  who  rode  by  the  side  of  the  foreigners, 
determined  to  secure  their  audience  of  the  mikado.  At  first  sight  of 
the  strangers,  the  conversion  of  the  kuge  was  thorough  and  instan- 
taneous. They  made  friends  with  the  men  they  once  thought  were 
beasts. 

In  a  memorial  to  the  mikado,  Okubo  further  gave  expression  to  his 
ideas  in  a  memorial  that  astounded  the  court  and  the  wavering  dai- 
mios,  as  follows :  "  Since  the  Middle  Ages,  our  emperor  has  lived  be- 
hind a  screen,  and  has  never  trodden  the  earth.  Nothing  of  what 
went  on  outside  his  screen  ever  penetrated  his  sacred  ear ;  the  imperial 
residence  was  profoundly  secluded,  and,  naturally,  unlike  the  outer 
world.  Not  more  than  a  few  court  nobles  were  allowed  to  approach 
the  throne,  a  practice  most  opposed  to  the  principles  of  heaven.  Al- 
though it  is  the  first  duty  of  man  to  respect  his  superior,  if  he  reveres 
that  superior  too  highly  he  neglects  his  duty,  while  a  breach  is  created 
between  the  sovereign  and  his  subjects,  who  are  unable  to  convey  their 
wants  to  him.  This  vicious  practice  has  been  common  in  all  ages.  But 
now  let  pompous  etiquette  be  done  away  with,  and  simplicity  become 

21 


318  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

our  first  object.  Kioto  is  in  an  out-of-the-way  position,  and  is  unfit 
to  be  the  seat  of  government.  Let  his  majesty  take  up  his  abode  tem- 
porarily at  Ozaka,  removing  his  capital  hither,  and  thus  cure  one  of 
the  hundred  abuses  which  we  inherit  from  past  ages." 

The  memorial  produced  an  immediate  and  lively  effect  upon  the 
court.  The  young  mikado,  Mutsuhito,  came  in  person  to  the  meet- 
ings of  the  council  of  state,  and  before  the  court  nobles  and  daimios 
took  an  oath,  as  an  actual  ruler,  promising  that  "  a  deliberative  assem- 
bly should  be  formed ;  all  measures  be  decided  by  public  opinion ;  the 
uncivilized  customs  of  former  times  should  be  broken  through ;  and 
the  impartiality  and  justice  displayed  in  the  workings  of  nature  be 
adopted  as  a  basis  of  action ;  and  that  intellect  and  learning  should  be 
sought  for  throughout  the  world,  in  order  to  establish  the  foundations 
of  the  empire."     This  oath  is  the  basis  of  the  new  Government. 

These  promises  are  either  the  pompous  bombast  of  a  puppet  or  the 
pregnant  utterances  of  a  sovereign,  who  in  magnanimity  and  wisdom 
aspires  to  lead  a  nation  into  a  higher  life.  That  such  words  should 
in  that  sublime  moment  fall  from  the  lips  of  the  chief  of  an  Oriental 
despotism  excites  our  sympathetic  admiration.  They  seem  a  sublime 
echo  of  affirmation  to  the  prophetic  question  of  the  Hebrew  seer, 
"  Can  a  nation  be  born  at  once  ?"  They  sound  like  a  glad  harbinger 
of  a  new  and  higher  national  development,  such  as  only  those  with  the 
strongest  faith  in  humanity  believe  possible  to  an  Asiatic  nation.  As 
matter  of  fact,  the  words  were  uttered  by  a  boy  of  sixteen  years,  who 
scarcely  dreamed  of  the  tremendous  significance  of  the  language  put 
into  his  mouth  by  the  high-souled  parvenus  who  had  made  him  em- 
peror de  facto,  and  who  were  resolved  to  have  their  ideas  made  the 
foundations  of  the  new  Government.  The  result  of  the  memorial,  and 
the  ceaseless  activity  of  Okubo  and  his  colleagues,  was  the  ultimate 
removal  of  the  Government  to  Yedo.  It  is  not  easy  for  a  foreigner 
to  comprehend  the  profound  sensation  produced  throughout  the  em- 
pire when  the  mikado  left  Kioto  to  make  his  abode  in  another  city. 
During  a  millennium,  Kioto  had  been  the  capital  of  Dai  Nippon,  arid 
for  twenty-five  centuries,  according  to  popular  belief,  the  mikados  had 
ruled  from  some  spot  near  the  site  of  the  sacred  city.  A  band  of 
fanatics,  fired  with  the  Yamato  damashi,  religiously  opposed,  but  in 
vain,  his  journey  eastward.  To  familiarize  his  people  with  the  fact 
that  Yedo  was  now  the  capital,  its  name  was  changed  to  Tdkio,  or 
Eastern  Capital. 

Then  was  further  developed  the  impulse  to  enter  the  path  of  mod- 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  319 

em  civilization.  While  Okubo,  Kido,  Goto,  Iwakura,  Sanjo,  Itagaki, 
Oki,  and  the  rising  officials  sought  to  purge  and  strengthen  the  po- 
litical system,  the  work  of  enlightening  the  people  and  the  upstarts 
raised  suddenly  to  power  was  done  by  Japanese  writers,  who  for 
the  first  time  dared,  without  suffering  death,  to  tell  their  thoughts. 
A  large  measure  of  freedom  of  the  press  was  guaranteed ;  newspapers 
sprung  up  in  the  capital.  Kido,  one  of  the  prime  movers  and  leaders, 
himself  established  one  of  the  most  vigorous,  still  in  existence  —  the 
Shimbun  Zasshi.  The  new  Government  acted  with  clemency  equal  to 
the  standard  in  Christian  nations,  and  most  generously  to  the  literary 
and  scientific  men  among  the  retainers  of  the  Tokugawas,  and  invited 
them  to  fill  posts  of  honor  under  the  Government.  They  sent  none  of 
the  political  leaders  to  the  blood-pit,  but  by  the  gracious  favor  of  the 
mikado  these  were  pardoned,  and  the  conciliation  of  all  sections  of  the 
empire  wisely  attempted.  Many  of  those  who  fought  the  loyal  forces 
at  Fushimi,  Wakamatsu,  and  Hakodate  are  now  the  earnest  advocates 
of  the  restoration  and  its  logical  issues.  Even  Enomoto  is  envoy  of 
the  court  of  Toki5  to  that  of  St.  Petersburg.  All  of  the  defeated 
daimios  were  restored  to  rank  and  income.  A  complete  and  happy 
reunion  of  the  empire  was  the  result.  Some  of  the  scholars  declined 
oflSce  until  the  time  when  even  greater  freedom  of  speech  and  pen  was 
permitted. 

There  were  men  who  in  the  old  days,  braving  odium,  and  even 
death,  at  the  hands  of  the  bakufu,  had  begun  the  study  of  the  English 
and  Dutch  languages,  and  to  feed  their  minds  at  the  Occidental  fount- 
ains. They  were  obliged  to  copy  their  books  in  manuscript,  so  rare 
were  printed  copies.  Later  on,  the  bakufu,  forced  by  necessity  to  have 
interpreters  and  men  skilled  in  foreign  arts  and  sciences,  chose  these 
students,  and  sent  them  abroad  to  study.  When  the  civil  war  broke 
out,  they  were  recalled,  reaching  Japan  shortly  after  the  fighting  be- 
gan. They  returned,  says  one  of  their  number,  "  with  their  faces 
flushed  with  enthusiastic  sympathy  with  the  modern  civilization  of 
Christendom."  Then  they  began  the  preparation  of  those  original 
works  and  translations,  which  were  eagerly  read  by  the  new  men  in 
power.  Edition  after  edition  was  issued,  bought,  read,  lent,  and  circu- 
lated. In  these  books  the  history  of  the  Western  nations  was  faith- 
fully told ;  their  manners  and  customs  and  beliefs  were  explained  and 
defended ;  their  resources,  methods  of  thought  and  education,  morals, 
laws,  systems  of  governments,  etc.,  were  described  and  elucidated. 
Notably  pre  -  eminent  among  these  writers  was  the  school  -  master,  Fu- 


320  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

kuzawa.  Western  ideas  were  texts  :  he  clotlied  them  in  Japanese 
words.  He  further  pointed  out  the  weaknesses,  defects,  and  errors 
of  his  countrymen,  and  showed  how  Japan,  by  isolation  and  the  false 
pride  that  scorned  all  knowledge  derived  from  foreigners,  had  failed 
to  advance  like  Europe  or  America,  and  that  nothing  could  save  his 
country  from  conquest  or  decay  but  the  assimilation  of  the  ideas 
which  have  made  the  foreigners  what  they  are.  There  is  scarcely  a 
prominent  or  rising  man  in  Japan  but  has  read  Fukuzawa's  works,  and 
gratefully  acknowledges  the  stimulus  and  lasting  benefit  derived  from 
them.  Many  of  the  leaders  of  the  movement  toward  restoration,  who 
joined  it  with  the  cry,  "Expel  the  foreigners,"  found  themselves,  after 
perusal  of  these  works,  "  unconsciously  involved  in  the  advance,  with- 
out wish  or  invitation,"  and  utterly  unable  to  explain  why  they  were 
in  the  movement.  Fukuzawa  has  declined  every  one  of  the  many  flat- 
tering offers  of  office  and  power  under  the  Government,  and  still  de- 
votes himself  to  his  school  and  the  work  of  teaching  and  translation, 
consuming  his  life  in  noble  drudgery.  He  has  been  the  interpreter  of 
Western  ideas  and  life,  caring  little  about  the  merely  external  garnish 
and  glitter  of  civilization.  His  books  on  "  Western  Manners  and  Cus- 
toms," and  his  volumes  of  tracts  and  essays,  have  had  an  enormous 
circulation. 

Nakamura,  also  a  school-master,  has,  besides  writing  original  tracts, 
translated  a  considerable  body  of  English  literature,  John  Stuart  Mill's 
"  Essay  on  Liberty,"  Smiles's  "  Self-help,"  and  a  few  smaller  works  on 
morals  and  religion,  which  have  been  widely  read.  His  memorial  on 
the  subject  of  Christianity  and  religious  liberty  made  a  very  profound 
impression  upon  the  emperor  and  court,  and  gave  a  powerful  check  to 
the  ultra  Shintoists.  Mori,  Mitsukuri,  Kato,  Nishi,  Uchida,  Uriu,  have 
also  done  noble  service  as  authors  and  translators.  It  is  the  writer's 
firm  belief,  after  nearly  four  years  of  life  in  Japan,  mingling  among 
the  progressive  men  of  the  empire,  that  the  reading  and  study  of  books 
printed  in  the  Japanese  language  have  done  more  to  transform  the  Jap- 
anese mind,  and  to  develop  an  impulse  in  the  direction  of  modern  civ- 
ilization, than  any  other  cause  or  series  of  causes. 

During  the  past  decade  the  production  of  purely  Japanese  literature 
has  almost  entirely  ceased.  A  few  histories  of  recent  events,  a  few 
war-poems  and  pamphlets  urging  the  expulsion  of  the  barbarians,  were 
issued  previous  to  the  civil  war ;  but  since  then  almost  the  entire  lit- 
erary activity  has  been  exhibited  in  translations,  political  documents, 
memoirs  of  "  mikado-reverencers"  who  had  been  martyrs  to  their  faith, 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  321 

and  largely  in  the  expression  of  Western  ideas  adapted  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  Japanese. 

The  war  was  ended  by  July,  1870.  Rewards  were  distributed;  and 
the  Government  was  still  further  consolidated  by  creating  definite 
offices,  and  making  all  titles,  which  had  been  for  nearly  six  centuries 
empty  names,  to  have  reality  and  power.  There  was  still,  however, 
much  dead  wood  in  the  ship  of  state,  a  condition  of  chronic  strain,  a 
dangerous  amount  of  friction  in  the  machinery,  wrangling  among  the 
crew,  and  a  vast  freight  of  bad  cargo  that  the  purest  patriots  saw  the 
good  ship  must "  unload,"  if  she  was  to  be  saved.  This  unloading  was 
accomplished  in  the  usual  way,  by  dismissing  hundreds  of  ofiicials  one 
day,  and  re-appointing  on  the  next  only  those  favorable  to  the  desired 
policy  of  the  mikado. 

Furthermore,  it  became  daily  more  certain  that  national  develop- 
ment and  peace  could  never  be  secured  while  the  feudal  system  ex- 
isted. The  clan  spirit  which  it  fostered  was  fatal  to  national  unity. 
So  long  as  a  Japanese  meant  by  "  my  country  "  merely  his  own  clan, 
loyalty  might  exist,  but  patriotism  could  not.  The  time  seemed  ripe 
for  action.  The  press  was  busy  in  issuing  pamphlets  advocating  the 
abolition  of  feudalism.  Several  of  the  great  daimios,  long  before  ready 
for  it,  now  openly  advocated  the  change.  The  lesser  ones  knew  bet- 
ter than  to  oppose  it.  The  four  great  clans,  Satsuma,  Choshiu,  Tosa, 
and  Hizen  (see  Appendix),  were  the  pioneers  of  the  movement.  They 
addressed  a  memorial  to  the  throne,  in  which  it  was  argued  that  the 
daimios'  fiefs  ought  not  to  be  looked  on  as  private  property,  but  as 
the  mikado's  own.  They  offered  to  restore  the  registers  of  their  clans 
to  the  sovereign.  These  were  the  external  signs  of  the  times.  Back 
of  these,  there  were  at  least  three  men  who  were  determined  to  sweep 
feudalism  away  utterly.  They  were  Kido,  Okubo,  Iwakura.  The  first 
step  was  to  abolish  the  appellation  of  court  noble  (kuge)  and  territo- 
rial prince  (daimid),  and  to  designate  both  as  kuazokii,  or  noble  fami- 
lies. The  former  heads  of  clans  were  temporarily  appointed  chiji 
(governors  of  their  elans).  This  smoothed  the  way.  In  September, 
1871,  the  edict  went  forth  calling  the  daimios  to  Tokio  to  retire  to  pri- 
vate life.  With  scarcely  an  exception,  the  order  was  quietly  obeyed. 
The  men  behind  the  throne  in  Tokio  were  ready  and  even  willing  to 
shed  blood,  should  their  (the  mikado's)  commands  be  resisted,  and 
they  expected  to  do  it.  The  daimios  who  were  hostile  to  the  measure 
knew  too  well  the  character  of  the  men  who  framed  the  edict  to  resist 
it.     The  writer  counts  among  the  most  impressive  of  all  his  life's  ex- 


322  THE  3JIK ADO'S  EMPIRE. 

periences  that  scene  in  the  immense  castle  hall  of  Fukui,  when  the 
Daimio  of  Echizen  bid  farewell  to  his  three  thousand  two-sworded  re- 
tainers, and,  amidst  the  tears  and  smiles  and  loving  farewells  of  the 
city's  populace,  left  behind  him  lands,  revenue,  and  obedient  followers, 
and  retired  to  live  as  a  private  gentleman  in  Tokio. 

Japan's  feudalism  began  nearly  eight  centuries  ago,  and  existed  un- 
til within  the  year  1871.  It  was  not  a  tower  of  strength  in  its  last 
days.  Long  before  its  fall,  it  was  an  empty  shell  and  a  colossal  sham. 
Feudalism  is  only  alive  and  vigorous  when  the  leaders  are  men  of 
brain  and  action.  Of  all  the  daimios,  there  were  not  ten  of  any  per- 
sonal importance.  They  were  amiable  nobodies,  great  only  in  stom- 
ach or  silk  robes.  Many  were  sensualists,  drunkards,  or  titled  fools. 
The  real  power  in  each  clan  lay  in  the  hands  of  able  men  of  inferior 
rank,  who  ruled  their  masters.  These  are  noiv  the  men  who  compose 
the  present  Government  of  Japan.  They  rose  against  the  shogun, 
overthrew  him,  sent  him  to  private  life,  and  then  compelled  their  mas- 
ters, the  daimios,  to  do  likewise.  They  hold  the  emperor,  and  carry 
on  the  government  in  his  name.  The  mikado,  however,  is  much  more 
of  a  ruler  than  \i\'&  faineant  ancestors.  Still,  the  source  of  government 
is  the  same.  In  1872,  by  actual  count,  four-fifths  of  the  men  in  the 
higher  offices  were  of  the  four  great  clans  of  Choshiu,  Satsuma,  Hizen, 
and  Tosa.  A  like  census  in  1876  would  show  a  larger  proportion  of 
officials  from  the  northern  and  central  provinces.  Nevertheless,  this 
is  not  sectionalism.  The  ablest  men  rise  to  office  and  power  in  spite 
of  the  locality  of  their  birth.  Natural  ability  asserts  its  power,  and  in 
the  Cabinet  and  departments  are  now  many  of  the  old  bakufu  adher- 
ents, even  Katsu,  Okubo  Ichio,  Enomoto,  and  several  scions  of  the 
house  of  Tokugawa.  The  power  has  been  shifted,  not  changed,  and 
is  displayed  by  moving  new  machinery  and  doing  new  work. 

Who  are  now,  and  who  have  been,  the  actual  leaders  in  Japan  since 
1 868  ?  They  are  Okubo,  Kido,  Iwakura,  Sanjo,  Goto,  Katsu,  Soyejima, 
Okuma,  Oki,  Ito,  and  many  others,  of  whom  but  two  or  three  are  kuge, 
while  none  is  a  daimio.  Almost  all  were  simple  samurai,  or  retainers 
of  the  territorial  nobles. 

The  objects  of  the  revolution  of  1868  have  been  accomplished. 
The  shogunate  and  the  feudal  system  are  forever  no  more.  The  mi- 
kado is  now  the  restored  and  beloved  emperor.  The  present  per- 
sonage, a  young  man  of  twenty-four  years  of  age,  has  already  shown 
great  independence  and  firmnness  of  character,  and  may  in  future  be- 
come as  much  the  real  ruler  of  his  people  as  the  Czar  is  of  his.     The 


THE  RECENT  REVOLUTIONS  IN  JAPAN.  323 

enterprise  of  establishing  Shinto  as  the  national  faith  has  failed  vastly 
and  ignominiously,  though  the  old  Shinto  temples  have  been  purged 
and  many  new  ones  erected,  while  official  patronage  and  influence 
give  the  ancient  cult  a  fair  outward  show.  Buddhism  is  still  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Japanese  people,  though  doubtless  on  the  wane. 

To  summarize  this  chapter :  the  shogun  was  simply  one  of  the  many 
vassals  of  the  mikado  of  comparatively  inferior  grade,  and  historically 
a  usurper ;  the  term  "  tycoon  "  was  a  diplomatic  fraud,  a  title  to  which 
the  shogun  had,  officially,  not  the  shadow  of  right ;  the  foreign  diplo- 
matists made  treaties  with  one  who  had  no  right  whatever  to  make 
them  ;  the  bakufu  Avas  an  organized  usurpation ;  the  stereotyped  state- 
ments concerning  a  "  spiritual "  and  a  "  secular  "  emperor  are  literary 
fictions  of  foreign  book-makers ;  feudalism  arose  upon  the  decadence 
of  the  mikado's  power ;  it  was  the  chief  hinderance  to  national  unity, 
and  Avas  ready  for  its  fall  before  the  shock  came ;  in  all  Japanese  his- 
tory the  reverence  for  the  mikado's  person  and  the  throne  has  been 
the  strongest  national  trait  and  the  mightiest  political  force ;  the  ba- 
kufu exaggerated  the  mikado's  sacredness  for  its  own  purposes ;  the 
Japanese  are  impressible  and  ever  ready  to  avail  themselves  of  what- 
ever foreign  aids  or  appliances  will  tend  to  their  own  aggrandizement : 
nevertheless,  there  exists  a  strong  tendency  to  conserve  the  national 
type,  pride,  feelings,  religion,  and  equality  with,  if  not  superiority  to, 
all  the  nations  of  the  world ;  the  true  explanation  of  the  events  of  the 
last  eight  years  in  Japan  is  to  be  sought  in  these  tendencies  and  the 
internal  history  of  the  nation ;  the  shogun,  bakufu,  and  perhaps  even 
feudalism  would  have  fallen,  had  foreigners  never  landed  in  Japan ; 
the  movement  toward  modern  civilization  originated  from  within,  and 
was  not  simply  the  result  of  foreign  impact  or  pressure ;  the  work  of 
enlightenment  and  education,  which  alone  could  assure  success  to  the 
movement,  was  begun  and  carried  on  by  native  students,  statesmen, 
and  simple  patriots. 

A  mighty  task  awaited  the  new  Government  after  the  revolution 
of  1868.  It  was  to  heal  the  disease  of  ages;  to  uproot  feudalism  and 
sectionalism,  with  all  their  abuses ;  to  give  Japan  a  new  nationality ;  to 
change  her  social  system  ;  to  infuse 'new  blood  into  her  veins ;  to  make 
a  hermit  nation,  half  blinded  by  a  sudden  influx  of  light,  competitor 
with  the  wealthy,  powerful,  and  aggressive  nations  of  Christendom. 
It  was  a  problem  of  national  regeneration  or  ruin.  It  seemed  like  en- 
tering into  history  a  second  time,  to  be  born  again. 

What  transcendent  abilities  needed  for  such  a  task !    What  national 


324  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

union,  harmony  in  council,  unselfish  patriotism  required !  What  chief, 
towering  above  his  fellows,  would  arise,  who  by  mighty  intellect  and 
matchless  tact  could  achieve  what  Yoritomo,  or  the  Taiko,  or  lyeyasu 
himself,  or  all,  would  be  helpless  to  perform  ?  At  home  were  the  stol- 
idly conservative  peasantry,  backed  by  ignorance,  superstition,  priest- 
craft, and  political  hostility.  On  their  own  soil  they  were  fronted 
by  aggressive  foreigners,  who  studied  all  Japanese  questions  through 
the  spectacles  of  dollars  and  cents  and  trade,  and  whose  diplomatists 
too  often  made  the  principles  of  Shylock  their  system.  Outside,  the 
Asiatic  nations  beheld  with  contempt,  jealousy,  and  alarm  the  depart- 
ure of  one  of  their  number  from  Turanian  ideas,  principles,  and  civili- 
zation. China,  with  ill -concealed  anger,  Corea  with  open  defiance, 
taunted  Japan  with  servile  submission  to  the  "  foreign  devils." 

For  the  first  time,  the  nation  was  represented  to  the  world  by  an 
embassy  at  once  august  and  plenipotentiary.  It  was  not  a  squad  of 
petty  ofiicials  or  local  nobles  going  forth  to  kiss  a  toe,  to  play  the 
part  of  figure-heads  or  stool-pigeons,  to  beg  the  aliens  to  get  out  of 
Japan,  to  keep  the  scales  on  foreign  eyes,  to  buy  gun-boats,  or  to  hire 
employes.  A  noble  of  highest  rank  and  blood  of  immemorial  an- 
tiquity, vicar  of  majesty  and  national  government,  with  four  cabinet 
ministers,  set  out  to  visit  the  courts  of  the  fifteen  nations  having 
treaties  with  Dai  Nippon.  These  were  Iwakura  Tomomi,  Okubo  To- 
shimiti,  Kido  Takayoshi,  Ito  Hirobumi,  and  Yamaguchi  Masaka.  They 
were  accompanied  by  commissioners  representing  every  Government 
department,  sent  to  study  and  report  upon  the  methods  and  resources 
of  foreign  civilizations.  They  arrived  in  Washington,  February  29th, 
1872,  and,  fpr  the  first  time  in  history,  a  letter  signed  by  the  mikado 
was  seen  outside  of  Asia,  It  was  presented  by  the  embassadors,  robed 
in  their  ancient  Yamato  costume,  to  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
on  the  4th  of  March,  Mr.  Arinori  Mori  acting  as  interpreter.  "  The  first 
president  of  the  free  republic  "  and  the  men  who  had  elevated  the  eta 
to  citizenship  stood  face  to  face  in  fraternal  accord.  The  one  hundred 
and  twenty-third  sovereign  of  an  empire  in  its  twenty-sixth  centennial 
saluted  the  citizen  -  ruler  of  a  nation  whose  century  aloe  had  not  yet 
bloomed.  On  the  6th  of  March  they  were  welcomed  on  the  floor  of 
Congress.  This  day  marked  the  formal  entrance  of  Japan  upon  the 
theatre  of  universal  history. 


X 


BOOK   II. 

PERSONAL  EXPERIENCES,  OBSERVATIONS,  AND  STUDIES 
IN  JAPAN.    1870-1875, 


FIRST  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAN.  327 


I. 

FIRST  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAN. 

The  longest  unbroken  stretch  of  water  statedly  traversed  by  the  keel 
of  steamer  or  sailing  vessel  lies  between  California  and  Japan.  The 
floating  city,  which  leaves  its  dock  in  San  Francisco  at  noon  on  the 
first  day  of  each  month,  pulses  across  four  thousand  miles  of  ocean, 
from  which  rises  no  island,  harbor,  or  reef.  Nothing  amidst  all  the 
crowding  triumphs  of  the  genius  and  power  of  man  so  impresses  the 
reflecting  mind  as  the  thought  of  that  mighty  ark,  which,  by  the  mag- 
net and  the  stars,  is  guided  in  safety  to  the  desired  haven.  Without 
a  Noah,  without  dove  or  olive  leaf,  freighted  with  bird,  beast,  and  fish, 
and  often  with  thirteen  hundred  human  souls,  over  a  flood  of  waters 
that  cover  a  world  beneath,  alone  for  weeks,  that  ark  floats  on,  at  the 
bidding  of  the  master. 

Twenty-seven  days  in  the  solitudes  of  the  sea  seem  long  to  the  man 
of  this  decade,  Avho  crosses  the  Atlantic's  thousand  leagues  in  nine 
days,  and  the  New  World  in  a  week.  Even  the  old  traveler — whose 
digestion  is  sea-worthy ;  whose  appetite  is  like  a  whetted  saw ;  who 
meets  a  host  of  genial  fellow-birds  of  passage,  and  finds  officers  who 
will  answer  questions;  who  discovers  new  and  readable  books  in  the 
ship's  library ;  and  who  delights  in  the  study  of  steerage  ethnology — 
yearns  in  his  secret  soul  for  the  sight  of  land  again.  Even  the  ocean 
scenery,  though,  like  God's  mercies,  new  every  morning  and  fresh  ev- 
ery evening,  palls  on  the  eye,  and  loses  its  glory  before  the  thoughts 
of  the  crowded  city  in  which  comforts  cluster  and  pleasures  bloom. 
The  waves  that  daily  cradle  the  infant  sun  and  pillow  his  dying  splen- 
dor, the  effulgence  of  the  cavernous  sunsets,  the  wonders  of  spouting 
whales,  flying-fish,  phosphorescence  at  night,  "multitudinous  smiles" 
of  waves  by  day,  the  circling  gulls  evermore,  or  even  the  fun  of  bury- 
ing a  day  (Saturday,  December  16th)  under  the  180th  meridian,  would 
be  gladly  exchanged  for  a  patch  of  farm  or  the  sober  glory  of  a  wide- 
spreading  oak.  Often,  indeed,  the  monotony  of  the  voyage  is  relieved 
by  meeting  one  of  the  company's  steamers.     If  the  weather  be  fair, 


328  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  pillar  of  cloud,  or  the  long  thin  scarf  of  black  smoke,  descried  afar 
off,  is  the  harbinger  of  the  coming  ship.  The  exchange  of  newspapers 
and  the  sending  homeward  of  letters  are  accomplished,  to  the  intense 
delight  of  passengers  jaded  with  ennui. 

Thus  met  in  placid  mid-ocean,  on  Sunday,  December  11th,  1870,  the 
P.  M.  S.  S.  Co.'s  steamers  Great  Republic,  Captain  J.  H.  Freeman,  from 
San  Francisco,  and  the  Japan,  bound  to  San  Francisco,  from  the  land 
whither  we  were  bound.  All  day  long  we  had  watched  the  smoke. 
At  5.30  P.M.  a  rocket  was  sent  up  from  the  Japan.  In  a  few  mo- 
ments our  dinner-table  was  deserted.  Within  a  stone's  throw,  the  pas- 
sengers on  either  ship  shouted  to  each  other.  The  stately  ships,  with 
scores  of  lighted  windows  gleaming  on  the  waters,  parted  at  seven 
o'clock,  one  moving  to  the  home-land,  one  to  the  Mikado's  Empire. 

The  meeting  of  steamers  in  mid-ocean  is,  strange  to  say,  a  matter  of 
dislike  to  a  certain  class  of  persons,  who,  in  spite  of  all  preventive  pre- 
cautions, keep  up  their  existence.  One  or  two  "  stowaways  "  are  found 
on  nearly  every  steamer  that  leaves  the  shores  of  either  continent. 
They  sneak  on  board  the  big  ship  while  in  port,  and  are  driven  from 
their  lair,  when  at  sea,  by  hunger.  When  first  discovered,  the  inquisi- 
tor of  the  ship — the  purser — uses  all  his  skill  to  extort  the  full  passage 
money.  If  not  forthcoming,  the  "  stowaway  "  is  consigned  to  purga- 
tory— i.  e.,  the  fire-room,  and  compelled  to  pass  coal  and  feed  the  fires. 
This  process  refines  his  feelings  so  far  that  the  "  dross  "  is  produced, 
if  on  the  victim's  person.  If  he  refuses  to  do  duty,  his  fare  being  still 
unpaid,  he  is  put  in  irons,  but,  by  passing  through  purgatory  of  the 
furnace-room,  he  is  "  saved  "  from  further  punishment,  and  reaches  the 
paradise  of  firm  land,  "  yet  so  as  by  fire." 

All  these  incidents  and  accidents  of  sea-life  cease  to  have  any  im- 
portance after  the  oracle  at  the  head  of  the  table.  Captain  J.  H.  Free- 
man, has  announced  that "  we  shall  sight  Cape  King  at  day-break  to- 
morrow." We  try  to  sleep  well  during  our  last  night  on  the  water ; 
but  sleep,  so  often  won  and  long  embraced  thus  far,  becomes  fickle  and 
flies  our  eyelids.  With  joyful  wakefulness,  our  thoughts  are  busy  with 
the  morrow,  until  at  last,  in  the  wee  morning  hours,  our  eyelids  are 
sealed. 

I  wake  early  on  the  29th  of  December,  1870,  and  from  out  my 
state-room  window  behold  the  eye-gladdening  land  within  rifle-shot. 
Hills,  crested  with  timber,  line  the  bay,  and  the  beaches  are  dotted  with 
thatched  huts  and  white  store-houses.  Fishermen's  boats,  manned  and 
moving  over  the  bay,  are  near  enough  for  us  to  distinguish  their  occu- 


FIRST  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAN.  329 

pants.  Tall,  muscular  men,  witli  skin  of  a  dirty  copper  color,  in  long, 
loose  dress,  their  mid-scalps  shaven,  and  the  projecting  cue  or  top-knot, 
of  the  percussion  gun-hammer  style,  are  the  first  natives  of  Japan  whom 
we  see  at  home.  Though  different  in  dress,  condition,  and  as  the  bar- 
ber left  them,  from  their  gay  fellow-countrymen  who  spend  plenty  of 
money  and  study  hard  in  the  United  States,  they,  nevertheless,  exactly 
resemble  their  brethren  in  physiognomy  and  general  appearance. 

The  dayspring  in  the  east  sifts  enough  of  suggestive  light  over  the 
land  to  entice  us  into  the  belief  that  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun  is 
one  of  the  fairest  on  earth — a  belief  which  a  residence  of  years  has 
ripened  into  an  article  of  faith.  To  the  right  lie  the  two  mountainous 
provinces  of  Awa  and  Kadzusa,  with  their  numerous  serrated  peaks 
and  valleys,  which  may  be  beautiful,  though  now  they  sleep.  To  the 
left  is  the  village  of  Uraga,  opposite  which  Commodore  Perry  anchored, 
with  his  whole  squadron  of  steamers,  on  the  7th  of  July,  1853.  Re- 
maining eight  days  at  this  place,  he  was  accorded  what  he  first  de- 
manded— an  interview  with,  and  the  reception  of  President  Fillmore's 
letter  by,  an  officer  of  high  rank.  After  the  ceremony,  he  gave  the 
place  the  name  of  Reception  Bay,  which  it  still  retains.  Now  we  pass 
Perry  Island,  AVebster  Isle,  and,  on  the  opposite  side.  Cape  Saratoga. 
We  must  not  forget,  mournful  though  the  thought  be,  that  hereabouts 
beneath  us,  perhaps  under  our  keel,  lies  the  United  States  war  steam- 
er Oneida,  which  was  run  into  and  sunk  by  the  British  mail  steamer 
^om  Jay,  January  23d,  1870.  This  is  sad;  but  the  sequel  is  disgrace- 
ful. Down  under  the  fathoms  the  Oneida  has  lain,  thus  far  undis- 
turbed, a  rich  and  grateful  Government  having  failed  to  trouble  itself 
to  raise  the  ship  or  do  honor  to  the  dead.  The  hulk  was  put  up  at 
auction  and  sold  (in  1874),  with  certain  conditions,  to  a  Japanese,  for 
fifteen  hundred  dollars.  This  is  the  one  sad  thought  that  casts  its 
shadow  over  the  otherwise  profound  memories  of  which  the  Gulf  of 
Yedo  is  so  suggestive  to  Americans.  The  prominent  geographical 
points  in  the  bay  echo  familiar  American  names,  which  later  geogra- 
phers and  a  cosmopolitan  community  have  ratified,  and  which  com- 
memorate American  genius,  skill,  a  id  bloodless  victory. 

The  ship  moves  on,  and  the  panoramic  landscape  unfolds  before  us. 
In  the  background  of  undulating  plains,  under  high  and  close  cultiva- 
tion, and  spotted  with  villages,  rise  the  crumpled  backs  of  many  ranges 
of  mountains ;  while  afar  oflE,  yet  brought  delusively  near  by  the  clear 
air,  sits  the  queenly  mountain  in  her  robes  of  snow,  already  wearing 
the  morning's  crown  of  light,  and  her  forehead  gilded  by  the  first  ray 


330  THE  MIKADO'S  EMTIRE. 

of  the  yet  unrisen  sun.  Beyond  her,  in  the  purple  air,  still  glitter  the 
jewel  stars,  while  her  own  bosom  trembles  through  many  changes  of 
color.  Far  out  at  sea,  long  before  land  is  descried,  and  from  a  land 
area  of  thirteen  provinces,  the  peerless  cone  is  seen  and  loved.  Per- 
haps no  view  is  so  perfect,  so  impressive  for  a  life-time,  so  well  fitted 
to  inspire  that  intense  appreciation  of  nature's  masterpieces,  whose 
glory  and  freshness  we  can  feel  intensely  but  once,  as  is  the  view  of 
Fuji  from  an  incoming  steamer.  From  vast  outspread  base,  through 
mighty  curves,  sweeping  past  snow,  and  up  to  her  summit,  the  mount- 
ain is  visible  in  queenly  solitude  and  fullness  of  beauty.  Gradually 
the  vast  form  is  bathed  in  light,  and  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun  stands 
revealed  in  golden  glory.  It  is  a  joy  to  have  seen  it  thus  at  first  vision. 
From  serene  and  ancient  Fuji,  we  turn  to  behold  the  bustling  up- 
start metropolis  of  the  foreigners  in  Japan,  as  it  appears  in  full  daylight. 
Passing  Mississippi  Bay  and  Treaty  Point,  we  arrive  in  front  of  what 
was  once  a  little  fishing  village,  but  which  is  now  the  stately  city  of 
Yokohama.  We  count  the  craft  that  lie  anchored  in  the  harbor. 
From  thirty  to  fifty  are  usually  in  port.  Steamers  from  Hakodate, 
Shanghae,  and  Hong-Kong,  and  the  regular  mail  steamers  from  Mar- 
seilles and  Southampton,  lie  at  their  buoys.  Here  are  wooden  war- 
ships and  iron-clads,  from  which  fly  the  British,  French,  Japanese, 
German,  or  American  flags.  A  tremendous  amount  of  useless  and 
costly  saluting  is  done  by  these  men-of-war,  whom  the  country  folks 
call  '''■  loom- boom  fune.''''  Coal -hulks,  store-ships,  and  all  the  usual 
evidences  of  an  old  harbor,  are  discovered  all  around  us.  The  town 
itself  seems  compactly  built  of  low  houses,  with  tiled  roofs.  They 
are  usually  two-storied,  though  many  are,  in  the  language  of  the  East, 
*'  bungalows,"  or  one-storied  dwellings.  The  foreign  settlement  seems 
to  be  arranged  on  a  plain  about  a  mile  square.  The  Japanese  town 
spreads  out  another  mile  or  more  to  the  right.  Beyond  the  plains  is 
a  sort  of  semicircle  of  hills,  called  "  The  Bluff."  It  is  covered  with 
scores  of  handsome  villas  and  dwelling-houses,  of  all  sizes  and  varieties 
of  architecture.  To  the  left  the  Bluff  runs  abruptly  into  the  sea. 
To  the  right  it  sweeps  away  to  the  south-west.  In  local  parlance,  the 
various  parts  of  Yokohama  are  distinguished  as  "  The  Bluff,"  "  The  Set- 
tlement," and  the  "  Native  "  or  "  Japanese  "  town.  Along  the  water- 
front of  the  settlement  runs  a  fine,  wide,  well-paved  street,  called  "  The 
Bund,"  with  a  stout  wall  of  stone  masonry  on  the  water-side.  Private 
dwellings,  gardens,  and  hotels  adorn  it,  facing  the  water.  There  are  as 
yet  no  docks  for  the  shipping,  but  there  is  the  English  and  the  French 


FIRST  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAN.  331 

"hatoba."  The  former  consists  of  a  stone  breakwater,  or  piers,  rising 
twelve  feet  or  so  out  of  the  water,  inclosing  a  large  irregular  quad- 
rangle, with  a  narrow  entrance  at  one  corner.  The  land -side  of  the 
English  hatoba  is  furnished  with  steps,  and  a  score  or  more  of  boats 
can  discharge  their  passengers  at  once.  The  French  hatoba  consists  of 
two  parallel  piers  of  stone  projecting  out  into  the  bay.  The  bnildino- 
of  most  imposing  ugliness  from  the  sea-view  is  the  British  Consulate, 
and  near  by  it  is  the  American.  The  Japanese  Sai  Ban  Sho,  or  Court- 
house, is  larger  than  either  of  the  consulate  buildings,  and  much  hand- 
somer. At  the  other  extremity  of  the  settlement,  toward  the  Bluff, 
was  the  French  camp,  and  near  by  it  the  English.  Three  hundred 
French  soldiers  guarded  as  many  French  civilians  resident  in  Japan, 
and  three  hundred  English  marines,  who  relieved  the  Tenth  British 
foot — the  same  that  served  their  king  on  Bunker  Hill — were  in  camp 
in  Yokohama  in  1870,  and  remained  until  1875. 

The  engines  stop,  and  the  great  ship  lies  motionless  at  her  buov. 
Instantly  the  crowd  of  boats  which  have  waited,  like  hounds  in  the 
leash,  shoot  toward  the  stern  ports  and  gangway,  and  the  steamer  be- 
comes walled  in.  First  of  all,  the  United  States  mail-boat,  propelled 
by  six  native  scullers,  is  flying  swiftly  shoreward,  to  satisfy  the  eager 
souls  of  the  elect  with  its  precious  freight.  Friends  throng  on  board 
to  meet  friends.  Englishmen  ask  the  news — whether  there  is  to  be 
war  with  Russia  ?  French  and  Germans  eagerly  inquire  for  the  latest 
news  from  the  seat  of  war.  From  one,  I  learn  that  the  Japanese  Gov- 
ernment has  already  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality,  for  French 
marines  and  German  sailors  have  already  come  to  blows  in  Yokohama. 
Fancy  creatures  in  velvet  and  diamonds,  with  gold  on  their  fingers 
and  brass  in  their  faces,  hasten  to  see  whether  any  of  their  guild  have 
arrived  from  San  Francisco. 

Leaving  deck  and  cabin,  we  visit  the  steerage.  The  coal-lighters 
are  crowded  with  dirty  coolies.  They  impress  us  as  being  the  lowest 
of  their  class.  Their  clothing  is  exceedingly  scanty.  An  American 
lady  with  good  eyesight  supposed  them  to  be  clad  in  very  tight  leath- 
er-colored garments.  On  second  sight,  wondering  at  the  perfect  fit  of 
the  dress,  she  found  it  to  be  the  only  clothing  Avhich  mother  Nature 
provides  for  her  children.  The  proprietors  of  the  native  boats  have 
entered  the  ports,  and  are  diiving  a  brisk  trade  in  oranges  and  various 
articles  of  diet,  precious  only  to  Asiatics.  Huge  dried  persimmons, 
which,  though  shrunken,  are  four  or  five  inches  long,  and  sake,  are 
very  salable.     A  squad  of  the  Chinese,  so  numerous  in  Yokohama,  are 


332  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIBE. 

busy  in  furnishing  small  change  to  those  who  wish  to  go  ashore.  Jap- 
anese tempos,  and  iron  and  copper  cash,  are  exchanged  for  American 
dimes,  greenbacks,  and  Mexicans. 

With  the  kindly  aid  of  a  friend,  we  prepare  to  go  ashore.  Safely 
seated  in  one  of  the  clean  unpainted  boats,  in  which  we  detect  no  iron, 
but  only  here  and  there  a  cleet  of  copper,  we  enjoy  the  glorious  beauty 
of  the  situation.  In  the  stern  stand  the  two  sendos,  who  make  their 
keel  glide  over  the  waves  as  swiftly  as  a  Venetian  gondola  shoots 
under  and  out  from  the  Rialto.  Already  the  Japanese  boatmen  have 
beaten  in  a  race  with  the  American  tars.  Yonder  whizzes  a  butcher's 
boat,  freshly  laden  from  the  abattoir  below  the  city.  Six  naked  ath- 
letes of  magnificent  physique,  chanting  in  wild  chorus,  urge  on  their 
craft. 

Sculling  is  the  method  invariably  in  use  among  the  Japanese.  The 
long  scull  consists  of  two  pieces  tied  together.  On  the  handle  is  a 
pin,  on  which  a  rope  is  slipped,  so  that  the  scull  is  held  down  to  a 
uniform  height  while  being  worked.  The  blade  rests  near  where  it 
joins  the  stock,  on  an  outrigger  pivot.  The  sweep  of  the  stock,  at 
the  hand  end,  is  nearly  two  feet.  The  sendo,  planting  his  left  foot  on 
an  inclined  board,  sways  his  arms  and  body  at  right  angles  to  the 
boat,  singing  meanwhile  one  of  his  own  songs,  in  his  own  way.  We 
soon  skim  over  a  half-mile  of  the  blue  water,  pass  the  United  States 
steamer  Idaho  and  the  Prussian  war-ship  Hermann,  and,  darting  within 
the  stone  piers,  land  on  the  hatoba,  and  are  in  the  mikado's  empire. 

The  custom-house  and  the  native  officials  detain  us  but  a  few  mo- 
ments. Passing  out  the  gate,  we  receive  our  first  invitation  to  part 
with  some  small  change  from  three  fat  little  urchins  in  curious  dress, 
with  lion's  head  and  feathers  for  a  cap,  and  with  red  streamers  hang- 
ing down  their  backs.  They  run  before  us  and  perform  all  kinds  of 
astonishing  tricks,  such  as  carrying  their  heads  beneath  their  feet,  mak- 
ing a  ball  of  themselves,  and  trundling  along,  etc.  By  our  financial 
dealings  with  these  little  street-tumblers,  we  learn  that  "  shinjo  "  means 
"  gift,"  and  "  arigato  "  means  "  thank  you,"  which  is  the  beginning 
of  our  vocabulary  in  Japanese. 

The  fine  wide  streets  of  Yokohama  are  well  paved  and  curbed. 
The  hard  white-stone  and  concrete  pavements  are  able  to  resist  for 
years  the  rutting  action  of  the  sharp-edged  wheels  of  the  native  carts. 
These  wheels  are  ingeniously  constructed,  and  their  felloes  are  mor- 
tised in  segments.  They  need  no  tires,  and  have  none.  They  are 
propelled  by  four  powerful  fellows,  who  work  in  pairs,  and  have 


FIRUT  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAN.  333 

scarcely  more  clothing  than  there  is  harness  on  a  horse.  The  fore- 
most pair  push  with  hands  and  thighs  the  front  cross-bar,  behind 
which  they  stand.  The  other  pair  supply  the  vis  a  tergo,  applying 
their  shoulders  to  a  beam  which  juts  out  obliquely  from  beneath  and 
behind  the  cart.     The  street  cries  in  every  country  attract  first  the 


Push-carl  in  Yokohama.    Hokusai. 

new-comer's  ears;  and  the  cry  of  these  cart  coolies  in  Yokohama  is 
one  of  the  most  peculiar  sounds  in  or  out  of  Japan.  I  never  after- 
ward heard  these  cries,  except  in  Yokohama  and  Tokio.  While  the 
two  men  in  the  rear  save  their  wind  and  vocal  force,  the  two  foremost 
coolies  utter  alternately  and  incessantly  a  coarse,  deep,  guttural  cry, 
which,  if  spelling  were  possible,  would  be  written,  "  Hai !  huida !  ho  ! 
ho  !  hai !  huida !  wa !  ho !  ho  !  huidah !"  etc.  I  was,  at  first  hearing, 
under  the  impression  that  the  poor  wretches  were  suflEering  a  grievous 
colic,  and  a  benevolent  inclination  seized  me  to  buy  a  few  bottles  of 
Mrs.  Winslow's  Soothing  Syrup,  and  distribute  them  on  the  spot.  On 
being  told,  however,  that  nothing  was  the  matter  with  the  men,  it  be- 
ing their  custom  to  yell  in  this  manner,  I  abandoned  my  intention. 

Rows  of  iron  lamp-posts,  with  lanterns  and  burners  trimmed  and  in 
cleanly  readiness,  tell  of  streets  well  lighted  with  gas  at  night.  Along 
the  avenue,  on  which  stand  the  British  and  American  consulates  on 
one  side,  and  the  Japanese  court-house,  bonded  warehouses,  and  police 
station  on  the  other,  arc  sidewalks,  which,  along  several  blocks,  are 
thickly  planted,  in  a  breadth  of  ten  feet  or  more,  with  evergreens  and 
flowers.  Among  these  we  see  the  camellias  in  full  bloom.  The  main 
street  crosses  this  avenue  at  right  angles,  extending  from  the  Japanese 

22 


334  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

town  to  the  canal  at  tte  foot  of  The  Blufi.  The  sidewalks  on  it  are 
narrow ;  but  the  street  pavements  are  so  hard,  and  are  kept  so  clean, 
that  it  is  not  unpleasant  to  walk  in  the  street,  even  in  wet  weather. 
The  streets  in  the  foreign  settlement  are  paved,  curbed,  and  drained. 
Since  1874  they  have  been  lighted  with  gas,  from  the  gas-works  of 
the  rich  merchant,  Takashimaya. 

Here  for  the  first  time,  I  behold  that  native  Japanese  invention,  the 
product  of  a  Tokio  genius,  the  jin-riki-sha  (man-power  carriage).  It 
has  often  been  described.  It  is  a  baby  carriage  on  adult  wheels.  It 
holds  one  or  two  persons.  A  man  in  the  shafts  pulls  it;  sometimes 
he  is  assisted  by  another  from  behind.  When  you  wish  to  go  fast, 
vou  employ  two  men,  or  you  may  drive  tandem  with  three.  Many  of 
these  sha  are  highly  ornamented;  for  art  is  appreciated  even  by  the 
lowest  classes  in  Japan,  as  a  residence  of  five  minutes,  and  afterward 
four  years,  concur  in  assuring  me.  Some  are  made  into  the  form  of  a 
boat,  with  a  chanticleer  for  a  figure-head.  Foreigners  and  natives  use 
them,  and  a  wag  from  Yankee-land  has  dubbed  them  "  Pull-man  cars." 

Main  Street  is  the  showiest  of  all — the  Broadway  of  the  "  New  York 
of  Japan."  Here  we  pass  fine  stone-fronted  stores,  banks,  hotels,  and 
restaurants.  The  magnificent  show-windows  and  abundance  of  plate- 
glass  suggest  handsome  variety  and  solid  wealth  within.  These  outside 
displays  are,  in  most  cases,  but  true  indices  of  the  varied  articles  of 
merchandise  within,  which  are  obtainable  at  very  fair  prices.  Nothing 
eatable,  drinkable,  or  wearable  seems  to  be  lacking  to  suit  the  tastes 
or  wishes  of  an  ordinary  man,  beast,  or  angel ;  though  we  have  heard 
that  the  entire  bevy  of  Miss  Flora  M'Flimsey's  cousins  in  Yokohama 
assert  most  strenuously  that  there  is  "nothing  to  wear"  at  any  time. 
Nevertheless,  to  man  or  beast,  the  abundance  and  variety  of  feminine 
paraphernalia  visible  in  one  of  the  shops  in  which  angelic  robes  are 
sold  is  simply  wonderful ;  and  one  notices  that  the  visits  of  the  angels 
to  this  place  are  neither  few  nor  far  between.  Craftsmen  in  the  finer 
arts  also  get  their  wealth  in  Yokohama.  Several  jewelers  display 
tempting  wares,  and  ply  a  brisk  trade.  Young  Japan  wears  a  watch 
nowadays,  and  thousands  are  sold  yearly  in  Yokohama.  Barber's  poles 
salute  us  on  several  streets,  and  one  may  be  shaved  in  French,  English, 
or  Japanese  fashion. 

Photographic  establishments  tempt  our  eyes  and  purse  with  tasteful 
albums  of  Japanese  costume  and  scenery.  First-class  eating  -  saloons 
await  their  crowds  at  the  hungry  hour.  The  several  auction  -  rooms 
seem  to  be  well  filled  with  native  and  foreign  purchasers.    Confection- 


FIRST  GLIMPSES  OP  JAPAN.  337 

ers  display  tlieir  bait  for  the  palate.  Newspaper  offices  greet  us ;  law- 
yers' and  doctors'  and  dentists'  signs  seem  to  be  sufficiently  plentiful. 
Carriages  and  "  traps  "  add  to  the  bustle,  and  several  knots  of  Japanese 
farmers,  pilgrims,  and  new-comers  from  the  provinces,  staring  surpris- 
ingly at  the  sights  they  have  long  heard  of,  but  which  they  now  for 
the  first  time  behold,  are  met  as  we  pass  up  the  street.  French  Cath- 
olic or  Russian  Greek  priests  in  their  cassocks,  nuns  in  their  black 
robes,  well-dressed  Chinese,  Jews  from  every  nation  under  heaven, 
French  soldiers  in  blue,  British  soldiers  in  red  coats,  and  the  talkers 
in  a  score  of  different  languages,  are  met  with,  and  help  to  give  the 
town  its  cosmopolitan  character.  Main  Street,  however,  is  only  the 
street  of  shops,  shop-keepers,  and  the  usual  vulgar  herd. 

Let  us  turn  into  the  street  of  "  hongs "  and  "  merchants."  Be  it 
known  that  in  Yokohama,  and  the  Eastern  ports  generally,  the  dis- 
tinction between  a  merchant  and  a  shop-keeper  is  dire  and  radical. 
With  us  lay  folk  outside  of  the  trading  world  the  difference  is  small, 
and  not  always  perceptible  —  a  mole -hill,  at  the  least;  but  in  these 
Eastern  ports  a  great  gulf  is  fixed,  socially  and  commercially,  between 
the  two  castes,  and  the  difference  is  mountainous.  With  us,  a  shop- 
keeper is  a  man  and  a  brother ;  in  Yokohama,  in  the  eye  of  the  clubs, 
and  with  the  elect  of  wealth,  fashion,  and  the  professions,  he  is  but  a 
heathen  and  a  publican.  Advertising,  the  use  of  a  sign  -  board,  and 
such -like  improprieties,  are  evidences  of  low  caste,  and  consign  the 
offender  to  the  outer  darkness,  far  away  from  happy  club  men  and 
select  visitors.  This  relic  of  English  caste  traditions,  rank,  and  class 
worship  is  not  so  strong  now  as  formerly,  but  is  sufficiently  potent  to 
cause  many  a  bitter  pang  and  many  heart-burnings  to  those  who  first 
experience  it  in  their  new  residence  in  the  East. 

The  street  in  which  the  "  hongs,"  or  large  business  establishments, 
are  situated  is  rather  gloomy,  when  compared  with  the  lively  Main 
Street.  Most  of  the  buildings  are  of  stone,  and  many  of  them  are  fire- 
proof "godowns,"  or  store -houses.  From  the  windows  of  the  "tea- 
firing  godowns"  issues  the  fragrant  aroma  of  the  new  crop  of  tea,  which 
is  being  "fired"  or  dried  in  deep  tin  basins,  over  charcoal  fires,  by  na- 
tive girls  and  women,  preparatory  to  packing  and  export.  Most  of 
the  largest  and  wealthiest  business  houses  are  owned  and  managed 
by  those  who  were  among  the  first -comers  to  Japan.  Many  of  the 
"  hongs "  are  branches  of  houses  in  China,  or  they  themselves  have 
agencies  at  Nagasaki,  Hiogo,  and  ports  in  China.  From  five  to  twenty 
young  men  form  their  clerical  staff,  backed  by  a  small  army  of  native 


338  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIBE. 

porters,  coolies,  packers,  boatmen,  etc.  These  large  firms  control  near^ 
ly  all  the  export  trade  of  Yokohama,  and,  indeed,  of  Japan.  The  tea, 
silk,  copper,  rice,  etc.,  is  brought  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  though 
chiefly  from  the  West  and  North,  and  is  disposed  of  by  the  native 
merchants  through  brokers  and  "  compradores."  In  most  cases  the 
native  producer,  or  even  the  broker,  never  sees  the  foreigner  with 
whom  he  deals.  The  most  important  man  in  many  foreign  firms,  the 
power  behind  and  before  the  throne,  is  the  "  compradore."  This  su- 
perior being  is  a  Chinaman,  who  understands  enough  Japanese,  espe- 
cially with  the  help  of  the  written  Chinese  character,  to  deal  with  the 
Japanese  merchant,  producer,  or  broker.  He  is  the  provider  and  pay- 
master of  the  firm  in  its  dealings  with  the  natives.  He  arranges,  by 
and  with  the  advice  of  the  merchant,  the  purchase,  sale,  and  delivery 
of  merchandise.  He  hires  and  pays  the  Japanese  employes,  and,  being 
the  trusted  man,  is  a  creature  of  imposing  pretensions,  and  a  quasi- 
partner  of  the  firm.  His  facilities,  opportunities,  and  never -cloyed 
desire  for  "squeezes"  from  his  Japanese  clients  are  equally  abundant, 
and  he  lives  up  to  his  privileges.  Various  shifts  have  been  made  use 
of  by  the  Japanese  merchants  to  depose  this  obnoxious  middle -man 
from  his  position,  and  even  to  eliminate  him  entirely  from  mercantile 
transactions.  A  bold  attempt  of  this  kind  was  lately  made  by  the 
plucky  Governor  of  Yokohama,  Oye  Taku ;  but,  as  the  manner  of  the 
attempt  was  technically  illegal,  it  failed,  and  matters  still  remain  as 
they  were  before. 

This  aristocratic  and  highly  antiquated  form  of  doing  business,  in 
which  the  merchant  practically  holds  himself  aloof  from  his  custom- 
ers, is  an  inheritance  from  the  foreign  merchants  in  the  ports  of 
China.  Ignorant  of  the  language  of  that  country,  trusting  their 
afEairs  to  a  "compradore"  who  spoke  pigeon-English,  they  lived  and 
grew  rich,  without  troubling  themselves  to  learn  the  language  of  the 
pig-tails  around  them.  Few  of  the  merchants  in  Japan,  to  their  dis- 
credit let  it  be  said,  have  seriously  endeavored  to  master  the  speech  of 
their  producers,  and,  being  ignorant  of  it,  the  "compradore"  is,  in 
such  a  state  of  things,  a  necessary  evil.  This  old-fogy  method  of  do- 
ing business  must  in  time  give  way  before  the  enterprise  and  energy 
of  the  younger  firms,  who  refuse  to  employ  "  compradores,"  and  the 
members  of  which  are  beginning  to  acquire  the  language  of  the  people 
with  whom  they  deal.  There  might  have  been  excuses  to  the  first- 
comers  for  not  learning  a  language  for  the  acquisition  of  which  no 
teachers  or  apparatus  at  that  time  existed ;  but  at  the  present,  thanks 


FIRST  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAN.  339 

to  American  missionaries  and  the  gentlemen  of  the  English  civil  service, 
an  excellent  apparatus  of  grammars, dictionaries,  and  phrase-books  exists. 

The  four  great  steamship  agencies  at  present  in  Yokohama  are  the 
American  Pacific  Mail ;  the  Oriental  and  Occidental ;  the  English  Pen- 
insular and  Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Company  ;  and  the  French  Mes- 
sageries  Maritime  Paquet  Postes  Frangais.  The  Ocean  Steamship  Com- 
pany has  also  an  agency  here.  The  native  lines  of  mail  steamers  Mit- 
sui Bishi  (Three  Diamonds)  also  make  Yokohama  their  terminus. 
The  coming  orthodox  bridal  tour  and  round-the-world  trip  will  soon 
be  made  via  Japan  first,  then  Asia,  Europe,  and  America.  Already 
the  circum-mundane  tourists  have  become  so  frequent  and  temporarily 
numerous  in  Yokohama  as  to  be  recognized  as  a  distinct  class.  In  the 
easy  language  of  the  port,  they  are  called  "  globe-trotters." 

The  most  interesting  portion  of  Yokohama,  alike  to  the  new-comer 
and  the  old  resident,  is  the  Bluff.  Coming  to  a  port  opened  primarily 
for  trading  purposes  only,  one  expects  to  find  shops  and  store-houses, 
but  few  anticipate  seeing  such  dwellings  and  homes  as  are  to  be  found 
on  the  Bluff.  In  the  afternoon,  when  the  business  of  the  day  is  over, 
and  the  high,  grand,  and  mighty  event  of  the  day,  the  dinner,  has  not 
yet  been  consummated,  the  visitor  on  the  Bluff  sees  very  fine  speci- 
mens of  horseflesh,  good  turn-outs,  and  plenty  of  pedestrian  and  eques- 
trian humanity  out  for  fresh  air.  The  trim  door-yards,  lawns,  gardens, 
fences,  and  hedges  help  to  make  a  picture  of  unexpected  beauty.  The 
villas  and  dwellings  are  not  high,  being  bungalows  of  one  story,  or 
houses  of  two  stories.  Though  not  remarkable  as  architectural  tri- 
umphs, they  are  picturesque  without,  and  full  of  comfort  within. 
Added  to  home  attractions,  is  the  ever-present  lovely  scenery  of  the 
bay,  the  distant  mountains,  the  peerless  Fuji,  and  the  smiling  valleys. 
Nearly  all  the  professional  and  many  of  the  business  men  live  on  the 
Bluff,  and,  whether  from  the  natural  altitude,  the  inspiring  freshness 
of  the  scenery,  or  otherwise,  the  Bluff  dwellers  are  apt  to  consider 
themselves  of  a  slightly  higher  social  order  than  the  inhabitants  of 
the  plain.  The  Bluff  spreads  over  an  irregular  triangle,  and  its  sur- 
face is  rather  undulating.  Many  of  the  dwellings  are  snugly  embosom- 
ed amidst  groves,  or  on  the  slopes  and  in  the  hollows,  but  most  of 
them  crown  its  spurs  and  ridges  in  commanding  positions.  The  le- 
gations of  the  treaty  powers  were,  until  1874,  situated  in  especially 
choice  spots.  Strange  to  say,  the  foreign  diplomatic  representatives, 
instead  of  residing  in  Tokio,  lived  at  Yokohama,  preferring  society  to 
the  doubtful  charms  of  the  Japanese  capital. 


340  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

My  opportune  arrival  so  near  New  Year's,  and  the  custom  of  visiting 
being  enthusiastically  observed,  enabled  me  to  see  into  the  homes  of 
many  old  residents,  and  to  meet  most  of  the  social  magnates  and  men 
prominent  in  the  diplomatic,  literary,  commercial,  and  missionary  world. 
Among  others,  I  saw  our  hospitable  American  minister,  Hon.  Charles  E. 
De  Long,  the  Dutch,  French,  and  Danish  ministers,  and  several  consuls 
and  attaches.  Mr.  Portman,  formerly  secretary  and  interpreter  to  the 
American  Legation,  one  of  the  valuable  and  unrewarded  servants  of  our 
Government,  was  then  hale  and  gray,  living  alone,  not  knowing  that 
his  grave  was  to  be  in  the  Ville  d:i  Havre. 

Beside  the  legations  are  the  fine  American  hospital,  the  General 
and  British  hospitals,  and  the  public  gardens.  On  summer  evenings 
one  of  the  bands  from  the  flag-ships  stationed  in  the  harbor  plays  in 
these  gardens ;  while  flower,  beast,  and  bird  shows,  and  various  sports 
and  amusements,  fire-works,  etc.,  are  furnished  by  the  most  indefatiga- 
ble proprietor  that  ever  catered  to  public  taste.  Beyond  the  "  foreign 
concession"  of  land — that  is,  outside  the  limits  of  foreign  dwellings — is 
the  race-course,  an  ample  space  of  ground,  leveled,  fenced,  and  furnished 
with  buildings  and  spectators'  stands.  The  races  are  held  during  threft 
days  in  spring  and  autumn,  followed  invariably  by  a  "  Black  Monday," 
when  bets  are  paid.  An  incredible  amount  of  excitement,  truly  Britr 
ish,  is  got  up  over  Oriental  horseflesh.  The  term  for  an  untried 
horse  is  "  griffin." 

A  fine  new  road  has  been  built  by  the  Japanese  Government,  which 
passes  by  the  race-course,  and  winds  over  the  hills  and  down  along  the 
shores  of  Mississippi  Bay,  which  is  described  as  "  the  most  beautiful  for 
varied  scenery  in  the  world."  Of  course,  I  am  quoting  from  those  who 
speak  in  the  same  sense  in  which  a  mother  speaks  when  she  asserts, 
and  really  believes,  that  her  babe  is  the  last  crowning  wonder  of  the 
universe.  Nevertheless,  Yokohama  numbers  among  its  residents  many 
tourists  and  sometime  residents  in  the  Old  and  New  Worlds  in  many 
habitable  latitudes.  Their  almost  unanimous  verdict  is,  that  Mississip- 
pi Bay,  especially  at  the  sunset  and  twilight  hours,  is  matchlessly  love- 
ly. The  New  Road,  after  passing  along  the  beach  and  through  sever- 
al Japanese  villages,  past  rice  and  wheat  fields,  and  through  a  beautiful 
valley,  rejoins  Yokohama  at  "  Legation  Bluff." 

Returning  from  walk  or  drive,  the  event  of  the  day,  the  grand  cul- 
minating act  of  diurnal  existence,  to  which  every  thing  else  is  but  a 
prelude,  the  dinner,  claims  the  solemn  thought  and  most  vigorous  fac- 
ulties of  mind  and  body.     Whatever  else  fails,  the  dinner  must  be  a 


FIRST  GLIMPSES   OF  JAPAN.  Ml 

success.  "  Life  without  letters  is  death,"  was  said  by  the  Romans ; 
but  that  life  without  dinners  is  no  life  at  all,  is  the  solemn  conviction 
of  most  residents  in  the  East.  It  is  further  said  that  a  Frenchman 
can  cook  a  dinner  as  a  dinner  deserves  to  be  cooked,  but  only  an  En- 
glishman can  eat  it  as  it  ought  to  be  eaten.  In  Yokohama,  dinner  is 
the  test  of  success  in  life.  If  that  momentous  feed  is  successfully 
achieved,  sorrow  and  care  are  forgotten,  the  future  is  hopeful,  eternity 
radiant,  and  the  chief  end  of  man  is  attained.  No  bolting,  no  haste, 
no  slovenliness  in  dress,  no  wishing  it  over.  A  dinner  to  be  given 
must  be  studied  and  exquisitely  planned,  as  a  general  plans  a  battle, 
or  a  diplomat  a  treaty.  A  dinner  to  be  attended  must  be  dressed  for, 
anticipated,  and  rehearsed  as  a  joyful  hour  on  a  higher  plane  of  exist- 
ence, or — as  an  ordeal  for  which  one  must  be  steeled  and  clad  in  res- 
ignation. To  appreciate  the  esoteric  aesthetics  of  dinner,  and  to  com- 
prehend the  higher  law  that  governs  these  august  events,  apart  from 
the  mere  vulgar  idea  of  satisfying  hunger,  one  must  be  educated  by  a 
long  course  of  observation  and  experience.  Real  enjoyment  is  doubt- 
less to  be  obtained  at  these  dinner  parties ;  but  such  an  idea  is  not 
necessarily  included  within  the  objects  sought  by  an  orthodox  giver 
of  a  dinner.  There  are  a  great  many  "  brilliant  flashes  of  silence  "  at 
these  dinners,  and  meditations  on  crockery  are  common.  Neverthe- 
less, it  is  really  believed  that  a  good  dinner  is  the  correct  method  of 
securing  the  highest  earthly  happiness,  and  is  the  most  common  means 
of  social  enjoyment  in  Yokohama. 

Being  such  a  cosmopolitan  place,  the  dweller  in  Yokohama  must  be 
always  vigilant  to  offend  none,  and  in  all  the  windings  of  conversation 
must  pick  his  steps,  lest  he  tread  on  the  national,  religious,  or  aesthetic 
corns  of  his  neighbors.  Wliat  is  complimentary  to  one  man  may  be 
insult  to  some  one  else  present,  and  so  one  becomes  schooled  to  make 
only  the  correct  remark.  Though  this  state  of  armed  neutrality  may 
sometimes  tend  to  make  conversation  excessively  stupid,  and  a  mere 
round  of  dessicated  commonplaces,  it  trains  one  to  be,  outwardly  at 
least,  charitable  to  all,  malicious  to  none.  It  keeps  one  circumspect 
and  cosmopolitan,  whether  in  opinions  or  moral  practice ;  and  to  be 
cosmopolitan  is  to  be,  in  Anglo  -  Oriental  eyes,  virtuous  beyond  vulgar 
conception. 

The  predominating  culture,  thought,  manners,  dress,  and  household 
economy  in  Yokohama,  as  in  all  the  Eastern  ports,  is  English.  Out- 
numbering all  the  other  nationalities,  with  the  Press,  the  Church,  the 
Bar,  and  the  Banks  in  their  own  hands ;  with  their  ever-present  sol- 


342  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

diers  and  navy ;  witli  tlieir  unrivaled  civil  service,  wliicli  furnishes  so 
many  gentlemanly  officials ;  and  with  most  of  the  business  under 
their  control,  the  prevalence  of  English  thought  and  methods  is  very 
easily  accounted  for.  Because  of  the  very  merits  and  excellences  of 
the  genuine  Englishman,  the  American  in  the  East  can  easily  forgive 
the  intense  narrowness,  the  arrogant  conceit,  and,  as  relates  to  Ameri- 
can affairs,  the  ludicrous  ignorance  and  fondly  believed  perfection  of 
knowledge  of  so  many  who  arrogate  to  themselves  all  the  insular  per- 
fections. Perhaps  most  of  the  Englishmen  at  the  East  are  fair  repre- 
sentatives of  England's  best  fruits ;  but  a  grievously  large  number, 
removed  from  the  higher  social  pressure  which  was  above  them,  and 
which  kept  them  at  their  true  level  in  England,  find  themselves  with- 
out that  social  pressure  in  the  East ;  and  obeying  the  "  law  of  press- 
ures," they  are  apt  to  become  offensively  vaporous  in  their  preten- 
sions. These  persons  are  surprised  to  find  even  American  enterprise 
in  the  East.  They  are  the  most  radical  and  finical  concerning  every 
idea,  custom,  ceremony,  or  social  despotism  of'  any  kind  supposed  to 
be  English.  These  men  help  to  form  the  army  of  hard-heads  and 
civilized  boors  in  Japan,  to  which  our  own  country  furnishes  recruits, 
who  do  so  much  toward  helping  the  Japanese  to  carry  out  in  Japan 
their  favorite  amusement  in  American  hotels,  i.  e.,  to  descend  on  an 
elevator ;  that  is,  to  lay  aside  their  own  dignified  politeness,  and  to 
adopt  the  rough  manners  of  those  who  fondly  imagine  themselves 
the  embodiment  of  the  elevating  influences  of  civilization.  They  are 
the  foreigners  who  believe  it  their  solemn  duty,  and  who  make  it  their 
regular  practice,  to  train  up  their  native  servant  "boys"  in  the  way 
they  should  go  by  systematic  whippings,  beatings,  and  applications  of 
the  boot.  Fearful  of  spoiling  cook,  boy,  or  "  betto  "  (hostler),  they 
spare  neither  fist,  boot,  nor  cane.  In  this  species  of  brutality  we  be- 
lieve the  vulgar  John  Bulls  to  be  sinners  above  all  the  foreigners  in 
the  East.  I  saw  enough  in  one  day  to  explain  why  so  many  of  their 
nationality  have  felt  the  vengeful  swords  of  Japanese  samurai.  Al- 
though Americans  sometimes  are  swift-footed  to  follow  the  example 
of  Englishmen,  yet  it  is  usually  acknowledged  by  the  Japanese  them- 
selves that  the  Americans,  as  a  class  of  that  heterogeneous  collection 
of  men,  who  are  all  alike  to  them  in  being  foreigners,  are  more  in- 
clined to  give  them  their  rights,  and  to  treat  them  as  equals. 

Be  it  remembered  that  in  these  remarks  we  do  not  refer  to  that 
large  body  of  educated,  refined,  and  true-hearted  Englishmen  who 
have  been  such  a  potent  influence  in  the  civilization  of  Japan.     It 


FIIiST  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAN.  343 

must  be  confessed,  and  we  cheerfully  bear  witness  to  what  is  a  fact, 
that  the  predominating  good  influence  in  Japan  is  English.  Some  of 
the  most  prominent  and  most  highly  trusted  foreign  oificials  of  the 
Japanese  Government  are  English.  The  navy,  the  railways,  the  tele- 
graphs, public  works,  and  light -houses  are  managed  by  them  almost 
exclusively,  and  a  large  part,  if  not  most,  of  the  business  of  the  coun- 
try is  in  their  hands.  Some  of  the  very  best,  and  perhaps  the  majori- 
ty, of  lay  students  of,  and  scholars  in,  the  Japanese  language  are  En- 
glishmen. For  all  that  goes  to  refine,  elevate,  and  purify  society  among 
foreigners  we  are  largely  indebted  to  the  English.  In  my  strictures,  I 
refer  to  that  numerous  class  in  Japan  who,  with  pecuniary  power  and 
social  influence  far  above  that  they  could  gain  at  home,  ape  the  man- 
ners and  succeed  in  copying  the  worst  faults  of  the  better  class  of 
their  countrymen.  Living  among  a  people  capable  of  teaching  them 
good  manners,  and  yet  ignorant  alike  of  their  history,  language,  insti- 
tutions, and  codes  of  honor  and  morals,  they  regard  them  as  so  many 
chattering  silk -worms,  tea -plants,  and  tokens  of  copper.  They  are 
densely  ignorant  of  every  thing  outside  of  England,  and  with  unrufiled 
stupidity  they  fail  to  conceive  how  any  good  thing  can  come  out  of  a  place 
not  included  within  the  little  island  from  which  they  came.  I  should 
feel  very  glad  if  none  of  my  countrymen  answered  to  this  description. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  British  and  American  should  be  so 
often  pitted  together ;  but  so  long  as  fair  play,  chivalric  honor,  cosmo- 
politan breadth  of  mind,  and  Christian  courtesy  are  left  us,  we  think 
the  rivalry  must  be  productive  of  immense  good.  Like  flint  and  steel, 
before  the  dead  cold  mass  of  Asiatic  despotism,  superstition,  and  nar- 
rowness, it  must  result  in  kindling  many  a  good  spark  into  flames  of 
progress  and  knowledge.  Whatever  be  their  petty  differences,  the 
English  and  American  ever  strike  hands  for  good  purposes  more 
quickly  than  any  other  two  nationalities  in  Japan ;  and  before  the 
men  of  every  other  nation  the  American  finds  more  to  love,  to  honor, 
and  to  admire  in  the  Englishman,  It  is  the  two  nations  cemented  in- 
separably together  by  the  blood,  religion,  language,  history,  inherit- 
ance, and  the  love  of  liberty  and  law,  that  are  to  impress  their  char- 
acter and  civilization  on  the  millions  of  Asia,  and  to  do  most  toward 
its  regeneration.  Let  every  pen  and  tongue  forbear  to  needlessly  irri- 
tate, or  do  aught  to  sunder  the  ties  that  bind  together  the  two  great 
civilizing  powers  of  the  world ;  but  as  for  the  social  bigot,  the  Philis- 
tine, the  bully,  let  not  his  disgraced  nationality  shield  him  from  the 
social  exile  and  public  contempt  which  he  deserves. 


344  THE  IIIEADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Yokohama  is  fervently  believed  by  many  new-comers,  especially 
those  who  are  soon  discovered  to  be  either  verdant  or  genuine  fools, 
to  be  the  very  worst  place  in  the  world  for  iniquity,  gossip,  and  all 
manner  of  rascality.  In  this  they  most  clearly  mistake.  Since  the 
same  reputation  attaches  to  at  least  a  thousand  places,  I  think  the  er- 
ror lies  in  a  defect  in  the  mental  vision  of  the  new-comer.  Some  tem- 
porary attack  of  moral  color-blindness,  strabismus,  or  disarrangement 
of  the  moral  lenses,  must  be  the  cause  of  such  an  erroneous  opinion. 
Long  residents  and  traveled  men  agree  in  the  belief  that  the  moral 
status  of  Yokohama  is  fully  equal  to  most  other  ports  in  the  East,  if 
not  in  the  world.  Some  optimists  even  hold  the  opinion  that  it  is 
better  than  many  other  places  that  boast  loudly  of  their  morals.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  gambling  hells  have  been  purged  away.  Rum  "  mills  " 
and  lewd  houses,  though  numerous  enough,  are  not  more  common  than 
in  other  ports.  The  white  woman  in  scarlet  drives  her  carriage  on  the 
Bluff  and  in  the  town,  but  her  sisters  are  not  abnormally  numerous. 
Where  heathen  women  are  cheap,  and  wives  from  home  are  costly, 
chastity  is  not  a  characteristic  trait  of  the  single  men ;  but  the  same 
evil  and  the  same  resultant  curse  rests  on  all  such  places  where  "  Chris- 
tians" live  side  by  side  with  "pagans."  Given  a  superior  race  with 
superior  resources,  and  poor  natives  who  love  money  more  than  virtue, 
and  the  same  state  of  things  results. 

Missionaries  abound  in  Yokohama,  engaged  in  the  work  of  teaching, 
and  converting  the  natives  to  the  various  forms  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. It  is  a  little  curious  to  note  the  difference  in  the  sentiment 
concerning  missionaries  on  different  sides  of  the  ocean.  Coming  from 
the  atmosphere  and  influences  of  the  Sunday-school,  the  church,  and 
the  various  religious  activities,  the  missionary  seems  to  most  of  us  an 
exalted  being,  who  deserves  all  honor,  respect,  and  sympathy.  Ar- 
rived among  the  people  in  Asiatic  ports,  one  learns,  to  his  surprise, 
that  the  missionaries,  as  a  class,  are  "  wife -beaters,"  "swearers,"  "li- 
ars," "  cheats,"  "  hypocrites,"  "  defrauders,"  "  speculators,"  etc.,  etc. 
He  is  told  that  they  occupy  an  abnormally  low  social  plane,  that  they 
are  held  in  contempt  and  open  scorn  by  the  "  merchants,"  and  by  so- 
ciety generally.  Certain  newspapers  even  yet  love  nothing  better  than 
to  catch  any  stray  slander  or  gossip  concerning  a  man  from  whom 
there  is  no  danger  of  gunpowder  or  cowhide.  Old  files  of  some  of 
the  newspapers  remind  one  of  an  entomological  collection,  in  which 
the  specimens  are  impaled  on  pins,  or  the  store-house  of  that  celebra- 
ted New  Zealand  merchant  who  sold  "canned  missionaries."     Some 


FIRST  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAK  345 

of  the  most  lovely  and  lofty  curves  ever  achieved  by  the  nasal  orna- 
ments of  pretty  women  are  seen  when  the  threadbare  topic  of  mission- 
ary scandal  is  introduced.  The  only  act  approaching  to  cannibalism 
is  when  the  missionary  is  served  up  whole  at  the  dinner-table,  and  his 
reputation  devoured.  The  new-comer,  thus  suddenly  brought  in  con- 
tact with  such  new  and  startling  opinions,  usually  either  falls  in  with 
the  fashion,  and  adopts  the  opinions,  the  foundation  for  which  he  has 
never  examined,  or  else  sets  to  work  to  find  out  how  much  truth  there 
is  in  the  scandals.  A  fair  and  impartial  investigation  of  facts  usually 
results  in  the  conviction  that  some  people  are  very  credulous  and  ex- 
cessively gullible  in  believing  falsehoods. 

Scarcely  one  person  in  a  hundred  of  those  who  so  freely  indulge  in, 
and  so  keenly  enjoy,  the  gossip  and  scandal  about  missionaries,  realizes 
their  need  of  human  sympathy,  or  shows  that  fair  play  which  teaches 
us  that  they  are  but  human  beings  like  ourselves.  The  men  of  busi- 
ness and  leisure  for  every  thing  except  their  tongues  are  utterly  un- 
able to  understand  the  missionary's  life,  work,  or  purpose.  Apart  from 
the  fact  that  a  man  who  strives  to  obey  the  final  and  perhaps  most 
positive  command  of  the  Great  Founder  of  Christianity,  to  preach  the 
Gospel  to  every  creature,  should  win  respect  so  far  as  he  obeys  that 
command,  it  is  also  most  happily  true  that  some  of  the  very  best,  most 
conscientious,  though  quiet,  work  in  the  civilization  of  Japan  has  been 
done  by  missionaries.  They  were  the  first  teachers;  and  the  first 
counselors  whose  advice  was  sought  and  acted  upon  by  the  Japanese 
were  missionaries,  and  the  first  and  ripest  fruits  of  scholarship — the 
aids  to  the  mastery  of  the  Japanese  language — were  and  are  the  work 
of  missionaries.  The  lustre  shed  upon  American  scholarship  by  mis- 
sionaries in  China  and  Japan  casts  no  shadow,  even  in  the  light  of  the 
splendid  literary  achievements  of  the  English  civil  service.  Besides 
this,  a  community  in  which  the  lives  of  the  majority  are  secretly  or 
openly  at  variance  with  the  plainest  precepts  of  the  Great  Master  can 
not,  even  on  general  principles,  be  expected  to  sympathize  very  deeply 
with,  or  even  comprehend,  the  efforts  of  men  who  are  social  heretics. 
It  is  hard  to  find  an  average  "  man  of  the  world  "  in  Japan  who  has 
any  clear  idea  of  what  the  missionaries  are  doing  or  have  done.  Then 
dense  ignorance  borders  on  the  ridiculous. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  few,  very  few,  who  call  themselves  missiona- 
ries are  incompetent,  indiscreet,  fanatical,  and  the  terror  even  of  their 
good  and  earnest  brethren. 

At  present,  in  Yokohama,  there  are  the  edifices  of  the  Established 


346  THE  3IIKAD0'S  EMPIBE. 

English  Episcopal,  the  French  Catholic,  the  Union  Protestant,  and 
native  Christian  churches.  There  is  also  a  Jewish  congregation.  Be- 
sides the  Governmental,  the  private  Japanese,  and  the  General  Hospital 
of  the  foreigners,  there  is  a  Ladies'  Benevolent  Society.  A  well-kept 
and  neatly  laid  out  and  ornamented  cemetery,  beautifully  situated  on 
the  slope  of  the  Bluif,  in  which  sleep  the  men  of  many  creeds  and  na- 
tions, tells  many  a  sad  tale  of  assassination,  of  murder,  and  of  battle, 
which  took  place  before  the  present  peaceful  residence  of  the  Western 
strangers  in  Japan  was  won.  The  Eussians,  the  Dutch,  the  English, 
and  the  French  compelled  the  Japanese  Government  to  build  the  tombs 
of  the  slain.  Many  a  mother's  darling,  many  a  gallant  soldier  and 
sailor,  who  met  his  death  from  disease,  accident,  drowning,  or  excess, 
and  many  a  broken-hearted  exile  lies  here ;  and  more  than  one  visit  to 
this  sad  city  of  the  dead  has  impressed  me  with  the  truth  that  most  of 
the  epitaphs  are  plain  historical  facts,  free  from  sham  and  fulsome 
falsehood ;  as  though  being  free  from  the  meretricious  ornament  that 
so  often  miserably  accords  with  the  blunt  fact  of  death,  the  tombs 
had  won  the  rare  adornment  of  simple  truth. 

From  the  Yokohama  of  to-day,  with  its  bustling  energies,  and  old 
enough  in  its  new  life  to  have  its  cemetery,  we  shall  glance  at  Yoko- 
hama as  it  was  from  its  forgotten  beginning,  centuries  ago,  until  a.d. 
1854,  when  a  fleet  of  American  steamers  began  the  first  epoch  in  the 
new  life  of  Japan. 

On  a  small  arm  of  the  Gulf  of  Yedo,  midway  between  its  mouth 
and  the  capital  of  the  empire,  stood  an  insignificant  little  fishing  vil- 
lage. Evidently  it  never  possessed  sufficient  importance  to  be  men- 
tioned, except  casually,  by  Japanese  historians  or  travelers.  In  its  best 
days  prior  to  1854,  it  might  have  numbered  a  thousand  inhabitants. 
Nearly  all  the  men  were  fishers,  or  worked  with  the  women  in  the  rice 
swamps  surrounding  the  village  on  all  sides,  and  stretching  toward  the 
base  of  the  Bluff.  The  great  highway  to  Yedo  passed  through  the 
town  of  Kanagawa,  which  lies  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  bay.  Most 
probably  from  this  fact,  the  village  which  supplied  the  travelers  on 
the  great  road  with  fish  was  called  Yokohama  ( Yoko,  across ;  hama, 
strand).  For  centuries  the  simple  inhabitants  swept  the  sea  with  their 
nets,  dug  their  mud  swamps,  planted  their  rice,  eat  their  rude  fare, 
lived  their  monotonous  life,  and  died  in  the  faith  of  Buddha  and  the 
hope  of  Nirvana.  No  seer  ever  prophesied  greatness  of  Yokohama, 
but  some  places,  like  men,  have  greatness  thrust  upon  them.  When, 
on  the  evening  of  the  7th  of  July,  1853,  the  fleet  of  huge  American 


FIRST  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAN.  347 

steamers  lay  at  anchor  abreast  of  Uraga,  a  few  miles  distant,  and  the 
people  of  Yokohama  saw  the  blazing  beacon- fires  and  heard  the  breath- 
less messengers  tell  the  tale  of  the  wondrous  apparition  of  mighty 
ships  moving  swiftly  without  wind,  tide,  or  oars,  the  first  pulses  of  a 
new  life  stirred  within  them  as  they  talked  that  night  before  their 
huts  in  the  sultry  evening.  Their  idea  of  a  steamer,  as  I  have  heard 
it  from  their  own  lips,  was,  that  these  Western  foreigners,  who  were 
not  men,  but  half  beasts,  half  sorcerers,  had  power  to  tame  a  volcano, 
condense  its  power  in  their  ships,  and  control  it  at  will.  That  night, 
as  the  spark-spangled  clouds  of  smoke  pulsed  out  of  the  fire-breathing 
smoke-stacks  of  the  steamers,  which  were  kept  under  steam  in  readi- 
ness for  attack,  many  an  eager  prayer,  prompted  by  terror  at  the  aw- 
ful apparition,  went  up  from  the  hearts  of  the  simple  people,  who  anx- 
iously awaited  the  issue  of  the  strange  visit. 

During  all  the  eight  days  during  which  Commodore  Perry's  fleet 
lay  at  anchor,  or  steamed  at  will  over  their  sacred  waters,  the  survey- 
ing boats  were  busy  extorting  the  secrets  of  the  water,  its  danger  and 
its  depth.  No  drunken  sailor  roamed  on  the  land,  none  of  the  quiet 
natives  were  beaten,  robbed,  or  molested.  The  mighty  mind  of  the 
gentle  commodore  extended  to  the  humblest  minutiae  of  discipline,  and 
his  all-comprehending  genius  won  victory  without  blood.  The  natives 
had  opportunity  of  gaining  clearer  ideas  as  to  what  sort  of  beings  the 
strange  visitors  were.  In  those  eight  days  even  the  proudest  samurai 
were  convinced  of  the  power  of  the  Western  nations.  Familiarity 
bred  no  contempt  of  American  prowess,  while  for  the  first  time  they 
saw  their  own  utterly  defenseless  condition.  After  delivering  the  let- 
ter with  the  proper  pomp  and  ceremony  to  the  high  Japanese  com- 
missioner at  Uraga,  and  having  for  the  first  time  in  history  gained 
several  important  points  of  etiquette  in  a  country  where  etiquette  is 
more  than  law  or  morals,  the  consummate  diplomat  and  warrior.  Per- 
ry, sailed  away  with  his  fleet  July  l7th,  1853. 

Commodore  M.  C.  Perry  inaugurated  a  policy  in  his  dealings  with 
the  Japanese  which  all  thoroughly  successful  foreigners  in  Japan  have 
found  the  safest,  quickest,  and  most  certain  means  of  success,  in  deal- 
ing with  them,  in  order  to  win  new  concessions,  or  to  lead  them  to 
higher  reforms.  Instead  of  demanding  an  immediate  answer,  he  al- 
lowed them  seven  months  to  consider  the  matter,  promising  them  at 
the  end  of  that  time  to  come  again.  During  that  period  the  authori- 
ties had  time  to  consult,  reflect,  and  to  smoke  an  unlimited  number 
of  pipes,  and  all  of  these  they  did. 


348  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

When  Perry,  with  an  augmented  fleet  of  nine  steamers,  returned 
again  in  February,  the  Japanese  found  him  as  punctilious,  polite,  per- 
severing, considerate,  and  as  inflexibly  firm  as  ever.  Instead  of  mak- 
ing the  treaty  at  Uraga,  he  must  make  it  nearer  Yedo.  Yokohama 
was  the  chosen  spot,  and  there,  on  the  8th  of  March,  1854,  were  ex- 
changed the  formal  articles  of  convention  between  the  United  States 
and  Japan.  Then  followed  the  interchange  of  presents.  The  minia- 
ture telegraph  was  set  up  on  shore  over  a  space  of  one  mile,  and  was 
worked  for  several  days  to  the  delight  and  wonder  of  admiring  Japa- 
nese ofiicials.  The  Lilliputian  locomotive  and  train  of  cars  caused  un- 
bounded interest.  American  implements  and  mechanism  of  all  de- 
scriptions were  presented  as  evidences  of  American  peace  and  good- 
will. Matthew  Calbraith  Perry  achieved  a  triumph  grander  in  results 
than  his  brother,  Oliver  Hazard  Perry,  on  Lake  Erie.  He  had  met 
the  enemy,  and  they  were  his  friends.  The  Japanese  returned  the 
gifts  with  their  best  native  productions,  and  amused  their  guests  with 
wrestling  matches. 

By  the  treaty  of  Yokohama,  Hakodate  in  Yezo,  and  Shimoda  in 
Idzu,  were  opened  as  ports  of  supply  to  the  Americans.  Shimoda, 
before  it  fairly  began  to  be  of  much  service,  was  visited  by  a  terrific 
earthquake  and  tidal  wave,  that  hurled  a  Russian  frigate  to  destruc- 
tion, overwhelmed  the  town,  sweeping  back  by  its  recession  into  the 
boiling  ocean  scores  of  houses,  and  about  one  hundred  human  beings. 
The  efiluent  wave  plowed  the  harbor  with  such  force  that  all  the  mud 
was  scoured  from  the  rocky  bed.  The  anchors  of  ships  could  obtain 
no  grip  on  the  bare,  slippery  rock  bottom,  and  Shimoda,  being  useless 
as  a  harbor,  was  abandoned.  The  ruin  of  Shimoda  was  the  rise  of 
Yokohama.  By  a  new  treaty,  and  concessions  gained  from  the  Japa- 
nese by  Hon.  Townsend  Harris,  Kanagawa  (three  miles  across  the 
bay  from  Yokohama)  and  Nagasaki  were  made  open  ports,  not  only 
of  entry,  but  of  trade  and  commerce.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty, 
Kanagawa  was  opened  July  1st,  1859. 

Kanagawa  is  situated  on  the  western  side  of  the  Bay  of  Yedo,  about 
sixteen  miles  from  the  capital.  Through  it  passes  the  great  highway 
of  the  empire,  along  which  the  proud  daimios  and  their  trains  of  re- 
tainers were  continually  passing  on  their  way  to  and  from  the  capital. 
These  belligerent  young  bloods  were  spoiling  for  war,  and  a  trial  of 
their  blades  on  the  hated  hairy  foreigners !  Had  Kanagawa  been 
made  a  foreign  settlement,  its  history  would  doubtless  have  had  many 
more  bloody  pages  of  incendiaries  and  assassination  than  did  Yoko- 


FIRST  GLIMPSES   OF  JAPAN.  349 

hama.  Foreseeing  tliis,  even  though  considered  by  the  foreign  minis- 
ters a  violation  of  treaty  agreements,  the  Japanese  Government  chose 
Yokohama  as  the  future  port,  and  immediately  set  to  work  to  render 
it  as  convenient  as  possible  for  trade,  residence,  and  espionage.  They 
built  a  causeway,  nearly  two  miles  long,  across  the  lagoon  and  marshes 
from  Kanagawa,  so  as  to  make  it  of  easy  access.  They  built  the  solid 
granite  piers  or  "  hatobas,"  which  we  have  described,  erected  a  custom- 
house and  officers'  quarters,  and  prepared  small  dwellings  and  store- 
houses for  the  foreign  merchants. 

Before  the  opening  of  the  harbor,  several  ships,  with  the  pioneers  of 
trade  on  board,  lay  in  the  harbor  from  Nagasaki  and  China,  "  eager  to 
try  the  new  port,  and,  of  course,  clamorous  for  instant  accommodation 
and  facilities."  The  merchants  insisted  on  Yokohama,  the  ministers 
and  consuls  were  determined  on  Kanagawa.  The  strife  between  the 
two  parties  lasted  long,  and  left  many  roots  of  bitterness  that  are  not 
yet  entirely  grubbed  up ;  but  the  merchants  carried  their  point — as  is 
believed  by  all  to-day — to  the  advantage  of  foreign  influence  in  Japan. 
The  red  tape  which  helps  to  weave  a  net  of  misleading  and  inaccurate 
statements  in  regard  to  Japan  is  not  yet  cut,  as  regards  Kanagawa. 
We  frequently  read  of  the  United  States  Consul  and  Consulate  at 
Kanagawa.  There  has  been  neither  there  since  1861.  Both  are  in 
Yokohama.  Baron  Hiibner's  statement  that  Sir  R.  Alcock  was  "  the 
official  founder  of  Yokohama"  is  a  ramble  round  the  truth.  Yoko- 
hama was  settled  in  a  squatter-like  and  irregular  manner,  and  the  ill 
effects  of  it  are  seen  to  this  day.  When  compared  with  Shanghae, 
the  foreign  metropolis  of  China,  it  is  vastly  inferior  to  that  "  model 
settlement."  To  abridge  a  tedious  story,  -the  straggling  colony  of 
diplomats,  missionaries,  and  merchants  at  Kanagawa  finally  pulled  up 
their  stakes  and  joined  the  settlement  at  Yokohama.  The  town  grew 
slowly  at  first.  Murders  and  assassinations  of  foreigners  by  the  ruffian 
patriots  who  bravely  attacked  unarmed  foreigners,  usually  from  be- 
hind, were  frequent  during  the  first  few  years.  The  intermeddling  of 
Japanese  officials  threatened  to  paralyze  trade.  The  lion  of  civilization 
was  threatened  with  death  in  a  gigantic  net-work  of  red-tape,  in  the 
length,  redness,  strength,  and  quantity  of  which  the  bakufu  excelled 
the  world.  The  first  foreigners  were  not  specially  noted  for  good 
morals,  sensitive  consciences,  sweetness  of  temper,  nor  for  a  hatred  of 
filthy  lucre,  and  the  underhand  cunning  and  disregard  for  truth  which 
seems  a  part  of  official  human  nature  in  Japan  (only  ?)  were  matched 
by  the  cold-blooded  villainy  and  trickery  of  the  unprincipled  foreign- 

23 


350  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ers  of  all  creeds  and  nationalities.  A  favorite  threat  of  atrabilious 
Frenchmen,  blustering  Russians,  and  petty  epaulet-wearers  of  all  sorts, 
when  their  demands  were  refused,  was  to  strike  their  flag,  go  on  board 
a  man-of-war,  and  blow  up  the  native  town.  Yokohama  still  stands, 
having  survived  bombardments  in  five  languages.  The  Japanese  oflR- 
cials  became  so  accustomed  to  this  polyglot  snobbery,  that  they  ceased 
to  regard  its  monotonous  recurrence  with  feelings  different  from  those 
evoked  on  beholding  snuff-boxes  drawn,  or  on  hearing  the  terrific 
crash  that  followed. 

A  less  congenial  and  more  expensive  employment,  at  which  native 
oflBcials  were  kept  busy,  was  the  payment  of  outrageously  unjust  "  in- 
demnities " — a  euphemism  for  civilized  theft.  A  conflagration  caused 
by  a  kitchen  fire,  a  drunken  squabble,  an  insult  resulting  in  the  death 
of  a  white -faced  villain,  terminated  in  the  inevitable  and  exorbitant 
mulct.  A  sailor  found  dead  drunk  in  the  streets  was  the  signal  for 
sending  up  the  price  of  revolvers  one  hundred  per  cent.  Every  for- 
eign suicide  was  heralded  as  an  "  assassination." 

A  fire  (November  22d,  1866),  which  laid  nearly  the  whole  foreign 
town  in  ashes,  seemed  to  purify  the  place  municipally,  commercially, 
and  morally.  The  settlement  was  rebuilt  in  a  more  substantial  and 
regular  manner.  Banks,  newspaper  offices,  hospitals,  post-offices,  and 
consulate  buildings  re-appeared  as  with  new  life.  The  streets  were 
graded,  paved,  and  curbed.  The  swamp  was  filled  up.  The  Japanese 
village  of  Homura  was  removed  across  the  creek.  Fire  companies 
were  organized.  A  native  police  force  was  formed.  The  European 
steamships  began  to  come  to  Yokohama,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Pacific  Mail  line  of  steamers,  running  monthly  between  San  Francisco 
and  Yokohama,  was  the  final  master-stroke  that  removed  the  future 
prosperity  of  Yokohama  from  the  region  of  surmise  to  that  of  cer- 
tainty. Other  steamers  plied  to  Japanese  and  Chinese  ports.  Trade 
became  firmly  established.  Missionaries  unlocked  the  language,  and 
made  it  acquirable.  The  settlement  was  purged  of  roughs  and  gam- 
blers. The  amenities  of  social  life  began  to  appear,  as  ladies  and  chil- 
dren came  in  scores.  Houses  became  homes.  The  solitary  were  set 
in  families.  Churches  appeared  with  their  beneficent  influence.  The- 
atres, concerts,  and  operettas  gave  recreation  to  the  mind ;  while  row- 
ing, racing,  athletic,  cricket,  and  racket  clubs,  and  clubs  gastronomic 
and  sociable,  made  the  life  of  the  bachelors  less  monotonous.  Rifle 
companies  kept  the  eye  and  hand  in  practice  for  the  occasional  hunts 
when  game  was  plenty.     The  telegraph  to  Tokio  and  thence  around 


FIRST  GLIMPSES  OF  JAPAN.  351 

the  globe  was  opened  and  used.  The  railway  to  the  capital,  with  its 
ten  trains  daily,  became  a  familiar  fact.  Schools  for  children  were  es- 
tablished. The  Eurasian  children  were  gathered  up  by  American  la- 
dies and  French  nuns,  to  be  reared  in  purity.  Christian  hymns  were 
translated  into  Japanese,  and  sung  to  the  tunes  of  Lowell  and  Brad- 
bury by  native  children.  Teachers  of  music  and  languages  sent  out 
their  circulars.  The  Sunday-school  opened  its  doors.  The  family 
physician  took  the  place  of  the  navy  surgeon.  Yokohama  now  boasts 
of  the  season,  like  London.  The  last  slow  growth  of  such  a  colony — 
the  Asiatic  Society,  established  for  the  encouragement  of  original  re- 
search, and  for  the  collection  of  information  concerning  the  history, 
language,  geography,  and  antiquity  of  Japan  and  parts  adjacent — has 
been  established.  It  has  already  done  much  excellent  work,  and, 
though  in  a  trading  community,  hopes  to  live. 

I  have  neither  time  nor  space  to  speak  of  the  wonders  wrought  in 
the  Japanese  town ;  nor  can  I  tell  the  story  of  how  a  fishing  village 
of  a  thousand  souls  has  become  a  city  of  fifty  thousand  people,  with 
its  streets  lighted  with  gas;  rich  stores,  piled  with  silk,  tea,  bronzes, 
and  curios  of  all  kinds — whither  tourists  flock,  and  naval  oflScers  mort- 
gage their  pay  for  months  to  come :  Japanese  curios  are  as  powerful 
as  mercury  to  attract  gold.  The  railway  and  station,  the  many  promis- 
ing industries  of  all  kinds,  the  native  hospital,  printing-offices,  etc., 
etc.,  deserve  description,  but  I  must  close  this  already  tedious  chapter 
by  a  summary  of  a  few  items  of  interest  not  referred  to  before. 

At  present  (1876)  the  foreign  population  of  Yokohama  is  reckoned 
to  be  about  twelve  hundred  residents,  of  both  sexes  and  all  ages.  The 
men  of  the  merchant  marine,  sailors,  officers,  on  shore  and  ship  duty, 
and  temporary  dwellers,  make  up  a  fluctuating  population,  which  is 
seldom  less  than  three  and  sometimes  as  many  as  six  thousand.  The 
Chinese  population  may  number  one  thousand  in  Yokohama,  and 
twenty-five  hundred  in  Japan.  In  their  hands  are  the  deep  things 
of  finance.  All  the  money-changers  and  brokers  are  Chinese,  and 
any  unexpected  fluctuations  in  the  money  market  are  laid  to  their 
charge.  Those  who  are  not  brokers  are  "  compradores,"  clerks,  or 
useful  artisans.  As  a  class,  they  form  the  most  industrious  national- 
ity in  Japan.  They  have  their  temple,  cemetery,  guilds,  and  benevo- 
lent association,  but  no  consul  or  mandarin  to  protect  or  to  grind 
them.  The  sight  of  the  fat,  well-dressed,  cleanly  Chinese,  so  well-oiled 
in  his  disposition  and  physique^  so  defiantly  comfortable  in  his  dress, 
forces  a  contrast  between  him  and  the  Japanese.     Some  people  con- 


352  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

sider  the  Cliinaman  as  the  man  of  superior  race.  In  Yokohama's 
heterogeneous  collection  of  humanity  are  several  score  of  children  in 
whose  veins  flows  the  blood  of  two  continents.  The  Eurasian  chil- 
dren, when  illegitimate,  are  still  citizens  of  Japan,  in  the  eye  of  Japa- 
nese law ;  but  when  born  in  wedlock,  are  citizens  of  the  same  country 
with  their  father.  By  the  laws  of  Japan,  marriage  between  Japanese 
and  foreigners  is  perfectly  legal,  and  several  such  marriages  have  been 
regularly  contracted  and  solemnized. 

The  Fourth  Estate  in  Yokohama  is  a  vast  one.  The  English  papers 
are,  The  Japan  Herald ;  The  Japan  Mail,  daily  and  weekly ;  The 
Japan  Gazette,  daily.  All  these  papers  issue  also  a  fortnightly  or 
monthly  mail  summary.  The  French  paper,  L^ Echo  du  Japon,  is  a 
daily.  The  Far  East  is  a  semi-monthly  large  pamphlet,  of  twelv^e 
pages,  photographically  illustrated,  with  letter -press  descriptive  of 
scenes  and  incidents  in  Japan.  The  Japan  Punch,  which  hits  the 
folly  and  furnishes  the  fun  for  the  Yokohama  public,  is  printed  by 
lithography,  and  is  a  clever  monthly  production. 

Toward  the  future  Yokohama  may  look  cheerfully  and  with  hope. 
So  near  the  great  capital,  practically  on  the  high-road  of  the  empire, 
with  a  magnificent  harbor,  capable  of  unlimited  improvements,  with 
railroad  and  telegraphic  facilities  already  in  use,  Yokohama's  future 
must  be  one  of  steady  prosperity.  When  Kobe  was  opened,  bold 
prophets  predicted  the  waning  of  Yokohama ;  but  their  prophecies 
have  long  since  been  forgotten.  New  land  is  being  reclaimed  from 
the  lagoons  toward  Kanagawa,  and  in  time  Kanagawa  and  Yokohama 
will  be  one  city.  The  foreign  population  may  not  increase  according 
to  the  New  World  ratio,  but  from  all  parts  of  the  Sea  Empire  shall 
come  the  wealth  and  the  sinew,  the  brain  and  the  heart  of  New  Ja- 
pan, to  learn  the  sources  of  the  power  and  superiority  of  the  West- 
erns ;  and,  returning,  the  fathers  shall  teach  theii-  children  to  be  wiser 
than  they.  Whatever  be  the  changes  of  the  future,  Yokohama  must 
continue  to  be  the  master-teacher  and  exemplar  for  good  and  evil  of 
the  civilization  of  Christendom  in  New  Japan. 

[The  tourist  in  port  who  desires  to  enjoy  the  scenery  and  people,  and  visit 
some  of  the  places  and  monuments  of  historic  interest  around  Yokohama  and 
Tokio,  will  be  greatly  aided  by  three  little  manuals  published  by  the  author,  and 
to  be  found  in  Yokohama.  Tliey  are  "  The  Yokohama  Guide,"  p.  39,  with  map ; 
"  The  Tokio  Guide,"  p.  35;  and  "  Map  of  Tokio,  with  Notes  Historical  and  Ex- 
planatory." These  little  pamphlets  contain  skeleton  trips,  hints  to  travelers, 
notes  of  information,  and  a  short  vocabulary,  with  pronunciation  of  the  Japanese 
words  most  needed  by  a  tourist.  On  Japanese  "  Piffeon-English,"  see  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  "  Exercises  in  the  Yokohama  Dialect."] 


J  RIDE  ON  THE  TOEAIDO.  353 


II. 

A  RIDE  ON  THE  TOKAIDO. 

January  2d,  1871. — A  frosty  morning.  Air  keen,  bracing,  razor- 
like. Sky  stainlessly  clear.  The  Bay  of  Yedo  glinting  with  unnum- 
bered sunbeams.     Blue  sky,  blue  water,  blue  mountains,  white  Fuji. 

The  Yankee  has  invaded  the  Land  of  the  Gods.  He  jostles  the 
processions  of  the  lords  of  the  land.  He  runs  a  coach  on  the  great 
highway,  so  sacred  to  daimi5s  and  two-sworded  samurai.  Here  on  the 
Bund  stands  the  stage  that  will  carry  a  man  to  the  capital  for  two 
Mexican  dollars.  Of  the  regulation  Yankee  pattern,  it  is  yet  small, 
and,  though  seating  three  persons  besides  the  driver,  can  crowd  in  five 
when  comfort  is  not  the  object  in  view.  A  pair  of  native  ponies  on 
which  oats  are  never  wasted  make  the  team.  A  betto  (running  foot- 
man and  hostler),  whose  business  is  to  harness  the  animals,  yell  at  the 
people  on  the  road,  and  be  sworn  at,  perches,  like  a  meditative  chick- 
en, by  one  foot  on  the  iron  step.  As  for  the  driver,  an  Australian, 
who  is  recommended  as  "  a  very  devil  of  a  whip,"  he  impresses  me  at 
once  as  being  thoroughly  qualified  to  find  the  bottom  of  a  tumblerful 
of  brandy  without  breathing. 

He  is  not  only  an  expert  at  driving  and  drinking,  but  such  an  adept 
in  the  theology  of  the  bar-room  is  he,  and  so  well  versed  in  orthodox 
profanity,  that  the  heathen  betto  regards  his  master  as  a  safe  guide, 
and  imitates  him  with  conscientious  accuracy.  The  driver  converts 
the  pagan  better  than  he  knows.  Indeed,  it  is  astonishing  what  prog- 
ress his  pupil  has  made  in  both  theology  and  the  English  language. 
He  has  already  at  his  tongue's  end  the  names  and  attributes  of  the 
entire  Trinity. 

Crack  goes  the  whip,  and  we  rattle  along  the  Bund,  past  the  Club- 
house, around  the  English  consulate,  past  the  Perry  treaty  grounds, 
and  down  Benten  dori,  through  the  native  town.  The  shops  are  just 
opening,  and  the  shop-boys  are  looping  up  the  short  curtains  that  hang 
before  each  front.  The  bath-houses  begin  business  early.  The  door 
of  one  is  shunted  aside,  spite  of  the  lowness  of  the  thermometer  and 


354 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


decency.  Out  steps  a  man  into  the  street  as  naked  as  when  he  step 
ped  out  into  the  world.  His  native  copper  hue,  Uke  a  lobster's,  is  in- 
tensified by  the  boiling  he  has  just  undergone.  He  walks  in  a  self- 
exhaling  cloud  of  auroral  vapors,  like  a  god  in  ambrosia.  He  deigns 
not  to  make  his  toilet  while  in  sight,  but  proceeds  homeward,  clothes 
in  hand.  My  pocket  Fahrenheit  marks  four  degrees  below  the  freez- 
ing-point. 

Our  driver  whips  up  the  horses  for  sheer  warmth,  and  we  dash  over 
the  "  iron  bridge."  A  trifling  bit  of  iron  to  our  foreign  eyes,  but  a 
triumph  of  engineering  to  the  natives,  who  build  of  wood.  We  pass  it, 
and  then  we  are  on  the  causeway  that  connects  Yokohama  with  the 
great  main  road  of  the  empire,  the  Tokaido.  The  causeway  passed, 
and  with  foreign  sights  behind,  real  Japan  appears.  I  am  in  a  new 
world,  not  the  Old.  Every  thing  is  novel.  I  should  like  to  be  Argus : 
not  less  than  a  hundred  eyes  can  take  in  all  the  sight.  I  should  like 
to  be  a  poet  to  express,  and  an  artist  to  paint  all  I  see.  I  wish  I  knew 
the  language,  to  ask  questions. 

What  a  wonderful  picture-book !  A  line  of  villages  are  strung  along 
the  road,  like  a  great  illuminated  scroll  full  of  gay,  brilliant,  merry,  sad, 

disgusting,  horrible,  curious,  funny,  de- 
lightful pictures. 

What  pretty  children !  Chubby,  rosy, 
sparkling-eyed.  The  cold  only  made 
their  feet  pink,  and  their  cheeks  red. 
How  curiously  dressed,  with  coats  like 
long  wrappers,  and  long,  wide,  square 
sleeves,  which  I  know  serve  for  pock- 
ets, for  I  just  saw  a  boy  buy  some  rice 
cracknels,  hot  from  the  toasting  coals, 
and  put  them  in  his  sleeves.  A  girdle 
three  inches  wide  binds  the  coat  tight 
to  the  waist.  The  children's  heads  are 
shaved  in  all  curious  fashions.  The 
way  the  babies  are  carried  is  an  im- 
provement upon  the  Indian  fashion. 
The  Japanese  ko  is  the  papoose  re- 
versed. He  rides  eyes  front,  and  sees 
the  world  over  his  mother's  shoulder. 
Japanese  babies  are  lugged  pickapack.  Baby  Gohachi  is  laid  on 
mamma's  back  and  strapped  on,  or  else  he  is  inclosed  in  her  gar- 


Youiig  Gill  carryin 


;lier  Baby  Brother. 


A  BIDE  ON  THE  TO  RAID  6. 


355 


ment,  and  only  his  little  shaven  noddle  protrudes  behind  his  mother's 
neck.  His  own  neck  never  gets  wrenched  off,  and  often  neither  head 
nor  tiny  toes  are  covered,  though  water  is  freezing.  In  the  picture  on 
the  preceding  page,  the  fat-cheeked  baby  is  carried  by  a  young,  un- 
married girl,  as  I  can  tell  by  the  way  her  hair  is  dressed.  It  is  prob- 
ably an  elder  sister  or  hired  servant.  Her  bare  feet  are  on  wooden 
clogs. 

Here  are  adults  and  children  running  around  barefoot.  Nobofiy 
wears  any  hats.  As  for  bonnets,  a  Japanese  woman  might  study  a 
life-time,  and  go  crazy  in  trying  to  find  out  its  use.  Every  one  wears 
cotten  clothes,  and  these  of  only  one  or  two  thicknesses.  None  of  the 
front  doors  are  shut.  All  the  shops  are  open.  We  can  see  some  of 
the  people  eating  their  breakfast — beefsteaks,  hot  coffee,  and  hot  rolls 
for  warmth?  No:  cold  rice,  pickled  radishes,  and  vegetable  messes 
of  all  unknown  sorts.  These  we  see.  They  make  their  rice  hot  by 
pouring  tea  almost  boiling  over  it.  A  few  can  afford  only  hot  water. 
Some  eat  millet  instead  of  rice.  Do  they  not  understand  dietetics  or 
hygiene  better  ?  Or  is  it  poverty  ?  Strange  people,  these  Japanese  ! 
Here  are  large  round  ovens  full  of  sweet-potatoes  being  steamed  or 
roasted.  A  group  of  urchins  are 
waiting  around  one  shop,  grown 
men  around  another,  for  the  luxury. 
Twenty  cash,  one-fifth  of  a  cent,  in 
iron  or  copper  coin,  is  the  price  of  a 
good  one.  Many  of  the  children, 
just  more  than  able  to  walk  them- 
selves, are  saddled  with  babies.  They 
look  like  two-headed  children.  The 
fathers  of  these  youngsters  are  cool- 
ies or  burden -bearers,  who  wear  a 
cotten  coat  of  a  special  pattern,  and 
knot  their  kerchiefs  over  their  fore- 
heads. These  heads  of  families  re- 
ceive wages  of  ten  cents  a  day  when 
work  is  steady.  Here  stands  one  with 
his  shoulder -stick  {tembimbo)  with 
pendant  baskets  of  plaited  rope,  like 
a  scale-beam  and  pans.  His  shoul- 
der is  to  be  the  fulcrum.  On  his  daily  string  of  copper  cash  he  sup- 
ports a  family.     The  poor  man's  blessings  and  the  rich  man's  grief 


lie  waiting  for  a  Job. 


356  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

are  the  same  in  every  clime.  In  Japan  the  quiver  of  poverty  is  full, 
while  the  man  of  wealth  mourns  for  an  heir.  The  mother  bears  the 
bairns,  but  the  children  carry  them.  Each  preceding  child,  as  it  grows 
older,  must  lug  the  succeeding  baby  on  its  back  till  able  to  stand.  The 
rearing  of  a  Japanese  poor  family  is  a  perpetual  game  of  leap-frog. 

The  houses  are  small,  mostly  one  story,  all  of  them  of  wood,  except 
the  fire -proof  mud -walled  store -houses  of  the  merchant.  Most  are 
clean  inside.  The  floors  are  raised  a  foot  above  the  ground,  covered 
with  mats.  The  wood-work  is  clean,  as  if  often  scrubbed.  Yet  the 
Japanese  have  no  word  for  soap,  and  have  never  until  these  late  days 
used  it.  Nevertheless,  they  lead  all  Asiatics  in  cleanliness  of  persons 
and  dwellings.  Does  not  an  ancient  stanza  of  theirs  declare  that 
"  when  the  houses  of  a  people  are  kept  clean,  be  certain  that  the  gov- 
ernment is  respected  and  will  endure?"  Hot  water  is  the  detergent, 
and  the  normal  Japanese  gets  under  it  at  least  once  a  day.  For  scrub- 
bing the  floor  or  clothes,  alkali,  obtained  by  leeching  ashes,  is  put  in 
the  water. 

The  shop-keeper  sits  on  his  hams  and  heels,  and  hugs  his  hibachi 
(fire-bowl).  What  shivering  memories  I  have  of  it !  Every  Japanese 
house  has  one  or  more.  It  is  a  box  of  brass,  wood,  or  delf.  In  a  bed 
of  ashes  are  a  handful  of  coals.  Ordinarily  it  holds  the  ghost  of  a 
fire,  and  radiates  heat  for  a  distance  of  six  inches.  A  thermo-multi- 
plier  might  detect  its  influence  further  on  a  cold  day.  With  this  the 
Japanese  warm  their  houses,  toast  their  fingers  for  incredibly  long 
spaces  of  time,  and  even  have  the  hardihood  to  ask  you  to  sit  down 
by  it  and  warm  yourself !  Nevertheless,  when  the  coals  are  piled  up 
regardless  of  expense,  a  genial  warmth  may  be  obtained.  The  shop- 
keepers seem  to  pay  much  more  attention  to  their  braziers  than  to 
their  customers.  What  strikes  one  with  the  greatest  surprise  is  the 
baby-house  style  and  dimensions  of  every  thing.  The  rice-bowls  are 
tea-cups,  the  tea-cups  are  thimbles,  the  tea-pot  is  a  joke.  The  family 
sit  in  a  circle  at  meals.  The  daughter  or  house-maid  presides  at  the 
rice-bucket,  and  paddles  out  cupfuls  of  rice. 

We  pass  through  Kanagawa,  a  flourishing  town,  and  the  real  treatj* 
port,  from  which  Yokohama  has  usurped  foreign  fame  and  future  his- 
tory. We  pass  many  shops,  and  learn  in  a  half-hour  the  staple  articles 
of  sale,  which  we  afterward  find  repeated  with  little  variation  in  the 
shops  all  over  the  country.  They  are  not  groceries,  or  boots,  or  jewelry, 
nor  lacquer,  bronze,  or  silk.  They  are  straw-sandals,  paper  umbrellas, 
rush  hats,  bamboo-work  of  all  kinds,  matting  for  coats,  flint,  steel  and 


A  HIDE  ON  THE  TOKAIDO. 


357 


tinder,  sulphur  splints  for  matches,  oiled  paper  coats,  and  grass  cloaks, 
paper  for  all  purposes,  wooden  clogs  for  shoes  :  fish  and  radish  knives, 
grass- hooks,  hoes,  scissors  with  two  blades  but  only  one  handle,  and 
axes,  all  of  a  strange  pattern,  compose  the  stock  of  cutlery.  Vegeta- 
ble and  fish  shops  are  plentiful,  but  there  is  neither  butcher  nor 
baker.  Copper  and  brass 
articles  are  numerous  in  the 
braziers'  shops. 

In  the  cooper  shops,  the 
dazzling  array  of  wood-work, 
so  neat,  fresh,  clean,  and  fra- 
grant, carries  temptation  into 
housekeepers'  pockets.  I 
know  an  American  lady  who 
never  can  pass  one  without 
buying  some  useful  utensil. 
There  are  two  coopers  pound- 
ing lustily  away  at  a  great 
rain-tank,  or  sake-vat,  or  soy- 
tub.  They  are  more  intent 
on  their  bamboo  hoops,  bee- 
tles, and  wedges  than  on  their 
clothing,  which  they  have  [ — — ^\ 
half  thrown  off.  One  has 
his  kerchief  over  his  shoul- 
der. 

In  Japan  the  carpenter  is 
the  shoe -maker,  for  the  foot-gear  is  of  wood.  The  basket -maker 
weaves  the  head-dress.  Hats  and  boots  are  not.  The  head-covering 
is  called  a  "  roof  "  or  "  shed."  I  remember  how  in  America  I  read 
of  gaudily  advertised  "Japanese  boot-blacking,"  and  "  Japanese  corn- 
files."  I  now  see  that  the  Japanese  wear  no  boots  or  shoes,  hence 
blacking  is  not  in  demand ;  and  as  such  plagues  as  corns  are  next 
to  unknown,  there  is  no  need  of  files  for  such  a  purpose.  The  total 
value  of  the  stock  in  many  of  the  shops  appears  to  be  about  five 
dollars.  Many  look  as  if  one  "  clean  Mexican "  would  buy  their 
stock,  good -will,  and  fixtures.  I  thought,  in  my  innocence,  that  I 
should  find  more  splendid  stores  elsewhere.  I  kept  on  for  a  year 
or  more  thinking  so,  but  was  finally  satisfied  of  the  truth  that,  if 
the  Japanese  are  wealthy,  they  do  not  show  it  in  their  shops.     The 


Coopers  hooping  a  Vat.    (By  a  pupil  of  HokusaL) 


358  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

prosaic  truth  is  that  the  people  are  very  poor.  Of  course,  being  fresh 
from  the  splendor  of  the  fine  young  fellows,  the  "  princes "  of  the 
newspapers,  in  America,  who  were  noted  for  their  impressive  ward- 
robe, dazzling  jewelry,  hotel-bills,  and  carriages,  I  could  not  believe  the 
truth  about  Japan  then.  My  glamoured  eyes  refused  to  see  it.  "I 
shall  see  the  wealth,  but  not  now,"  was  my  thought. 

Tugging  up  the  steep  hill  and  past  Kanagawa,  we  dash  over  the 
splendid  road  beneath  an  arch  of  pines,  some  grandly  venerable,  some 
augustly  tall,  some  like  a  tottering  empire,  glorious  in  decay,  but  many 
more  scraggy  and  crooked.  We  pass  all  kinds  of  dress  and  charac- 
ters on  the  road.  Now,  our  betto  yells  out  to  a  merchant,  who  ambles 
along  with  a  pack  on  his  back  tied  over  his  neck.  Our  driver  prays 
his  God  to  damn  some  poor  old  priest  who  was  not  as  nimble  as  he 
might  have  been  forty  years  ago.  Anon,  the  exponent  of  Christian 
civilization  informs  a  farm  laborer,  trudging  along,  hoe  on  shoulder, 
that  he  will  "  cut  the  d — d  face  oflf  him"  if  he  isn't  spry.  A  gawky 
heathen,  leading  a  pack-horse  loaded  with  an  unmentionable  article,  is 
made  to  know,  by  a  cut  of  the  whip  over  his  neck,  that  he  must  move 
faster  next  time.  The  priest  in  his  robes,  brocade  collar,  and  shaven 
head ;  the  merchant,  in  his  tight  breeches ;  the  laborer,  with  his  bare 
legs ;  the  samurai,  with  his  two  swords  and  loose  trousers ;  the  pil- 
grim, in  his  white  dress,  are  all  easily  recognized. 

As  for  the  beggars,  we  can  not  understand  their  "  Chabu  chabu  ko- 
marimasu  tempo  danna  san,  dozo  (Please,  master,  a  penny ;  we  are  in 
great  trouble  for  our  (/rub) ;  but  we  comprehend  the  object  of  their 
importunity.  They  are  loathsome,  dirty,  ragged,  sore.  Now  I  wish 
I  were  a  physician,  to  heal  such  vileness  and  suffering.  Who  would 
care  to  do  an  artist's  or  a  poet's  work  when  the  noblest  art  of  healing 
needs  to  be  practiced  ?  The  children  run  after  us.  The  old  beggars 
live  in  straw  kennels  by  the  roadside.  Some  are  naked,  except  dirty 
mats  bound  round  them.  The  law  of  Japan  does  not  recognize  them 
as  human :  they  are  beasts.  The  man  who  kills  them  will  be  neither 
prosecuted  nor  punished.  There  lies  one  dead  in  the  road.  No ! 
Can  it  be  ?  Yes,  there  is  a  dead  beggar,  and  he  will  lie  unburied,  per- 
haps for  days,  if  the  dogs  don't  save  the  work  from  the  coroner. 
"And  the  beggar  died !"  Will  he  be  carried  by  angels  to  Abraham's 
bosom  ? 

The  driver  reins  up,  and  the  horses  come  to  a  halt.  We  have  stop- 
ped before  a  tea-house  of  whose  fame  we  have  heard,  and  man  and 
beast  are  refreshed.     The  driver  takes  brandy,  the  betto  tea,  and  the 


A  HIDE  ON  THE  TOKAIDO.  359 

horses  water.  The  first  drinks  from  a  tumbler,  the  second  from  a  cup  ; 
the  four-footed  drinkers  must  wait.  Pretty  girls  come  out  to  wish  us 
good-morning.  One,  with  a  pair  of  eyes  not  to  be  forgotten,  brings  a 
tray  of  tiny  cups  full  of  green  tea,  and  a  plate  of  red  sweetmeats,  beg- 
ging us  to  partake.  I  want  neither,  though  a  bit  of  paper-money  is 
placed  on  the  tray  for  beauty's  sake.  The  maid  is  about  seventeen, 
graceful  in  figure,  and  her  neat  dress  is  bound  round  with  a  wide  girdle 
tied  into  a  huge  bow  behind.  Her  neck  is  powdered.  Her  laugh  dis- 
plays a  row  of  superb  white  teeth,  and  her  jet-black  hair  is  rolled  in  a 
maidenly  style.     The  fairest  sights  in  Japan  are  Japan's  fair  daughters. 

This  tea-house  has  a  history.  Its  proprietress  is  familiarly  known 
among  all  foreigners  who  ride  on  the  Tokaido,  and  sit  on  her  mats  in- 
side, or  her  benches  in  front  beneath  the  trees,  as  "  Black-eyed  Susan." 
Her  eyes  deserve  their  renown,  and  her  face  its  fame.  Her  beauty  is 
known  throughout  the  land.  Many  a  story  is  told  about  princes  and 
noblemen  who  have  tried  to  lure  her  to  gem  their  harem.  She  refuses 
all  offers,  and  remains  the  keeper  of  herself  and  her  fortune.  Near  by 
Black-eyed  Susan's  stands  a  clump  of  trees.  It  was  near  this  place  that, 
in  1863,  poor  Richardson  lost  his  life  (see  Appendix).  He  sleeps  now 
in  Yokohama  cemetery.     It  saddens  us  to  think  of  it. 

Our  solemn  thoughts  are  dissipated  in  a  moment,  for  the  betto  is 
watering  the  horses.  He  gives  them  drink  out  of  a  dipper !  A  cup- 
ful of  water  at  a  time  to  a  thirsty  horse !  The  animal  himself  would 
surely  laugh,  if  he  were  not  a  Japanese  horse,  and  used  to  it. 

"  Sayonara !"  (farewell)  cry  the  pretty  girls,  as  they  bow  profound- 
ly and  gracefully,  and  the  stage  rolls  on.  We  pass  through  villages 
of  thatched  houses,  on  which,  along  the  ridge,  grow  beds  of  the  iris. 
Between  them  appear  landscapes  new  to  eyes  accustomed  to  grass 
meadows  and  corn-fields  and  winter  wheat  of  Pennsylvania.  Far  and 
wide  are  the  fallow  fields  covered  with  shallow  water,  and  studded 
with  rice-stubble.  All  the  flat  land  is  one  universal  rice-ditch.  The 
low  hills  are  timbered  with  evergreen.  The  brighter  tints  of  the 
feathery  bamboo  temper  the  intensity  of  the  sombre  glory.  Bamboo 
thickets,  pine  groves,  and  rice-fields — these  are  the  ever-present  sights 
in  Japan.  A  half-hour  through  such  scenery,  and  the  stage  stops  at 
Kawasaki  (river-point)  to  change  horses.  We  are  to  cross  the  Roku- 
go  River  in  boats.  The  road  bends  at  a  right  angle  toward  the  water, 
and  at  each  corner  is  a  large  tea-house,  full  of  noisy,  fat  girls,  anxious 
to  display  a  vulgar  familiarity  with  the  stranger.  Too  close  contact 
with  hostlers,  drivers,  and  the  common  sort  of  residents  in  Japan  has 


360 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


made  these,  doubtless  once  modest  and  polite  females,  a  pact  of  impu- 
dent wantons. 

I  am  not  charmed  by  the  too-willing  charmers,  and,  declining  the 
ever-proSered  cup  of  tea,  make  my  way  down  to  the  I'iver,  passing 
four  toll-men,  who  squat  on  their  knees  at  the  receipt  of  custom,  pil- 
ing on  upright  skewers  the  square-holed  oval  and  round  coins  which 
the  travelers  deposit.  At  the  river's  edge,  a  flat-bottomed  boat,  crowd- 
ed with  people  of  every  class,  with  a  horse  or  two  on  board,  is  coming 
hitherward,  and  one  is  just  ready  to  push  off.  A  few  strokes  of  the 
pole,  and  we  are  over.  The  Japanese  have  used  this  river  for  centu- 
ries, and  have  never  yet  built  a  bridge.*  The  company  in  the  boat  is 
sometimes  rather  mixed.  It  has  not  escaped  Hokusai's  pencil,  who 
made  an  album  of  Tokaido  sketches.    He  has  jotted  down  at  the  side 


Crossing  the  Rokugo  River  at  Kawasulii.    (Hokusai.) 

of  his  sketch  the  two  characters  signifying  Kawasaki  (river- point), 
which  all  travelers  to  Tokio  know  full  well.  Strange  to  say,  the  same 
river  in  Japan  often  has  many  local  names.  A  Japanese  geography 
rarely  thinks  it  necessary  to  describe  a  river  from  source  to  mouth. 
The  people  hereabouts  call  this  river  the  Rokugo,  and  the  foreigners, 
who  are  quite  sure  to  get  Japanese  names  upside  down,  have  corrupt- 
ed it  into  Logo,  or,  with  apparent  impiety.  Logos. 

The  stage  not  being  over  yet,  I  go  into  a  straw  hut,  in  which  a  fire 
warms  twenty-four  feet  shod  with  rice-straw  sandals,  and  the  smoke 
of  which  inflames  twenty-four  eyes  belonging  to  half  that  number  of 
such  specimens  of  humanity  as  constitute  the  bulk  of  Japan's  popula- 
tion, and  whom  foreigners  called  "  coolies."     Two  arms,  two  legs,  a 


*  An  iron  bridge  now  (1877)  spans  tlie  stream. 


A  HIDE  ON  THE  TOKAIDO.  361 

head,  and  trunk,  when  added  together  in  an  Asiatic  country,  do  not 
produce  the  same  sum  that  such  factors  would  yield  in  America. 
With  us  a  man  is  a  man.  In  Asiatic  countries  he  is  a  wheelbarrow,  a 
beast  of  burden,  a  political  cipher,  a  being  who  exists  for  the  sake  of 
his  masters  or  the  government.  The  men  before  me  wear  old,  unlined 
cotton  coats  and  straw  sandals  as  their  winter  dress.  In  summer  their 
wardrobe  consists  of  straw  sandals  and  a  rag  around  their  loins,  in  all 
about  thirty-six  linear  inches  of  decency.  Yet  the  tax-gatherer  visits 
them,  and  even  the  priests  glean  in  this  stubble  of  humanity.  Schools, 
law,  thought,  freedom,  votes !  These  are  unheard  of,  unimagined. 
Yet  they  were  polite  and  kind.  They  oflEer  the  foreigner  room  by  the 
fire,  until  the  smoke  drives  him  outside,  where  the  loathsome  beggars 
swarm  and  importune  in  the  language  of  the  houseless.  The  stage  is 
ready,  and,  taking  one  good  look  at  the  bright  new  railway  bridge  by 
which  hired  English  energy  and  loaned  capital  have  spanned  the  river, 
I  fold  myself  beneath  the  buffalo-robe,  and  the  driver  proceeds  to  tell 
me  of  the  treat  soon  in  store. 

The  ghastly  entertainment  was  at  hand.  Just  before  Shinagawa, 
the  suburb  of  great  Tokio,  by  the  side  of  the  road,  is  a  small  patch  of 
grassy  soil  only  slightly  raised  above  the  rice-ditches.  Here,  on  a  pil- 
lory about  six  feet  high,  two  human  heads  were  exposed,  propped,  and 
made  hideously  upright  by  lumps  of  clay  under  each  ear.  The  ooz- 
ing blood  had  stained  the  timber,  and  hung  in  coagulated  drops  and 
icicles  of  gore  beneath.  A  dissevered  head  absent  from  its  body  is 
horrible  enough,  but  a  head  shaven  in  mid-scalp  with  a  top-knot  on  it 
has  a  hitherto  unimagined  horror,  especially  Japanese. 

How  pleasant  it  would  be  to  mention  in  this  book  nothing  but  the 
beautiful !  How  easy  to  let  our  glamoured  eyes  see  naught  but  beau- 
ty and  novelty !  Why  not  paint  Japan  as  a  land  of  peerless  natural 
beauty,  of  polite  people,  of  good  and  brave  men,  of  pretty  maidens, 
and  gentle  women  ?  Why  bring  in  beggars,  bloody  heads,  loathsome 
sores,  scenes  of  murder,  assassins'  bravery,  and  humanity  with  all  no- 
bility stamped  out  by  centuries  of  despotism?  Why  not?  Simply 
because  homely  truth  is  better  than  gilded  falsehood.  Only  because 
it  is  sin  to  conceal  the  truth  when  my  countrymen,  generous  to  be- 
lieve too  well,  and  led  astray  by  rhetorical  deceivers  and  truth-smoth- 
erers,  have  the  falsest  ideas  of  Japan,  that  only  a  pen  like  a  probe  can 
set  right.  No  pen  sooner  than  mine  shall  record  reforms  when  made. 
I  give  the  true  picture  of  Japan  in  1871. 

So  we  pass  these  bloody  symbols  of  Japan's  bloody  code  of  edicts, 


362  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

misnamed  laws,  by  which  she  terrifies  her  people  into  obedience,  and 
drive  on  through  the  narrow  road  past  fine,  large  houses,  clean,  shin- 
ing, and  pretty.  What  business  is  carried  on  in  those  edifices,  splen- 
did in  Japanese  eyes,  charming  to  a  foreigner,  and  appearing,  beside 
the  ordinary  citizen's  dwelling,  as  palaces  beside  cottages  ?  Scores  of 
them  are  ranged  along  the  road.  Shinagawa  is  the  home  of  harlots, 
and  here  is  the  resort,  not  only  of  the  ruffian,  the  rake,  and  the  robber, 
but  of  the  young  men  of  the  land.  The  finest  houses  in  Japan  belong 
to  the  woman  in  scarlet.  The  licensed  government  brothel,  covering 
acres  of  land,  is  the  most  beautiful  part  of  the  capital.  Oriental  splen- 
dor— a  myth  in  the  streets — becomes  reality  when  the  portals  of  the 
Yoshiwara  are  crossed. 

Out  in  the  blue  bay  stands  the  chain  of  forts  built  by  the  shogun's 
government  after  the  arrival  of  Commodore  Perry.  Behind  them 
rides  at  anchor  the  national  navy  of  Japan,  all  floating  the  national 
flag — a  red  sun  on  a  white  field.  I  easily  recognize  the  old  iron-clad 
Stonewall,  now  the  Adzuma  kuan. 

Half-past  ten,  and  we  sweep  past  the  entrance  to  the  British  lega- 
tion. The  red  flag  and  crosses  of  England  wave  aloft,  and  the  red- 
coated  sentinel  paces  his  round.  Britons  will  long  remember  the  le- 
gation at  Takanawa.  Incendiarism  and  gunpowder  plots,  murderous 
attacks  by  night,  and  three  assassinations  by  daylight,  have  made  this 
ground  historic.  "  Killed  from  behind  "  are  the  words  that  have  blot- 
ted the  Japanese  escutcheon  with  scores  of  stains  as  indelible  as  those 
on  Bluebeard's  key.  Repeated  washing  in  the  fountain  of  indemnity 
and  blood-money  can  never  cleanse  it.  Not  far  from  the  British  le- 
gation are  the  tombs  of  the  Forty-seven  renins  of  immortal  fame. 
We  have  passed  the  black  gate  at  Shinagawa,  and  are  in  the  city.  I 
see  to  the  left  the  Kosatsu — a  roofed  frame  of  wood,  on  which  hang 
boards  inscribed  in  Japanese  with  edicts  centuries  old,  yet  renewed  by 
the  present  government.  I  can  not  read  the  Chinese  ideographs,  but 
I  know  the  meaning  of  one  of  them — the  slanderous  and  insulting- 
edict  that  denounces  the  Christian  religion  as  a  hateful  and  devilish 
sect,  and  hounds  on  every  bigot  and  informer  to  ferret  out  the  Chris- 
tians. This  is  the  foreigner's  welcome  to  Tokio  in  1871.  Does  the 
Japanese  capital  answer  to  the  description  in  the  old  geographies — "  a 
large,  park-like  city,  with  a  population  of  2,500,000  ?"  I  shall  see. 
Suburbs  are  usually  unprepossessing,  and  I  reserve  my  judgment.  At 
eleven  o'clock  we  drive  past  the  splendid  Monzeki  temple  of  the  Shin 
sect  of  Buddhists  and  into  the  yard  of  the  Great  Hotel  at  Tsukiji. 


iV  TOE  Id,  THE  EASTERN  CAPITAL.  363 


HI 

IN  TOE  Id,  THE  EASTERN  CAPITAL. 

I  WAS  a  stranger  in  a  wilderness  of  a  million  souls.  In  half  an  hour 
I  had  left  the  yard  of  the  huge  caravansary,  which  the  Japanese  who 
had  built  it  fondly  believed  to  be  a  comfortable  hotel,  and  was  on  my 
way  to  the  distant  quarter  of  the  city  in  which  was  situated  the  Im- 
perial College.  I  walked  by  preference,  as  I  had  studied  the  map  of 
Tokio,  and  some  rude  native  pictures  of  certain  landmarks  while  in 
America,  and  I  now  determined  to  test  the  soundness  of  my  knowl- 
edge. I  had  that  proficiency  in  speaking  the  language  which  five 
words  badly  pronounced  could  give.  Every  foreigner  who  sojourns 
in  Japan  for  a  week  learns  "  Sukoshi  matte  "  (wait  a  little),  "  Ikura  ?" 
(how  much?),  "Doko?"  (where?),  "Yoroshiu"  (all  right),  and  "Ha- 
yaku  ".  (hurry).  With  these  on  my  tongue,  and  my  map  in  my  hand, 
I  started.  I  passed  through  the  foreign  quarter,  which  is  part  of  the 
old  district  called  Tsukiji  (filled-up  land).  It  faces  the  river,  and  is 
moated  in  on  all  sides  by  canals.  It  is  well  paved,  cleaned,  and  light- 
ed, contrasting  favorably  with  the  streets  of  the  native  city.  The 
opening  of  Yedo  as  a  foreign  port  cost  a  great  outlay  of  money,  but 
as  a  settlement  was  a  failure,  partly  on  account  of  high  ground -rent, 
but  mainly  because  the  harbor  is  too  shallow.  Almost  the  only  per- 
sons who  liv^e  in  Tsukiji  are  the  foreign  officials  at  the  consulates,  mis- 
sionaries, and  a  few  merchants.  I  walked  on,  interested  at  seeing  novel 
sights  at  every  step,  and  at  the  limits  passed  a  guard-house  full  of  sol- 
diers of  Maeda,  the  daimio  of  Kaga.  These  kept  watch  and  ward  rt 
a  black  gate,  flanked  by  a  high  black  paling  fence.  For  years  it  was 
absolutely  necessary  to  guard  all  the  approaches  to  the  foreign  quar- 
ter, and  keep  out  all  suspicious  two-sworded  men.  Incendiarism  and 
the  murder  of  the  hated  foreigners  were  favorite  amusements  of  the 
young  blades  of  Japan,  who  wished  both  to  get  the  shogun  in  trouble 
and  to  rid  their  beautiful  land  of  the  devilish  foreigners.  Every  ap- 
proach to  Yokohama  was  thus  guarded  at  this  time.  From  the  for- 
eign quarter  into  the  Yoshiwara  is  but  a  step.     Handsome  two-storied 


364  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

wooden  buildings,  open  to  the  street,  were  filled  witli  pretty  young 
girls,  playing  upon  the  samisen  (banjo),  having  their  hair  dressed,  sit- 
ting idle,  or  engaged  at  their  toilet  mirrors.  Japanese  male  cynics  say 
that  a  looking-glass  is  the  mind  of  a  woman.  Handsome  streets  of 
neat  houses  extended  to  a  distance  of  half  a  mile  on  each  side,  from 
which  the  same  sounds  proceeded.  Why  were  these  houses  so  fine  ? 
Why  so  many  young  girls  gathered  ?  Here  were  beauty,  tender  years, 
soft  smiles,  and  luxurious  houses.  Here  were  little  girls  trained  to  do, 
when  grown,  as  the  older  girls.     For  what  purpose  ? 

In  every  port  open  to  foreigners  in  Japan,  in  a  few  of  the  other 
large  cities,  but  not  in  daimios'  capitals,  there  is  the  same  institution. 
It  is  Japan's  own.  Before  they  opened  any  port  to  foreign  trade,  the 
Japanese  built  two  places  for  the  foreigners  —  a  custom-house  and  a 
brothel.  The  Yoshiwara  is  such  a  place.  For  the  foreigners  they 
supposed  it  to  be  a  necessary  good ;  for  themselves,  a  protection  to 
their  people  against  ships'  crews  suddenly  set  free  on  land :  they  count- 
ed it  a  necessary  evil.  They  believed  the  foreigners  to  be  far  worse 
than  themselves.     How  far  were  they  wrong? 

We  proceed  through  the  quarter  into  streets  lined  with  open  shops. 
Privacy  is  not  at  a  premium  in  Japan.  One  might  live  at  home  for 
years  without  understanding  the  mysteries  of  a  lady's  toilet.  In  Japan 
one  learns  it  in  a  few  days.  Here  is  the  human  form  divine  bare  to 
the  waist,  while  its' possessor  laves  her  long  black  hair  in  warm  water. 
She  is  about  eighteen  years  old,  evidently.  Her  mirror,  powder-box, 
etc.,  lie  about  her.  There  is  a  mother  shaving  her  baby's  head.  The 
chief  occupation  of  the  shop-keepers  seems  to  be  that  of  toasting  their 
digits.  I  halt  at  a  shop  full  of  ivory  carvings.  Some  of  them  are 
elegant  works  of  art.  Some  are  puns  in  ivory.  Some  are  historical 
tableaux,  which  I  recognize  at  once.  These  trophies  of  the  geological 
cemeteries,  or  refrigerators,  of  Siberia  are  metamorphosed  into  what- 
ever form  of  beauty  and  grotesque  humor  the  lively  fancy  of  the 
carver  has  elected.  The  ivory  in  Japan  was  anciently  brought  from 
India,  but  in  later  times,  through  Corea,  from  the  shores  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  where  it  is  said  modern  dogs  feed  on  the  prehistoric  meat  of 
mammoths  and  mastodons  frozen  hard  ages  ago.  Nearly  all  the  ivory 
thus  imported  is  put  to  a  single  use.  It  is  carved  into  netsukes,  or  large 
buttons  perforated  with  two  holes,  in  which  a  silken  cord  is  riven,  and 
which  holds  the  smoking  apparatus,  the  vade  mecum,  of  the  native. 
Flint,  tinder,  and  steel  in  one  bag;  tobacco  in  another;  tiny -bowled, 
brass-tipped  bamboo  pipe,  in  a  case,  are  all  suspended  by  the  netsuki 


IX  TOKIO,  THE  EASTERN  CAPITAL. 


365 


thrusi  up  througli  the  girdle.     The  one  represented  in  the  accompa- 
nying cut  shows  how  a  Japanese  rider,  evidently  somebody,  from  his 
hempen  toque,  mounts  a  horse, 
i.  e.,  on  the  right  (or  wrong) 
side,  while  his  betto  holds  the 
steed. 

I  pass  through  one  street  de- 
voted to  bureaus  and  cabinets, 
through  another  full  of  folding 
screens,  through  another  full  of 
dyers'  shops,  with  their  odors 
and  vats.  In  one  small  but 
neat  shop  sits  an  old  man,  with 
horn  -  rimmed   spectacles,  with 

the  mordant  liquid  beside  him,    Netsuke.  .ir  ivory  Button,  for  holding  a  Gentle- 
,  •   1   r  man's  Pipe  and  Poucii  iu  his  Girdle. 

preparing  a  roll  or  material  tor 

its  next  bath.  In  another  street  there  is  nothing  on  sale  but  bamboo- 
poles,  but  enough  of  these  to  make  a  forest.  A  man  is  sawing  one, 
and  I  notice  he  pulls  the  saw  with  his  two  hands  toward  him.  Its 
teeth  are  set  contrary  to  ours.     Another  man  is  planing.     He  pulls 

the  plane  toward  him.  I  notice  a 
blacksmith  at  work :  he  pulls  the 
bellows  with  his  foot,  while  he  is 
holding  and  hammering  with  both 
hands.  He  has  several  irons  in 
the  fire,  and  keeps  his  dinner-pot 
boiling  with  the  waste  flame.  His 
whole  family,  like  the  generations 
before  him,  seem  to  "  all  get  their 
living  in  the  hardware  line."  The 
cooper  holds  his  tub  with  his  toes. 
All  of  them  sit  down  while  they  work.  How  strange !  Perhaps  that 
is  an  important  difference  between  a  European  and  an  Asiatic.  One 
sits  down  to  his  work,  the  other  stands  up  to  it. 

Why  is  it  that  we  do  things  contrariwise  to  the  Japanese  ?  Are  we 
upside  down,  or  they  ?  The  Japanese  say  that  we  are  reversed.  They 
call  our  penmanship  "  crab-writing,"  because,  say  they,  "  it  goes  back- 
ward." The  lines  in  our  books  cross  the  page  like  a  craw-fish,  instead 
of  going  downward  "  properly."  In  a  Japanese  stable  we  find  the 
horse's  flank  where  we  look  for  his  head.     Japanese  screws  screw  the 

24 


Pattern  Desig-ner  preparing  a  Roll  of  SOk 
fur  the  Dye-vat. 


366  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

other  way.  Their  locks  thrust  to  the  left,  ours  to  the  right.  The 
baby-toys  of  the  Aryan  race  squeak  when  squeezed  ;  the  Turanian  gim- 
cracks  emit  noise  when  pulled  apart.  A  Caucasian,  to  injure  his  ene- 
my, kills  him ;  a  Japanese  kills  himself  to  spite  his  foe.  Which  race 
is  left-handed  ?  Which  has  the  negative,  which  the  positive  of  truth  ? 
W^hat  is  truth  ?     What  is  down,  what  is  up  ? 

I  emerge  from  the  bamboo  street  to  the  Tori,  the  main  street,  the 
Broadway  of  the  Japanese  capital.  I  recognize  it.  The  shops  are 
gayer  and  richer;  the  street  is  wider;  it  is  crowded  with  people. 
Now,  for  the  first  time,  comes  the  intense  and  vivid  realization  that 
this  is  Japan.  Here  is  a  kago,  with  a  woman  and  baby  inside.  Two 
half-naked  coolies  bear  the  pole  on  their  shoulders,  and  hurry  along, 
grunting  in  Japanese.  They  bear  sticks  in  their  hands,  and  stop  at 
every  few  yards,  rest  the  beam  on  their  sticks,  and  change  shoulders. 
Here  comes  an  officer  on  horseback,  with  a  lacquered  helmet  on  his 
head,  and  bound  with  white  pads  over  his  chin.  His  two  swords  pro- 
trude from  his  girdle,  his  feet  rest  flat  in  wide  iron  stirrups,  curved  up 
like  a  skate-runner,  and  have  room  to  spare.  His  saddle  has  enormous 
flaps  of  gilt  leather.  He  grasps  the  reins,  one  in  each  hand,  at  about 
six  inches  from  the  bit,  holding  his  horse's  head  so  that  his  lower  lip 
is  higher  than  the  space  between  his  ears.  This  is  torture  and  grace 
combined.  It  is  the  stylish  thing  in  Japan.  The  horse's  mane  is  tied 
up  in  a  row  of  stiff  pompoons  ;  his  tail  is  incased  in  a  long  bag  of 
silk.  Enormous  tassels  hang  from  the  horse's  shoulders.  "  There  is 
a  method  in  riding,"  is  a  Japanese  saying.     I  believe  it. 

Here  are  soldiers,  so  I  judge.  They  are  dressed  in  every  style  of 
hybrid  costume.  One,  in  a  broadcloth  suit,  finishes  with  bare  head 
and  clogs  on  the  feet.  Another  has  a  foreign  cap,  but  a  Japanese  suit. 
This  man  has  on  a  pair  of  cowhide  boots,  against  which  his  kilt  flaps 
ungracefully,  reminding  one  of  an  American  tycoon  going  to  the  well 
to  draw  water.  This  one  has  a  zouave  jacket  and  native  kilt.  The 
soldiers  look  as  if  they  had  just  sacked  New  York,  and  begun  on 
Chatham  Street.  The  braves  have  a  brace  of  stabbing  tools  stuck  in 
their  belt.  They  are  the  two-sworded  men,  and  insolent,  swaggering 
bullies  many  of  them  are.  As  they  pass  the  foreigner,  they  give  him 
black  scowls  for  a  welcome.  They  are  chiefly  the  retainers  of  the  dai- 
mios  of  Tosa,  Satsuma,  Choshiu,  and  Hizen,  and  are  pride-swollen  with 
victory  over  the  rebels  at  Wakamatsu  and  Hakodate.  It  is  ticklish  to 
walk  among  so  many  armed  fellows  who  seem  to  be  spoiling  for  for- 
eign blood.     Japanese  swords  are  quickly  drawn,  and  are  sharp.     No 


IN  TOKIO,  THE  EASTERN  VAFITAL.  369 

true  man  is  really  afraid  when  his  enemy  attacks  in  front ;  but  to  be 
cut  down  by  a  coward  from  behind !  The  thought  makes  my  marrow 
curdle.  With  these  foolish  thoughts,  I  pass  along  for  about  a  mile 
unscathed,  for  I  have  not  yet  learned  the  Japanese,  and  have  read  Al- 
cock.  I  arrive  at  the  place  renowned  in  all  Japan.  The  Romans  had 
their  golden  mile-stone,  whence  all  distances  throughout  the  empire 
were  measured.  Here,  in  the  heart  of  Tokio,  is  Nihon  Baslii  (Bridge 
of  Japan),  whence,  so  it  is  said,  all  the  great  roads  of  the  empire  are 
measured.  I  had  heard  of  it  in  America.  All  rural  Japanese  know 
of  it.  All  expect,  without  warrant,  to  see  a  splendid  bridge,  and  all 
are  disappointed.  It  is  a  hump-backed  wooden  structure,  a  crazy  mass 
of  old  fire-wood.  It  is  lined  on  either  side  with  loathsome  beggars, 
asleep,  gambling,  playing,  or  begging.  Mendicant  priests  in  rags  chant 
doleful  prayers,  pound  stiff  drums  shaped  like  battledores.  The  vend- 
ers of  all  kinds  of  trash  cluster  around  it.  On  the  left,  as  we  ap- 
proach from  the  south,  stands  the  great  Kosatsu.*  On  the  bridge, 
glorious  Fuji  is  seen  in  the  distance,  and  near  by  the  towers,  moats, 

*  Three  of  these  edicts,  and  a  repetition  of  the  fourth,  are  given,  with  dates : 

'■'■Board  No.  I. — Lavj. 
"The  evil  sect  called  Christian  is  strictly  prohibited.     Suspicious  persons 
should  be  reported  to  the  proper  officers,  and  rewards  will  be  given. 

"  Dai  Jo  Kuan. 

"Fourth  year  Kei-6,  Third  month  (March  24th-April  22d,  1868). 

"Board  No.  II. — Law. 

"Persons  uniting  together  in  numbers  for  any  object  soever  are  called  leag- 
uers ;  persons  leaguing  together  for  the  purpose  of  petitioning  in  a  forcible  man- 
ner are  called  insurrectionists ;  persons  who  conspire  to  leave  the  ward  or  vil- 
lage in  which  they  live  are  called  runaways.  All  these  acts  are  strictly  prohib- 
ited. 

"Should  any  persons  commit  these  ofiFenses,  information  must  at  once  be  giv- 
en to  the  proper  officers,  and  suitable  rewards  will  be  given.       Dai  Jo  Kuan. 

"Fourth  year  Kei-6,  Third  month  (March  24th-April  22d,  1868). 

^'' Board  No.  III. — Law. 
"Human  beings  must  carefully  practice  the  principles  of  the  five  social  rela- 
tions.   Charity  must  be  shown  to  widowers,  widows,  orphans,  the  childless,  and 
sick.    There  must  be  no  such  crimes  as  murder,  arson,  or  robbery. 

"Dai  Jo  Kuan. 
"Fourth  year  Kei-6,  Third  month  (March  24th-April  22d,  1868). 

"Zajo. 
"With  respect  to  the  Christian  sect,  the  existing  prohibition  must  be  strictly 
observed. 
"Evil  sects  are  strictly  prohibited. 
'*  Fourth  month  of  the  First  year  of  Meiji  (November,  1868)." 


370  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

and  walls  of  the  castle.  Tip  and  down  the  canal  cluster  hundreds  of 
boats,  and  a  range  of  fire-proof  store-houses  line  the  banks.  To  the 
east  is  seen  Yedo  Bashi,  or  Bridge  of  Yedo.  Turning  up  Suruga  Cho, 
with  Fuji's  glorious  form  before  me,  I  pass  the  great  silk  shop  and 
fire-proof  ware-houses  of  Mitsui,  the  millionaire ;  I  reach  the  castle 
moat  and  wall,  and  pass  by  the  former  mansion  of  Keiki,  the  last  sho- 
gun.  At  noon,  precisely,  I  arrive  at  the  house  of  the  American  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Imperial  College,  to  whom  I  bear  letters  and  credentials. 
Behind  black  fences,  high  and  hideous,  I  found  the  bungalows  of 
the  dozen  foreign  teachers  of  the  college.  At  the  table  of  the  su- 
perintendent I  sat  down  to  take  "  tifiin,"  as  the  noon  meal  in  the  East 
is  called.  Congratulations  and  the  news  were  exchanged.  At  one 
o'clock  the  superintendent  returned  promptly  to  his  work,  and  the  new- 
comer remained  to  revel  among  the  books,  curiosities,  and  pictures  of 
his  genial  host.  When  school  is  over,  we  are  to  walk  out  to  Uyeno, 
to  see  the  ruins  of  the  battle  of  July  4th,  1868,  Two  hours  of  wait- 
ing pass  quickly,  and  at  a  little  after  three  o'clock,  hearing  a  strange, 
noisy  clatter,  I  run  out  by  the  gate  to  see  what  is  going  on.  The 
school  is  being  dismissed.  What  a  sight  for  a  school-master !  Hun- 
dreds of  boys,  young  men,  and  men  of  older  growth,  all  on  high  wood- 
en clogs,  are  shufiling  and  scraping  homeward.  The  noise  of  their 
clogs  on  the  rough  pebbles  of  the  street  makes  a  strange  clatter. 
They  are  all  dressed  in  the  native  costume  of  loose  coats,  with  long 
and  bag-like  sleeves;  kilts,  like  petticoats,  open  at  the  upper  side; 
with  shaven  mid-scalps,  and  top-knots  like  gun-hammers.  Men  and 
boys  carry  slates  and  copy-books  in  their  hands,  and  common  cheap 
glass  ink-bottles  slung  by  pieces  of  twine  to  their  girdles.  Hands 
and  faces  are  smeared  with  the  black  fluid ;  but,  strangest  of  all,  each 
has  two  of  the  murderous  -  looking  swords,  one  long  and  the  other 
short,  stuck  in  his  belt.  Symbols  of  the  soldier  rather  than  the  schol- 
ar are  these ;  but  the  samurai  are  both.  They  compose  the  "  milita- 
ry-literary"  class  of  Japan.  A  "  scholar  and  a  gentleman  "  is  our  pet 
compliment ;  but  in  Japan,  to  be  "  a  scholar,  a  soldier,  and  a  gentle- 
man," is  the  aspiration  of  every  samurai.  A  wild-looking  set  they 
seem,  but  the  heart  kindles  to  think  of  the  young  life  of  this  Asiatic 
empire  being  fed  at  the  streams  of  the  science  and  languages  of  Chris- 
tian nations.  In  spite  of  the  smeared  clothes  and  faces,  the  topsy-tur- 
vy top-knots,  and  average  slovenliness,  quite  natural  after  six  hours' 
school-boy's  work,  and  quite  different  from  the  morning's  spruceness, 
there  were  so  many  earnest  faces  that  the  school-master  abroad  was 


IN  TOKIO,  THE  EASTERN  CAPITAL.  371 

delighted,  and  felt  eager  to  join  in  the  work  of  helping  on  the  rising 
generation  and  grand  purpose  of  New  Japan. 

"  Education  is  the  basis  of  all  progress."  The  Japanese  found  it 
out.  The  Home  Department  of  the  new  imperial  government  in 
1870  reorganized  the  school,  originally  founded  by  the  bakufu,  and 
engaged  an  English  and  a  French  teacher  to  give  instruction.  Years 
before,  at  Nagasaki,  an  American  missionary,  whose  name  I  omit  only 
in  deference  to  his  sensitive  modesty,  had  taught  Japanese  young 
men,  sending  forth  scores  who  afterward  held  high  place  in  govern- 
ment counsels.  They  called  him  to  take  charge  of  their  chief  school 
in  Tokio.  In  January,  1869,  there  were  three  French,  three  German, 
and  five  English  teachers,  and  about  eight  or  nine  hundred  scholars. 
It  was  called  a  "  university ;"  its  proper  name  was  a  school  of  lan- 
guages. 

The  Japanese  had  very  primitive  ideas  concerning  the  fitness  of 
men  to  teach.  The  seclusion  of  Japan  for  nearly  three  hundred  years 
had  its  effect  in  producing  generations  of  male  adults  who,  compared 
to  men  trained  in  the  life  of  modern  civilization,  w^ere  children.  Any 
one  who  could  speak  English  could  evidently  teach  it.  The  idea  of  a 
trained  professional  foreign  teacher  was  never  entertained  by  them. 
They  picked  up  men  from  Tokio  and  Yokohama.  The  "  professors  " 
at  first  obtained  were  often  ex-bar-tenders,  soldiers,  sailors,  clerks,  etc. 
When  teaching,  with  pipe  in  mouth,  and  punctuating  their  instruc- 
tions with  oaths,  or  appearing  in  the  class-room  top-heavy,  the  Japa- 
nese concluded  that  such  eccentricities  were  merely  national  peculiar- 
ities. As  for  "  Japanese  wives,"  they  were  in  many  houses,  and  this 
the  native  authorities  never  suspected  was  wrong,  or  different  from 
the  foreign  custom.  In  America  there  was  read  to  me  a  paper  on  the 
subject,  and  I  innocently  marveled  at  the  high  tone  of  Japanese  mo- 
rality. I  found  out  afterward  that  the  clause  meant  that  the  foreign 
teachers  must  not  change  mistresses  too  often.  One  American  in  To- 
kio enjoyed  a  harem  of  ten  native  beauties.  Yet  there  were  some 
faithful  found  among  the  faithless,  and  real,  earnest  teachers.  Yet 
even  these  were  not  altogether  comprehensible  to  their  employers. 
One  man,  a  Christian  gentleman,  but  not  painfully  neat,  especially  in 
his  foot-gear,  having  the  habit  peculiar  to  a  certain  great  man  of  never 
lacing  up  his  shoes,  the  Japanese  director  of  the  school  solemnly  in- 
quired whether  the  gentleman  was  angry  at  the  officers.  They  sup- 
posed that  he  had  some  cause  of  complaint  against  them,  and  was 
showing  it  professionally  by  not  lacing  up  his  shoes.     They  were 


372  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

quite  relieved  on  being  informed  that  the  unlaced  boots  neither  fore- 
boded nor  expressed  dissatisfaction. 

It  was  a  Herculean,  nay,  rather  a  seemingly  impracticable,  task  to 
reduce  that  wild  chaos  of  humanity  to  order  and  system.  Here  were 
gathered  together  a  thousand  male  Japanese,  of  every  age,  and  from 
every  quarter  of  the  empire.  The  middle-aged  and  old  men,  who 
wished  to  learn  merely  to  read  and  translate,  and  not  to  speak,  a  for- 
eign language,  were  mostly  in  the  "  meaning-school."  The  younger, 
though  some  were  over  thirty,  learned  the  alphabet,  spelling,  conversa- 
tions, writing,  and,  in  the  higher  classes,  geography,  arithmetic,  and 
simple  history.  The  buildings  were  rows  of  sheds  with  glass  win- 
dows, deal  desks  and  seats,  and  unpainted  wood  partitions. 

A  thousand  top-knots,  two  thousand  swords ;  as  many  clogs,  as 
many  suits  of  cotton  dress ;  a  thousand  pairs  of  oblique  eyes  that  saw 
not  as  the  eyes  of  the  Teuton,  the  Frank,  the  Briton,  or  the  American 
saw ;  a  thousand  rice-filled  stomachs ;  a  thousand  brains  filled  with 
the  ideas  instilled  by  the  old  education  of  Japan ;  a  thousand  pairs  of 
arms  trained  to  the  sword,  spear,  and  bow ;  a  thousand  restless  bodies 
that  chafed  under  foreign  school  discipline — all  these  together  made 
what  seemed  chaos  to  the  teacher  fresh  from  the  order  and  neatness 
of  an  American  school.  In  the  rickety  rooms  were  fire-pots  and  bam- 
boo tubes  doing  duty  as  ash-boxes;  for  at  each  recess,  even  during 
recitation,  native  scholar  and  teacher  were  wont  to  pull  out  their  pipes 
and  fill  the  tiny  bowls  to  smoke. 

An  old  daimio's  yashiki  had  been  transformed  by  rows  of  sheds 
into  the  "University."  According  to  Japanese  etiquette,  the  officers 
entered  at  one  door,  the  teachers  at  another,  the  scholars  at  a  third. 
As  the  school  began  somewhere  about  9  a.m.,  the  scholars  thronged 
along  the  stone  walk.  The  scraping  clatter  of  their  wooden  clogs  and 
pattens  was  deafening.  Each  came  to  school  wearing  his  two  swords. 
Entering  a  large  square  room,  each  delivered  his  clogs  to  one  of  the 
half-dozen  attendant  servants,  who,  hanging  them  up,  gave  the  owner 
a  wooden  check  branded  with  a  number.  In  another  room,  which 
looked  like  an  arsenal,  he  took  out  his  long  sword,  which  was  laid  on 
one  of  the  hundred  or  more  racks,  and  checked  as  before.  Hats  they 
never  wore,  and  so  were  never  troubled  to  hang  them  up.  There  was 
not  a  hat  in  Japan  a  decade  ago,  at  least  in  the  cylindrical  sense  of 
the  term.  When  the  Westernized  native  does  begin  to  wear  one,  he 
never  knows  at  first  where  to  put  it  when  off  his  head,  or  remembers 
it  when  he  goes  away  from  where  he  laid  it. 


7.V  TOKIO,   THE  EASTERN  CAPITAL.  373 

In  rainy  wcathcM',  tlieir  paper  umbrellas  were  stowed  away  and 
ticketed  in  the  same  manner  as  tlieir  clogs.  Thus  despoiled,  in  bare 
feet,  or  in  mitten  -  stockings,  with  short  sword  in  belt,  from  which 
wooden  checks  depended,  the  scholars  entered  their  rooms.  The 
teacher,  not  always  early,  began  with  his  top-knots,  and  right  grandly 
did  the  young  eyes  snap  and  the  young  ideas  shoot.  With  such  ma- 
terial the  superintendent  went  on.  With  oflBcers  utterly  unacquainted 
with  their  duties ;  teachers  of  all  sorts,  and  no  sort  at  all ;  undisciplined 
pupils,  having  to  combat  suspicion,  ignorance,  and,  worse  than  all, 
Japanese  vanity  and  conceit,  he  toiled  on  for  years,  the  final  result  be- 
ing morally  magnificent.  In  this  school  the  scholars  attended  but  one 
session,  being  divided  into  morning  and  afternoon  scholars.  Half  of 
them  messed  or  boarded  in  barracks  built  by  the  school ;  but  where 
they  went  at  night,  or  how  they  spent  their  spare  time,  was  no  one's 
business. 

The  mikado's  government  had  been  in  operation  in  Tokio  two  years, 
but  it  was  on  any  thing  but  a  stable  foundation.  Conspiracies  and 
rumors  we  had  for  breakfast,  dinner,  and  supper.  To-day,  Satsuma 
was  going  to  carry  off  the  mikado.  To-morrow,  the  "  tycoon  "  was  to 
be  restored.  The  next  day,  the  foreigners  were  to  be  driven  out  of 
Tokio,  and  then  out  of  Japan.  The  city  was  not  only  full  of  the 
turbulent  troops  of  the  jealous  daimios,  but  of  hundreds  of  the  Jo-i 
(or  foreigner-haters),  the  patriot  assassins,  who  thought  they  were  do- 
ing the  gods  service,  and  their  country  a  good,  in  cleaving  a  foreigner 
in  the  street. 

Before  I  left  America,  my  students  had  told  me  by  all  means  to 
take  a  revolver  with  me,  as  I  might  very  likely  meet  ronins.  I  had 
one  of  Smith  &  Wesson's  best.  Few  foreign  residents  ever  went  far 
from  their  houses  without  one,  and  many  wisely  kept  indoors  at  night, 
except  upon  urgent  duty.  About  fifty  foreigners  had  been  killed  in 
Japan  since  1859.  For  the  safety  of  the  teachers,  about  fifty  armed 
men,  called  bette,  were  kept  in  pay.  These  knights  were  dubbed 
"  Brown  Betties" — a  vile  pun,  evidently  by  an  American,  through  whose 
sad  memory  visions  of  that  appetizing  pudding  flittered,  as  he  mourn- 
ed its  absence,  with  that  of  buckwheat-cakes,  pumpkin-pies,  turkeys, 
and  other  home  delicacies.  Horses  were  kept  ready  saddled,  and  the 
bette  were  always  ready  to  accompany  man  or  horse.  It  was  impossi- 
ble to  slip  out  without  them.  By  a  curious  system  of  Japanese  arith- 
metical progression,  one  bette  accompanied  one  foreigner,  four  of  them 
went  with  two,  and  eight  with  three.     One  would  suppose  that  a  sin- 


374 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


gle  foreigner  was  in  greater  danger  than  when  with  a  companion. 
The  first  afternoon  I  walked  to  see  the  ruins  of  Uyeno,  once  the  glory 
of  the  city,  with  my  host.  I  noticed  one  guard  kept  always  with  us. 
Not  being  counted  a  protege,  I  often  went  on  my  rambles  alone.  I 
was  never  harmed,  though  I  got  an  occasional  scowl,  and  was  often 
obliged  to  pass  along  narrow  and  lonely  streets,  in  which  villainous- 
looking  men,  with  two  murderous-looking  swords  in  their  belts,  were 
numerous. 

Among  the  many  sites  in  the  city  from  which  one  can  get  a  view 
of  Fuji  from  base  to  summit,  are  Atago  yama,  the  top  of  Kudan  zaka, 
and  Suruga  Dai,  or  elevation,  so  named  from  the  fact  that  you  behold 
the  lordly  mountain  as  though  you  were  in  Suruga  itself. 


View  of  Fuji,  from  Surnga  Dai,  iu  Tokio. 

One  afternoon  I  had  been  out  walking  to  Asakusa  and  Uyeno  with 
the  only  American  teacher  in  the  school  at  that  time,  and,  after  a  long 
tramp,  returned  to  recount  what  I  had  seen,  and  to  consult  my  host. 
We  agreed,  the  morrow  being  a  holiday,  to  make  an  excursion  to  the 
lovely  suburban  retreat  Oji,  just  outside,  to  the  north  of  Tokio.  After 
an  evening  among  maps,  note-books,  and  letters,  as  usual,  I  retired  to 
rest.  I  was  a  sound  sleeper,  and  noticed  nothing  during  the  night. 
About  4  A.M.  my  host  appeared  at  my  door,  and,  in  a  rather  sepulchral 
tone,  informed  me  that  we  could  not  go  to  Oji  that  day.  There  had 
been  great  changes  during  the  night,  and  two  teachers  of  the  school 
had  been  cut  down  in  the  streets. 

I  dressed  hurriedly,  and  at  our  hasty  breakfast  by  the  lamp  I  learn- 
ed the  story  of  the  night.  It  was  a  simple  one,  but  bloody  enough. 
The  two  men  had  gone  to  Tsukiji,  and  there  dismissed  their  guards. 
Presuming  upon  their  supposed  safety,  and  being  wholly  unarmed, 
they  started  to  another  part  of  the  city,  not  far  from  the  school. 
From  their  own  story,  they  were  quietly  walking  along  one  of  the 
streets.     The  tallest  of  them  suddenly  received  such  a  blow  from  be 


ly  TOKIO,  THE  EASTERN  CAPITAL.  STS 

hind  that  he  fell,  supposing  that  some  one  had  knocked  him  down 
with  a  bamboo  or  club.  Almost  before  he  fell,  his  companion  re- 
ceived a  frightful  cut  on  the  opposite  shoulder.  Both  then  knew  they 
had  received  sword -wounds,  and  they  both  started  to  run.  The  first 
one  attacked  ran  up  the  street  into  an  open  paper-shop,  begging  the 
people  to  bind  up  his  wounds,  and  send  word  to  the  college.  The 
second,  being  the  last  on  his  feet,  was  overtaken  by  his  pursuer,  who 
dealt  him  a  second  sweeping  two-handed  blow,  which  cut  a  canal 
across  his  back  from  right  shoulder  to  left  hip,  nearly  eleven  inches 
long.  He  gained  the  paper-shop,  however,  and  begged  the  people  to 
stanch  his  wounds  with  the  thick,  soft  Japanese  paper.  After  giving 
their  address,  and  bidding  the  people  send  for  a  doctor  and  a  school 
officer,  they  fainted  away  from  loss  of  blood.  They  were,  when  I  saw 
them,  lying  asleep  at  the  paper- shop,  native  doctors  having  reached 
them  and  skillfully  bound  up  their  wounds. 

We  left  the  college  at  half-past  four,  well  armed,  and  accompanied 
by  a  servant  carrying  a  lantern.  We  passed  down  the  street  skirting 
the  castle  moat  to  the  Tori.  It  was  very  dark,  and  the  city  was  in 
unbroken  slumber.  The  only  sight  was  the  night  roundsman  pacing 
his  beat,  lantern  in  his  left  hand,  and  jingling  an  iron  staff,  surmount- 
ed by  bimches  of  rings  on  the  top,  which  he  thumped  on  the  ground 
at  every  few  steps,  crying  out,  ^^Jli  no  yojin  "  (look  out  for  fire).  Here 
and  there,  in  nooks  and  corners,  we  saw  a  beggar  curled  up  under  his 
mats.  We  finally  reached  the  house  in  Xabe  Ch5  (Rice-pot  Street). 
We  entered  by  a  side  door,  and  found  in  the  back-room,  sitting  and 
smoking  round  the  hibachi,  six  or  eight  interpreters  and  Japanese 
teachers  from  the  college.  Sliding  aside  the  paper  partitions,  we  look- 
ed into  the  front  room,  and,  by  the  light  of  our  lanterns,  saw  the  two 
wounded  men,  one  with  Head  bandaged  and  face  upward,  the  other 
lying  prone,  with  back  tightly  swathed,  asleep,  and  breathing  heavily. 
W^e  waited  till  daylight,  when  they  woke  up  and  told  us  their  story. 
The  skillful  surgeon  of  the  English  legation  arrived  shortly  after, 
commending  highly  the  skill  displayed  by  the  native  surgeons  in  bind- 
ing up  the  wounds. 

I  spent  several  days  and  nights  in  the  house,  attending  the  patients. 
The  wounds  of  one  were  of  a  frightful  character ;  that  of  the  other  was 
upon  the  head  and  shoulder-blade.  The  blow  had  grazed  the  skull, 
and  cut  deeply  into  the  fleshy  part  of  the  back.  It  was  not  dangerous  : 
in  a  few  days  he  sat  up,  and  the  wound  rapidly  healed.  For  several 
days  the  weakness  arising  from  the  loss  of  blood  and  the  wound- fever 


376  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

tlireatened  to  end  the  life  of  his  companion.  One  of  his  ribs  was 
nearly  severed,  and  both  gashes  were  long  and  deep.  He  had  to  be 
handled  very  tenderly.  After  seven  days,  however,  they  were  able  to 
be  removed  to  their  own  house,  and,  as  they  had  provided  other  nurses, 
my  services  were  no  longer  required. 

I  took  the  early  stage  on  the  morning  of  the  attack,  and  carried 
the  news  to  Yokohama.  The  mikado's  Government,  with  astonishing 
energy,  immediately  took  steps  to  discover  the  assassins,  using  the 
most  strenuous  exertions.  Every  one  leaving  the  city  or  passing  the 
gates  was  searched.  Every  samurai  in  Tokio  was  obliged  to  give  an 
account  of  his  whereabouts  from  sunset  to  sunrise  of  that  evening. 
Every  sword  worn  in  Tokio  was  examined  to  discover  blood -stains, 
which  can  not  be  removed  except  by  grinding.  Every  sword -maker 
and  grinder  was  questioned.  I  know  of  several  small  boys  who  felt 
highly  elated  at  the  great  and  rare  honor  of  having  a  posse  of  pomp- 
ous government  officials  gravely  examine  their  swords,  according  to  or- 
ders. Nothing  gave  one  so  real  an  idea  of  the  sincerity  and  ability  of 
the  Government,  and  its  determination  to  reform  barbarous  customs, 
as  their  energy  on  this  occasion.  The  stage  which  carried  me  to 
Yokohama  was  stopped  at  the  Shinagawa  guard-house  by  a  man  armed 
with  a  barbed  hook,  to  examine  any  Japanese  that  might  be  within. 

The  excitement  among  the  foreigners  in  Tokio  next  morning  was 
intense.  Prophets  went  round  prophesying  that  in  a  week  Tokio 
would  be  deserted  of  foreigners.  A  certain  consul  posted  up  a  notice 
in  a  public  place — in  a  bar-room,  I  believe — authorizing  any  citizen  of 
his  nationality,  should  any  Japanese  be  seen  laying  his  hand  on  his 
sword,  "  to  shoot  him  on  the  spot."  The  most  violent  and  inflamma- 
tory language  appeared  in  the  newspapers.  Some  hot-headed  folks  at 
Yokohama  held  a  meeting,  and  resolved  that  the  Japanese  Government 
should  disarm  the  samurai,  by  ordering  the  immediate  abolition  of 
the  custom  of  wearing  swords.  Yokohama  residents  whose  business 
brought  them  to  Tokio,  though  belted  and  with  two  revolvers,  saw  in 
every  Japanese  boy  or  coolie  an  assassin.  A  nightmare  of  samurai, 
swords,  blood,  bleeding  heads  and  arms,  grave-stones,  and  grim  death 
brooded  over  the  foreigners.  "The  beaten  soldier  fears  the  tops  of 
the  tall  grass." 

Amidst  this  panic  of  fear,  two  mild  and  gentle  countrymen  of  mine — 
one  a  missionary  who  had  lived  in  Japan  and  among  the  people  seven 
years,  and  another  who  for  months  had  gone  among  them  day  and 
night  unarmed — opened  my  eyes.     Even  the  sworded  samurai  became 


IN  TOKIO,   THE  EASTERN  CAPITAL.  377 

in  my  vision  as  harmless  as  trees  walking.  I  saw  that  the  affair,  which 
had  frightened  some  men  out  of  their  wits,  concerned  a  gentleman 
about  as  much  as  a  murder  in  Water  Street,  or  the  Five  Points,  con- 
cerns a  law-loving  citizen  of  New  York,  who  attends  quietly  to  his 
business.  I  soon  put  away  my  revolver,  and  began  the  study  of  facts 
relating  to  the  many  cases  of  "  assassination  "  of  foreigners  in  Japan. 
In  every  instance,  since  the  restoration  of  peace  after  the  troubles  of 
the  civil  war,  it  was  a  story  of  overbearing  insolence,  cruelty,  insult, 
the  jealousy  of  paramours,  native  women,  or  avarice,  or  the  effect  of 
causes  which  neither  fair  play  nor  honor  could  justify. 

During  my  stay  of  nearly  four  years  in  Japan,  several  Europeans 
were  attacked  or  killed ;  but  in  no  case  was  there  a  genuine  assassina- 
tion, or  unprovoked  assault.  I  was  led  to  see  the  horrible  injustice  of 
the  so-called  indemnities,  the  bombardments  of  cities,  the  slaughter  of 
Japanese  people,  and  the  savage  vengeance  wreaked  for  fancied  in- 
juries against  foreigners.  There  is  no  blacker  page  in  history  than 
the  exactions  and  cruelties  practiced  against  Japan  by  the  diplomatic 
representatives  of  the  nations  called  Christian — in  the  sense  of  having 
the  heaviest  artillery.  In  their  financial  and  warlike  operations  in 
Japan,  the  foreign  ministers  seem  to  have  acted  as  though  there  was 
no  day  of  judgment.  Of  the  Japanese  servants  kicked  and  beaten, 
or  frightened  to  death,  by  foreign  masters  ;  of  peaceable  citizens  knock- 
ed down  by  foreign  fists,  or  ridden  over  by  horses ;  of  Japanese  homes 
desolated,  and  innocent  men  and  women,  as  well  as  soldiers,  torn  by 
shells,  and  murdered  by  unjust  bombardments,  what  reparation  has 
been  made  ?  What  indemnity  paid  ?  What  measures  of  amelioration 
taken  for  terrible  excess  of  bloody  revenge  at  Kagoshima  and  Shimo- 
noseki  ?  What  apology  rendered  ?  For  a  land  impoverished  and  torn, 
for  the  miseries  of  a  people  compelled  by  foreigners,  for  the  sake  of 
their  cursed  dollars,  to  open  their  country,  what  sympathy  ?  For  their 
cholera  and  vile  diseases,  their  defiling  immorality,  their  brutal  violence, 
their  rum,  what  benefits  in  return  ?  Of  real  encouragement,  of  cheer 
to  Japan  in  her  mighty  struggle  to  regenerate  her  national  life,  what 
word  ?  Only  the  answer  of  the  horse-leech — for  blood,  blood ;  and  at 
all  times,  gold,  gold,  gold.  They  ask  all,  and  give  next  to  nothing. 
For  their  murders  and  oppressions  they  make  no  reparation.  Is 
Heaven  always  on  the  side  of  the  heaviest  artillery  ? 


378  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


IV. 

SIGHTS  AND  SOUNDS  IN  A  PAGAN  TEMPLE. 

The  temple  of  Kuanon  at  Asakusa  is  to  Tokio  what  St.  Paul's  is 
to  London,  or  Notre  Dame  to  Paris.  The  chief  temple  of  the  city, 
the  most  popular  religious  resort,  one  never  sees  the  Japanese  capital 
till  he  sees  Asakusa.  Like  Notre  Dame,  it  is  ancient,  holy,  dirty,  and 
grand,  with  pigeons  and  priests,  and  bazaars  and  book-stalls  near  by 
to  match. 

Asakusa  is  now  the  name  of  a  district  of  the  city,  which  anciently 
was  a  village.  The  temple  is  about  three  miles  from  the  centre  of 
the  castle,  and  two  from  Nihon  Bashi,  and  at  the  time  of  its  erection 
was  a  remote  suburb.  It  is  but  a  short  distance  from  the  river,  and 
Asakusa  bridge  and  Asakusa  ferry  have  been  made  chiefly  for  the 
convenience  of  the  pious,  gay,  and  curious,  to  cross  the  Sumida  River 
to  visit  the  great  temple,  gardens,  and  pleasure-grounds,  many  acres 
in  extent.  These  latter  a  Japanese  temple  must  always  have,  whether 
Buddhist  or  Shinto.  In  them  are  fairs,  refreshments,  booths,  eating, 
smoking,  dancing,  and  every  gay  sport  and  pleasure  known.  To  the 
Japanese  mind  there  is  no  incongruity  in  this  placing  a  temple  cheek 
by  jowl  with  a  theatre.  To  cast  his  cash  in  the  box  of  offerings,  to 
pray,  are  but  preludes  to  uproarious  mirth  or  sedate  enjoyments.  Re- 
ligion and  innocent  pleasure  join  hands  in  Japan,  Are  the  Japanese 
wrong  in  this? 

Two  grand  entrances  invite  the  visitor.  One  opens  to  the  river. 
The  main  approach  forms  the  terminus  of  an  avenue  that  traverses 
the  city,  and  joins  the  broad  street  fronting  Asakiisa  at  right  angles. 
Up  and  down  this  street,  on  either  side,  for  rods,  are  restaurants  and 
houses  where  the  famed  singing-girls  of  Tokio  make  music,  song,  and 
dance.  The  path  to  the  temple  is  of  stone,  twelve  feet  wide,  with 
side  pavements,  upon  which  are  ranged  hundreds  of  booths  having  on 
sale  a  gorgeous  abundance  of  toys,  dolls,  and  every  thing  to  delight 
the  eyes  of  babydom.     Perpetual  Christmas  reigns  here.     "Every 


SIGHTS  AXD  SOUNDS  IN  A  PAGAN  TEMPLE. 


379 


street  in  Paris  is  like  Broadway,"  said  a  Frencli  mademoiselle  to  a 
New  York  lady.  Every  day  at  Asakusa  is  a  festival ;  but  on  the 
great  matsuris,  or  religious  holidays,  the  throng  of  gayly  dressed  hu- 
manity of  all  ages,  is  astonishing.  Every  one  in  Japan  has  heard  of 
Asakusa.  One  never  fairly  sees  open-air  Japanese  life,  except  at  a 
matsuri.  There  is  nothing  strange,  however,  to  the  Japanese  mind 
in  this  association  of  temples  and  toy-shops.  The  good  bonzes  in 
their  sermons  declare,  as  the  result  of  their  exegesis  and  meditations, 
that  husbands  are  bound  to  love  their  wives,  and  show  it  by  allowing 
them  plenty  of  pin-money  and  hair-pins,  and  to  be  not  bitter  against 
them  by  denying  them  neat  dresses  and  handsome  girdles.  The 
farmer  who  comes  to  town  with  his  daughter,  turns  from  prayer  to 
the  purchase  of  pomatum  or  a  mirror.  Every  sort  of  toy,  game,  hair- 
ornaments  in  illimitable  variety  ;  combs,  rare  and  beautiful,  and  cheap 
and  plain ;  crapes  for  the  neck  and  bosom ;  all  kinds  of  knickknacks, 
notions,  and  varieties  are  here ;  besides  crying  babies ;  strings  of  beads 

for  prayer;  gods  of  lead,  brass, 
and  wood ;  shrines  and  family 
altars,  sanctums,  prayer  -  books, 
sacred  bells,  and  candles.  , 

Chapels   and    special    shrines, 
many  of  them  the  expiatory  gifts 
of  rich  sinners,  lie  back  of  the 
booths  on  each  side  of  the  road- 
way.    On  their  walls  hang  votive 
tablets   and    pictures   of  various 
sorts.     In  one  of  the  booths,  an 
old  artist,  with  his  two  brushes 
in   one    hand,   is    painting    one. 
His  cheap  productions  will  sell 
for  five  or  ten  cents.     He  looks  as  though  he  were  laughing  at  his 
own  joke,  for  his  subject  is  a  pictorial  pun  on  the  word  "  fool "  {baka : 
ba,  a  horse ;  ka,  a  stag).* 

*  Tlie  allusion  is  to  the  act  of  the  Chinese  prime  minister  at  the  court  of  the 
Chinese  emperor,  who  was  the  son  of  the  illustrious  builder  of  the  Great  Wall. 
He  declared  that  a  stag  could  be  called  a  horse,  and  a  horse  a  stag.  The  courtiers 
were  compelled  to  obey  him.  This  is  the  origin  of  the  Japanese  word  baka,  which 
the  Japanese  urchins  sometimes  cry  at  foreigners,  and  one  of  the  first  words  the 
latter  learn  to  throw  at  the  natives.  The  particular  digital  gesture  of  sticking 
the  left  forefinger  in  the  left  side  of  the  mouth  is  the  Japanese  equivalent  of  the 
soliloquy,  "  What  a  fool  I  am !"  or  the  interrogation,  "  You  think  I'm  a  fool,  don't 


Artist  at  Work. 


380  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

The  incense  of  smoldering  "joss-sticks"*  is  wafted  outward,  and 
blends  with  the  savory  odors  of  baking -sponge  and  griddle -cakes, 
roasting  nuts,  and  the  disgusting  smell  of  cuttle-fish  fried  in  oil,  made 
from  sesame  {Sesammn  Orientalis).  I  never  knew  till  I  arrived  in 
the  Land  of  the  Gods  why  the  door  of  the  cave  of  the  Forty  Thieves 
opened  so  easily  when  Ali  Baba  uttered  the  potent  words,  "Open 
sesame."  I  know  now.  Let  any  one  get  ten  feet  to  windward  of  a 
frying-pan  full  of  sesame  oil,  and  he  will  find  it  strong  enough  to 
open  twenty  doors.  There,  two  lusty  fellows  are  pulling  away  at  a 
colossal  rope  of  barley-sugar  candy,  now  stretching,  now  twisting, 
now  doubling,  until  the  proper  consistence  and  fibre  are  obtained. 
Down  on  the  ground,  at  intervals,  we  find  an  old  woman,  or  a  young 
girl,  selling  what  seem  to  be  little  slips  of  frayed  wood,  which,  dropped 
on  water,  open  into  surprising  forms  of  beauty.  The  uniform  trifles 
unfold  into  variety,  displaying  a  flower,  a  boat,  a  tree,  a  bird,  a  rat, 
a  fisherman,  a  man,  Fuji,  a  bottle,  a  cup,  a  bug,  an  animal.  Some  are 
jokes  and  comic  pictures. 

Before  the  temple  proper  stands  a  colossal  structure,  serving  merely 
as  a  gate-way,  of  red  painted  wood,  almost  seventy  feet  high.  Facing 
us  on  either  side  as  we  enter  are  the  high  colored  demons  Ni-o  (two 
kings),  whom  we  must  propitiate.  Each  is  higher  than  Goliath  of 
Gath:  one  is  green,  and  the  other  red.  "As  ugly  as  sin,"  is  faint 
praise  of  their  hideousness.  Their  faces  and  muscles  are  contorted 
into  fanciful  corrugations,  and  their  attitude  is  as  though  they  were 
going  to  transfix  us  heretics.  Fastened  to  the  grating  in  front  of  them 
are  straw  sandals,  such  as  laborers  and  rustics  wear.  Some  of  these 
are  big  enough  to  shoe  a  megatherium.  They  are  hung  up  by  people 
with  sore  feet,  to  propitiate  the  demons  and  to  seek  recovery.  In 
front  of  the  gate  and  under  it,  in  two  rows,  sit  pious  beggars,  mostly 
women,  who  beat  on  hollow  shells  of  wood,  like  enormous  stale  clams 
or  gaping  sleigh-bells,  and  say  prayers  for  their  donors  at  a  low  price. 
The  faithful  drop  a  few  iron  cash,  or  a  single  copper,  to  one  or  more 
of  these  hags  as  they  pass  on. 

Passing  within  the  gate,  we  are  in  the  temple  yard.  To  the  right 
is  a  huge  lavatory,  the  people  washing  their  hands,  and  rinsing  their 

you  ?"  The  artist  is  thinking  how  foolish  he  is  thus  to  spend  his  days  in  painting 
cheap  pictures  for  a  precarious  means  of  subsistence.  He  is  tlius  caricaturing 
himself. 

*  Joss  is  the  Chinaman's  pronunciation  of  the  Portuguese  word  Deos — Latin, 
Deus. 


SIGHTS  AND  SOUNDS  IN  A  PAGAN  TEMPLE. 


381 


mouths,  preparatory  to  worship.     A  pagoda  rises  to  the  right  with  its 
seven  stories,  its  heavy  eaves  fringed  with  wind-bells,  its  beams  tipped 

with  carvings,  and  its  roof 
terminating  into  a  projec- 
tion called  the  kiu-do  (nine 
rings),  resembling  an  enor- 
mous   copper  turning  just 
rolled  from  the  lathe,  or  a 
corkscrew  such  as  might  be 
used  to  uncork  a  columbiad. 
To  climb  to  the  top  is  to 
run  the  risk  of  dislocating 
the  neck,  and  the  view  does 
not  repay.      In  time  of  se- 
vere earthquake,  this  pago- 
da spire  will  vibrate  like  a 
plume  on  a  helmet.      Of 
course,  in  the  picture,  the 
artist    must   bring   in   the 
snow-white  cranes,  and  Fuji. 
On  the  top  is  the  jewel,  or 
sacred  pearl,  so  conspicuous 
in  Japanese  art  and  symbol- 
ism, and  which,  on  the  coins 
and  paper  money,the  dragon 
ever  clutches  in  his  talons. 
On  my  left  stands  a  large  plain  frame  of  wood,  on  which  hang  tal- 
lies, or  tablets,  inscribed  with  names  and  sums  of  money.     They  are 
those  of  subscribers  to  the  temple,  and  the  amount  of  their  contribu- 
tions.    One,  five,  and  ten  dollars  are  common  gifts,  and  the  one  hun- 
dred-dollar donor  is  honored  with  a  larger  amount  of  shingle  to  ad- 
vertise his  religion.     Several  old  women  have  stands,  at  which  they 
sell  holy  beans,  pious  pease,  and  sanctified  rice.     These  are  kept  ready 
in  tiny  earthen  saucers.     The  orthodox  buy  these,  and  fling  them  to 
the  cloud  of  pigeons  that  are  waiting  on  the  temple  eaves,  and  fly, 
whirring  down,  to  feed.     Ten   thousand  sunbeams  flash  from   their 
opaline  necks  as  their  pink  feet  move  coquettishly  over  the  ground. 
Two  enormous  upright  bronze  lanterns  on  stone  pedestals  flank  the 
path,  and  on  these  flocks  of  pigeons  quickly  rise  and  settle  again. 
These  pigeons  have  their  home,  not  only  without  but  within  the  tem- 

25 


Pagoda  Spire,  or  Kiu-do.    (Nishiki-ye.) 


382  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

pie,  over  the  very  altars  of  Great  Shaka.  Even  the  pigeon  hath  found 
a  rest  where  she  may  lay  her  young,  even  thine  altars,  Great  Shaka. 
Their  cooing  blends  with  the  murmurs  of  prayer,  and  the  whirring  of 
their  wings  with  the  chant  of  the  bonzes. 

Besides  the  pigeons,  there  are  two  sacred  Albino  ponies  kept  in  a 
stable  to  the  left.  They  are  consecrated  to  the  presiding  deity,  Kua- 
non,  Goddess  of  Mercy.  A  young  girl  has  the  care  of  them,  and  they 
are  fed  by  the  pious,  who,  as  a  religious  and  meritorious  act,  buy  the 
beans  and  pease  with  which  the  animals  are  fed. 

The  most  imposing  feature  of  a  Japanese  temple  is  the  roof  of 
massive  black  tiles,  sweeping  up  in  a  parabolic  curve  of  the  immense 
surface,  which  make  enormous  gables  at  the  side.  One  is  impressed 
with  the  solidity  of  the  timbers  and  supports,  which  are  set  firmly  but 
loosely  in  stone  sockets,  and  defy  the  earthquake  in  a  manner  that  re- 
calls ^sop's  fable  of  the  oak  and  the  reed.  We  ascend  the  broad  cop- 
per-edged steps  to  the  broader  porch,  and  are  on  the  threshold  of  the 
great  pagan  temple,  so  holy,  so  noisy,  so  dirty.  "Within  its  penetra- 
lium,  we  try  to  feel  reverent.  How  can  we,  with  a  crowd  of  eager, 
curious,  dirty  faces,  with  dirty  babies  behind  them,  with  unclean  pig- 
eons whirring  above  us  to  the  threatened  detriment  of  our  hats  ?  With- 
in is  a  chaos  of  votive  tablets,  huge  lanterns,  shrines,  idols,  spit-balls, 
smells,  dust,  dirt,  nastiness,  and  holiness.  Immediately  within  the  door 
stands  a  huge  bronze  censer,  with  a  hideous  beast  rampant  upon  it. 
He  seems  maddened  by  the  ascending  clouds  of  irritating  incense 
that  puff  out  of  numerous  holes  around  the  edge.  The  worshipers, 
as  they  enter,  drop  an  iron  or  copper  cash  in  the  lap  of  the  black- 
toothed  crone  who  keeps  the  sacred  fuel,  put  a  pinch  in  one  of  the 
holes,  and  pass  in  front  of  the  altar  to  pray.  Around  the  top  of  the 
censer  are  the  twelve  signs  of  the  Japanese  zodiac,  in  high  relief. 
These  are  the  rat,  ox,  tiger,  rabbit,  dragon,  serpent,  horse,  goat,  mon- 
key, cock,  dog,  hog. 

The  great  main  altar  is  protected  in  front  by  an  iron  wire  screen. 
Each  worshiper,  before  praying,  makes  a  "  heave-offering  "  of  a  hand- 
ful of  cash  into  the  huge  coffer  before  the  altar.  Occasionally  one, 
with  pious  intent,  throws  what  we  would  call  a  spit-ball  at  the  screen. 
What  an  idea  !  The  worshiper  writes  out  his  petition,  chews  it  to  a 
pulp  in  his  mouth,  and  throws  it  at  the  idol.  If  it  sticks,  the  omen  is 
good,  the  prayer  is  heard.  Hearing,  then,  depends  on  the  softness  of 
the  mass,  or  the  salival  ability  and  dexterity  of  the  thrower.  Some 
of  the  images  in  the  outer  shrines  are  speckled  all  over  with  these  out- 


SIGHTS  AND  SOUNDS  IN  A  PAGAN  TEMPLE.  383 

spittings  of  pious  mouths.  The  coins  and  balls  might  injure  the  al- 
tar furniture  and  golden  idols,  if  not  protected. 

The  space  opposite  the  altar  is  filled  by  praying  people  of  every 
sort.  Mothers,  maidens,  and  children,  old  men  and  boys,  samurai  and 
merchant  and  farmer,  country  boors,  city  swells,  soldiers  in  French  uni- 
form with  sword-bayonets  at  their  side,  a  la  Paris,  all  fling  the  coin, 
bow  the  head,  rub  the  hands  above  the  head.  Many  use  strings  of 
beads,  like  the  Roman  Catholics.  Prayers  at  the  main  altar  over,  the 
devotee  may  visit  one  or  more  of  the  many  side  shrines  within  the 
building.  To  the  right  sits  the  ugly  and  worn-out  god  Binzuru  (one 
of  Buddha's  original  sixteen  disciples),  reputed  to  cure  diseases.  There 
is  a  mother  with  two  children  rubbing  the  dirty  old  wooden  head  and 
limbs,  and  then  applying  the  supposed  virtue  to  their  own  bodies  by 
rubbing  them.  The  old  idol  is  polished  greasy  and  black  by  the  at- 
trition of  many  thousand  palms.  His  nose,  ears,  eyes,  and  mouth  have 
long  since  disappeared.  We  warrant  that  more  people  are  infected 
than  cured  by  their  efforts. 

To  the  left  is  a  shrine,  covered  in  front  by  a  lattice,  to  the  bars  of 
which  are  tied  thousands  of  slips  of  paper  containing  written  prayers. 
Flanking  the  coffer  on  either  side  are  old  men  who  sell  charms,  printed 
prayers,  beads,  prayer-books,  and  ecclesiastical  wares  of  all  sorts.  Vo- 
tive tablets  are  hung  on  the  walls  and  huge  round  pillars.  Here  is 
one,  on  which  is  the  character,  cut  from  paper,  for  "  man  "  and  "  wom- 
an," joined  by  a  padlock,  from  a  pair  of  lovers,  who  hope  and  pray 
that  the  course  of  true  love  may  run  smooth,  and  finally  flow  like  a 
river.  Here  is  one  from  a  merchant  who  promises  a  gift  to  the  tem- 
ple if  his  venture  succeeds.  Scores  are  memorials  of  gratitude  to 
Kuanon  for  hearing  prayer  and  restoring  the  suppliant  to  health.  The 
subject  of  one  picture  is  the  boiler  explosion  on  the  steamboat  City  of 
Yedo,  which  took  place  in  front  of  the  foreign  hotel  in  Tsukiji,  Au- 
gust 12th,  1870,  in  which  one  hundred  lives  were  lost.  Only  a  few 
days  ago,  in  Yokohama,  I  saw  the  infant  son  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Comes,  my  fellow-country  people,  who,  with  a  little  English  girl,  were 
the  only  foreigners  killed.  The  devotee  was  saved  by  the  great  mercy 
of  Kuanon,  and  hangs  up  the  tablet,  as  a  witness  of  his  gratitude,  and 
Kuanon's  surpassing  favor.  Many  are  from  sailors  who  have  survived 
a  storm.  On  the  wire  screen  hang  scores  of  men's  greasy  top-knots, 
and  a  few  braids  of  women's  hair,  cut  off  on  account  of  vows,  and  of- 
fered to  the  honor  of  Kuanon.  Perhaps  the  deity  sees  the  heart  that 
made  the  offering,  and  not  the  rancid  and  mildewed  grease.     Above 


384  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

are  splendid  carvings  and  paintings  of  angels.  The  Buddbist  angels 
are  always  feminine.  Among  the  crowd  of  religious  emblems,  there 
stares  at  you  a  framed  picture  of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  China  as 
an  advertisement,  and  near  the  door  of  exit,  at  the  left,  stands  an  im- 
mense mirror  in  a  dazzling  gilt  frame.  It  is  one  of  the  sensational 
attractions  to  the  vulgar,  and  helps  to  make  up  the  catchpenny  collec- 
tion of  miscellanies  in  this  rich  temple,  whose  real  estate  covers  many 
acres  of  valuable  ground. 

Beyond  the  great  space  devoted  to  the  public  are  the  various  altars 
and  gilt  images  of  the  deities,  sages,  and  saints  of  the  Buddhist  pan- 
theon and  calendar.  Candles  burn,  incense  floats,  and  the  sacred  books 
repose  here.  The  privileged  faithful  can,  for  a  fee  to  the  fat  priests 
•who  sit  behind  their  account-books,  come  within  the  iron  wire  screen, 
and,  kneeling  on  the  clean  matting  in  front  of  the  great  altar,  may 
pray,  or  read  or  chant  sacred  books,  canonical  or  liturgical ;  or,  having 
a  vow  to  a  particular  deity,  or  wishing  to  invoke  the  intercession  of  a 
special  saint,  may  enter,  to  kneel  remote  from  the  crowd. 

It  seems  curious,  even  in  Japan,  to  see  men  dressed  in  foreign 
clothes,  praying  before  the  gilded  and  hideous  idols,  bowing  down 
to  foxes  and  demons,  and  going  through  all  the  forms  of  paganism. 
Clothes  do  not  make  a  Christian,  and  yet  to  our  narrow  vision  there 
seems  no  agreement  between  a  high  hat  and  a  Buddhist  temple,  no 
concord  between  a  black-cloth  coat  and  an  idol  in  ancient  robes. 

We  leave  the  temple  and  descend  the  steps,  glad  to  get  out  into 
the  only  true  God's  fresh  air.  From  the  unnature  of  superstition  to 
the  purity  of  nature,  from  the  pent-up  closeness  of  the  priests'  temple 
into  the  boundless  freedom  of  God's  glorious  creation,  how  welcome 
the  change !  It  stirs  the  pulses  of  the  divine  life  within  us  to  behold 
how  priestcraft  and  sanctified  avarice  and  blind  superstition  of  ages 
have  united,  and  then  to  remember  how  One  said,  "  Have  faith  in 
God." 

To  the  left  of  the  temple  are  gardens  famed  for  their  displays  of 
flowers  in  season — the  plum-blossoms  in  February,  cherry  blooms  in 
April,  the  lotus  in  July,  azaleas  in  summer,  chrysanthemums  in  Octo- 
ber, camellias  in  December,  and  evergreens  always.  Here  are  dwarfed 
trees  in  every  shape.  Fuji  appears  over  and  over  again  in  miniature. 
Tortoises,  cats,  male  foreigners  with  hats,  and  females  in  crinoline, 
houses,  wagons,  and  what  not,  appear  in  living  forms  of  green.  Tiny 
trees,  an  inch  or  two  high,  balmy  pines,  oaks  and  bamboo,  cacti, 
striped  -  grass,  rare  plants  of  all  varieties  known  in  Japan,  are  here. 


'>  ..,;. 


V 


SIGHTS  AND  SOUNDS  IN  A  FAG  AN  TEMPLE.  387 

An  open  clirysantliemum,  the  crest  of  the  emperor,  is  emblazoned  on 
all  the  barracks  of  the  soldiers,  on  their  caps,  buttons,  and  banners, 
and  ou  all  buildings  devoted  to  governmental  purposes. 

In  the  cultivation  of  these  flowers  the  native  gardeners  excel.  In 
their  limited  specialties,  the  Japanese  florists  distance  those  of  any 
other  country.  The  borders  of  the  Asakiisa  gardens  are  made  of 
clipped  tea-plants.  Dwarfing,  unnatural  local  enlargement,  variegation 
of  leaf  and  petal,  the  encouragement  of  freaks  of  nature  by  careful 
artificial  selection — these  are  the  specialties  of  the  natives  of  Nippon, 
which  have  been  perfected  by  the  hereditary  patience,  tact,  and  labor 
of  a  thousand  years.  The  guild  of  florists  in  Toki5  is  large  and 
wealthy.  As  the  florist  father,  so  is  the  son.  Some  of  the  streets  of 
the  city  are  noted  for  their  floral  displays  and  fairs.  These  are  often 
given  at  night,  the  street  being  lighted  by  candles,  as  in  the  picture. 

The  temple  and  the  gardens  are  not  the  only  sights  at  Asakiisa. 
The  antiquary  may  revel  in  deciphering  the  scores  of  inscriptions  in 
Sanskrit,  Japanese,  and  Chinese.  Most  of  these  are  commemorative 
of  religious  events ;  some  are  prayers,  some  are  quotations  from  ca- 
nonical books,  some  are  sacred  hymns.  The  stones  are  of  granite, 
of  slate,  and  of  gi-ay-stone.  Bronze  and  stone  images  of  Buddha  are 
numerous ;  some  with  aureole,  and  finger  lifted ;  some  with  hands  or 
legs  crossed,  and  thumbs  joined  meditatively.  All  wear  the  serene 
countenance  of  the  sage  in  Nirvana.  Around  the  base  of  nearly  all 
are  heaps  of  pebbles,  placed  there  as  evidence  of  prayers  ojffered.  In 
one  shrine  little  earthen  pots  of  salt  are  placed  as  offerings.  A  "  pray- 
ing machine  " — a  stone  wheel  in  a  stone  post — stands  near.  In  one 
octagon  temple  are  ranged  the  stone  effigies  of  the  five  hundred  origi- 
nal disciples  of  Buddha.  Again  we  light  on  a  crowd  of  stone  idols, 
on  which  are  pasted  bits  of  paper,  containing  a  picture  or  a  prayer. 
Some  of  them  are  as  full  of  labels  as  an  apothecary's  shop.  Many 
have  smoking  incense-sticks  before  them,  stuck  in  a  bed  of  ashes  accu- 
mulated from  former  offerings.  In  one  building  to  the  south-east  of 
the  main  temple  is  a  curious  collection  of  idols,  which  attract  attention 
from  the  fact  of  their  being  clean. 

Three  idols,  representing  assistant  torturers  to  Ema,  the  Lord  of 
Hell,  painted  in  all  colors  and  gilded  as  gorgeously  as  cheap  ginger- 
bread, stand  in  theatrical  attitudes.  One  wields  a  sword,  one  a  pen, 
and  one  a  priest's  staff.  All  have  their  heads  in  an  aureole  of  red 
flames.  The  feet  of  the  first,  a  green  monster  like  a  deified  caterpillar, 
rests  his  foot  on  an  imp  of  the  same  color,  having  two  clawed  toes  on 


388  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

his  feet,  and  two  fangs  in  his  mouth.  Under  the  second  writhes  a 
flesh-colored  devil,  holding  up  an  ink-stone,  ready  for  the  use  of  the 
idol,  who  may  be  a  Japanese  Saturday  Reviewer.  The  third,  with  an 
indigo  face,  having  a  priest's  staff,  treads  on  a  sky-blue  devil.  In  the 
middle  of  the  stone-floored  room  is  a  revolving  shrine,  having  many 
closed  doors,  and  containing  sacred  treasures  of  some  sort.  All  over 
the  crowded  grounds  are  tea-booths  with  the  usual  charcoal  fire,  copper 
boiler,  kettle,  cup-rack,  sweetmeats,  and  smiling,  powdered,  well-dress- 
ed damsel,  who  invites  the  passer-by  to  rest,  drink  a  cup  of  tea,  and 
part  with  a  trifle  as  gift. 

At  the  north  end  are  ranged  the  archery  galleries,  also  presided  over 
b}^  pretty  black-eyed  Dianas,  in  paint,  powder,  and  shining  coiffure. 
They  bring  you  tea,  smile,  talk  nonsense,  and  giggle ;  smoke  their 
long  pipes  with  tiny  bowls  full  of  mild,  fine-cut  tobacco ;  puff  out 
the  long  white  whiffs  from  their  flat-bridged  noses ;  wipe  the  brass 
mouth-piece,  and  offer  it  to  you ;  and  then  ask  you  leading  and  very 
personal  questions  without  blushing.  The  bows  are  of  slender  bam- 
boo strips,  two  feet  long,  with  rests  for  the  shaft.  The  arrows  are  of 
cherry-wood,  six  inches  long,  bone-tipped,  and  feathered  red,  blue,  or 
Avhite.  Two  or  three  targets  hang  in  front  of  a  square  drum,  flanked 
by  red  cushions.  A  sharp  click  on  the  hard  target,  the  boom  of  the 
drum,  or  the  deadened  sound  of  the  struck  cushion,  tell  the  grades  of 
success.  Full-grown,  able-bodied  men  are  the  chief  patrons  of  these 
places  of  pleasure,  and  many  can  find  amusement  for  hours  at  such 
play. 

Let  no  one  visit  Asakusa  without  seeing  the  so-called  "  wax-works," 
though  there  is  very  little  wax  in  the  show.  In  one  of  the  buildings, 
to  the  rear  and  left  of  the  main  temple,  are  thirty-five  tableaux,  in  life- 
size  figures,  of  the  miracles  wrought  by  Kuanon,  or  wondrous  events 
in  the  lives  of  her  pious  devotees.  There  are  thirty-three  great  tem- 
ples in  Japan,  dedicated  to  Kuanon,  the  Goddess  of  Mercy.  Pious  pil- 
grims often  make  the  pilgrimage,  visiting  each  of  these  shrines.  The 
tableaux  at  Asakusa  are  thought  by  many  foreign  critics  to  excel  in 
expression  the  famous  collection  of  Madame  Tussaud  in  London,  an 
opinion  which  the  writer  shares.  They  are  all  the  handiwork  of  one 
artist,  who  visited  the  most  celebrated  shrines  of  Kuanon,  and,  struck 
with  the  marvelous  power  and  mercy  of  the  god,  wished  to  show  to 
the  youth  of  his  country  the  benefit  of  trusting  in  and  praying  to 
him  or  her.  The  figure  of  Kuanon  is,  in  some  representations,  like 
that  of  a  gentle  and  lovely  lady.     In  the  outside  tableau,  the  image  of 


SIGHTS  AND  SOUNDS  IN  A  PAGAN  TEMPLE.  389 

Kuanon  is  drawn  out  in  public  to  stay  a  plague,  which  is  accomplish- 
ed by  the  mercy  and  favor  of  the  god.     In  the  first  tableau  inside,  a 
learned  lady  prays  to  Kuanon,  and  is  heard.     The  second  tableau  rep- 
resents Kuanon  appearing  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  woman  to  reward 
a  diligent  priest ;  the  third,  a  young  girl  suddenly  restored  to  health 
by  the  favor  of  Kuanon ;  the  fourth,  Kuanon  appearing  in  the  form 
of  a  little  peasant  girl  to  a  noble  of  the  mikado's  court;  the  fifth,  a 
hungry  robber  desecrating  the  temple ;  and  a  certain  suggestive  paint- 
ing to  the  left,  in  which  demons  and  a  red-hot  cart,  with  wheels  and 
axles  of  fire,  are  pictured  above  the  robber,  tells  what  is  to  become  of 
him.     In  the  sixth,  a  noble  of  the  mikado's  court  overcomes  and  binds 
the  thunder-god,  or  demon,  through  the  power  of  Kuanon.     In  the 
seventh,  a  woman  is  saved  from  shipwreck  because  she  sung  a  hymn  to 
Kuanon  during  the  tempest.     In  the  eighth,  a  devout  priest,  fearing 
yet  bold,  goes  to  talk  to  Ema,  the  Lord  of  Hell.     The  ninth  repre- 
sents an  old  man,  one  of  the  Hojo  family,  writing  a  prayer -poem. 
The  tenth  represents  a  pious  damsel,  who  worshiped  Kuanon,  never 
killed  any  animals,  and  saved  the  life  of  a  crab  which  a  man  was  go- 
ing to  kill :  afterward,  a  snake,  transforming  itself  into  human  shape, 
came  to  seize  her,  but  a  multitude  of  grateful  crabs  appeared  and  res- 
cued her,  biting  the  reptile  to  death :  this  was  by  the  order  of  Kua- 
non.    In  the  eleventh,  a  devout  worshiper,  by  prayer,  overcomes  and 
kills  a  huge  serpent  that  troubled  the  neighborhood.     In  the  twelfth, 
a  diligent  copyist  of  the  sacred  books  beguiles  his  time  by  rewarding 
little  children  with  cakes  for  bringing  him  pebbles,  for  every  one  of 
which  he  transcribes  a  character.     The  baby  on  the  back  of  the  little 
girl  is  asleep ;  and  the  imitation  of  baby-life  is  wonderful,  and  in  re- 
spect to  one  or  two  details  more  truthful  than  elegant.     In  the  thir- 
teenth, Kuanon,  having  appeared  on  earth  in  female  form,  goes  to 
heaven,  taking  the  picture  of  a  boy,  who  afterward  grows  up  to  be  a 
celebrated  priest.     In  the  fourteenth,  a  pious  woman  falls  from  a  lad- 
der, but  is  unhurt.     In  the  fifteenth,  a  man  suffering  grievously  from 
headache  is  directed  to  the  spot  where  the  skull  which  belonged  to 
his  body  in  a  previous  state  of  existence  is  being  split  open  by  the 
root  of  a  tree  growing  through  the  eye-socket.     On  removing  it,  he  is 
relieved  of  his  headache.     In  the  nineteenth,  a  good  man  vanquishes  a 
robber.    In  the  twentieth,  the  babe  of  a  holy  farmer's  wife,  who  is  out 
at  work,  is  saved  from  a  wolf  by  miraculous  rays  defending  the  child. 
In  the  twenty-first,  Kuanon  appears  to  heal  a  sick  girl  with  a  wand 
and  drops  of  water.     In  the  twenty-second,  a  holy  man  buys  and  sets 


390  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

free  a  tortoise  about  to  be  killed  for  food.  Three  days  afterward  bis 
child  falls  overboard,  and  is  apparently  lost,  but  after  a  while  returns 
safely  on  the  back  of  the  grateful  reptile.  In  the  twenty-fourth,  a  re- 
tainer of  a  noble  is  ordered  to  kill  his  master's  son  for  disobedience  to 
him.  The  servant,  unable,  through  love  of  his  master's  son,  to  do  it, 
kills  his  own  son  instead.  The  tableau  represents  him  mourning  over 
his  son's  gory  head.  His  master's  son,  in  remorse,  became  a  priest. 
In  the  twenty-fifth,  a  good  man  is  saved  from  robbers  by  his  dog.  In 
the  twenty-sixth,  a  man  who  had  his  cargo  of  rice  confiscated  for  his 
refusal  to  give  the  priest  his  share,  repented  of  his  obduracy,  and  re- 
ceived heavenly  evidence  of  his  pardon  in  a  new  cargo  of  rice  sent 
by  Kuanon.  In  the  twenty-seventh,  the  son  of  a  court  noble  breaks 
a  precious  ink-stone.  His  father,  in  a  fit  of  anger,  kills  him.  The 
horrified  attendant  becomes  a  priest.  In  the  twenty-eighth,  a  pious 
recluse  is  saved  from  starvation  by  a  miraculous  leg  of  venison.  In 
the  twenty-ninth,  a  mountain  demon  pursues  an  evil-doer.  In  the 
thirtieth,  a  pious  wood-cutter  hears  heavenly  music,  and  Kuanon  ap- 
pears to  him.  In  the  thirty-first,  a  worshiper  of  Kuanon  is  wounded 
by  robbers,  thrown  into  the  river,  and  is  accidentally  brought  up  in  a 
fisherman's  net.  Having  an  image  of  Kuanon  in  his  bosom,  he  is  re- 
suscitated, and  lives  to  bless  his  preserver.  In  the  thirty-third,  a  mer- 
maid appears  to  a  passer-by,  and  prays  him  to  erect  a  temple  to  Kua- 
non. This  having  been  done,  the  mermaid  is  reborn  into  a  higher 
state  of  existence.  In  the  thirty-fourth,  Kuanon  appears  to  a  traveler. 
The  last  is  a  moving  tableau,  representing  a  court  noble  and  lady. 

Extreme  kindness  to  animals  is  characteristic  of  the  Japanese.  It 
is  the  result  of  the  gentle  doctrines  of  Buddha.  Several  of  the  mira- 
cle-figures teach  the  law  of  kindness  to  brutes.  It  is  sometimes  car- 
ried into  a  sentimentalism  almost  maudlin.  My  jin-riki-sha  puller 
makes  a  detour,  out  of  his  way,  round  a  sleeping  dog  or  bantam, 
when  the  lazy  animal  might  fairly  take  its  chances.  When  a  man 
believes  that  the  soul  of  his  grandfather  may  be  transmigrating 
through  a  cur,  however  mangy,  or  a  chick,  however  skinny,  he  is  not 
going  to  cause  another  metempsychosis  by  murdering  the  brute,  if  he 
can  help  it.  Killing  a  wounded  horse  to  put  him  out  of  misery,  or  in 
useless  old  age,  is  never  practiced,  the  idea  being  too  cruel  to  be  en 
tertained. 


STUDIES  IN  THE  CAPITAL.  391 


STUDIES  m  THE  CAPITAL. 

The  foreigner  who  traces  upon  his  globe  or  map  the  outlines  of  the 
island  empire  of  Japan,  conceives  of  it  as  a  long,  narrow,  insular  strip 
of  land,  stretching  from  north  to  south.  Seeing  that  Yezo  is  in  such 
high,  and  Kiushiu  in  such  low  latitude,  he  thinks  of  Yedo  and  Naga- 
saki as  lying  at  the  two  ends  of  the  magnetic  needle.  To  the  native, 
they  lie  in  the  line  of  the  sun,  the  one  at  its  rising,  the  other  at  its  set- 
ting. The  reason  for  this  conception  of  the  native,  which  is  thus  in 
rectilinear  opposition  to  that  of  the  foreigner,  lies,  not  in  the  supposed 
fact  that  the  Japanese  do  every  thing  in  a  contrary  manner  from  our- 
selves, or  because  the  images  on  his  retina  are  not  reversed  as  on  ours, 
but  because  he  has  a  truer  knowledge  of  his  country's  topography  than 
the  alien.  The  latter  knows  of  Japan  only  as  a  strip  of  land  described 
in  his  dogmatic  text-books,  a  fraction  in  his  artificial  system ;  the  for- 
mer knows  it  as  he  actually  waiks,  by  dwelling  on  its  soil  and  looking 
at  the  sun,  the  lay  of  the  land,  and  the  pole  star.  To  him,  Tokio  lies 
in  the  east,  Choshiu  in  the  west,  Hakodate  in  the  north,  and  Satsuma 
in  the  south. 

The  native  conception  of  locality  in  the  mikado's  empire  is  the 
true  one.  A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  Yezo  and  a  portion  of 
Hondo  lie,  indeed,  inclosed  in  a  narrow  line  drawn  north  and  south. 
Japan  may  be  divided  into  inhabited  and  uninhabited  land,  and  Yezo 
must  fall  within  the  latter  division.  Hence,  only  that  part  above  the 
thirty-sixth  parallel  may  be  called  Northern  Japan.  From  Yedo  to 
Nagasaki  is  the  main  portion  of  the  empire,  in  point  of  historical  im- 
portance, wealth,  and  population.  Between  the  thirty-third  and  thir- 
ty-sixth, or  within  three  parallels  of  latitude,  on  a  belt  a  little  over  two 
hundred  miles  wide,  stretches  from  east  to  west,  for  six  hundred  miles, 
the  best  part  of  Japan. 

Within  this  belt  lies  more  than  a  majority  of  the  largest  cities,  best 
ports,  richest  mines,  densest  centres  of  population,  classic  localities, 
magnificent  temples,  holy  places,  tea  -  plantations,  silk  districts,  rice- 


392  THE  MIKADO'S  El^IPIRE. 

fields,  and  manufactures.  Here,  also,  have  been  developed,  in  times 
past,  the  nation's  greatest  treasures — the  best  blood,  the  commanding 
minds,  and  the  men  that  have  ruled  Japan. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  shifting  of  the  scenes  in  the  drama  of 
Japanese  history.  In  the  most  ancient  times,  the  ablest  men  of  ac- 
tion and  intellect  were  produced  in  Yamato,  or  in  the  Kinai.  In  the 
Middle  Ages,  they  arose  in  the  Kuanto.  At  the  opening  of  modern 
history,  they  sprung  from  the  Tokaido  (Mino,  Owari,  Mikawa).  In 
the  latest  decades,  they  came  from  Kiushiu  and  the  south  (Choshiu, 
Satsuma,  Tosa,  and  Hizen). 

An  inspection  of  the  map  will  show  a  striking  configuration  of  the 
land,  on  the  southern  coast  of  Hondo,  adapting  and  ordaining  it  as 
the  site  for  the  great  bulk  of  the  nation's  intellect,  intelligence,  popu- 
lation, and  wealth.  From  Kadzusa  on  the  extreme  east,  to  Choshiu 
on  the  extreme  west,  are  found  in  succession  a  series  of  bays,  at  the 
head  of  each  of  which  stands  a  large  city.  On  the  first  is  the  city  of 
Tokio  (population,  925,000) ;  on  the  second,  Odawara  (20,000) ;  on 
the  third,  Hamamatsu  (50,000) ;  on  the  fourth,  Nagoya  (400,000) ; 
on  the  fifth,  Ozaka  (600,000) ;  on  the  sixth,  Hiogo  (60,000) ;  on  the 
seventh,  Hiroshima  (100,000);  on  the  eighth,  Shimonoseki  (10,000). 
These  lie  east  and  west  of  each  other.  These  are  and  were  all  flour- 
ishing cities,  but  until  lyeyasu's  time  Yedo  was  but  a  village. 

It  was  a  bold  stroke  of  policy  to  njake  the  obscure  place  the  seat 
of  government.  It  seemed  very  much  to  the  people  of  that  day  and 
country  as  it  would  to  us  were  our  capital  removed  from  Washington 
to  Duluth. 

The  general  shape  of  Tokio  is  that  of  an  egg,  with  the  point  to  the 
south,  the  butt  to  the  north.  The  yolk  of  this  egg  is  the  castle,  or 
O  Shiro,  a  work  of  vast  proportions. 

The  traveler  in  our  land  of  steam,  in  which  men  are  too  few  and 
too  valuable  to  be  machines,  sees  heavy  work  done  by  the  derrick  an.d 
the  engine,  and  can  reckon  to  a  fraction  the  equivalent  for  human 
muscle  stored  up  in  a  pound  of  coal.  Before  the  labor  of  the  mediae- 
val masons,  he  wonders  how  the  pygmies  of  those  days  could  build 
such  stupendous  works  as  astonish  the  tourist  in  Egypt,  India,  As- 
syria, China,  and  Japan,  or  raise  colossal  stones,  or  transport  them  in 
positions  hundreds  of  miles  from  their  home  in  the  quarry. 

Of  architectural  works  in  Japan,  the  torii,  the  yashiki,  and  the  shiro, 
or  castle,  may  be  said  to  be  original  products.  The  pagoda  is  from 
China.     Though  far  beyond  the  structures  of  Egypt  or  India  in  aes- 


STUDIES  IN  THE  CAPITAL.  393 

thetic  merit,  the  Japanese  castles  challenge  wonder  at  their  vast  extent, 
and  the  immense  size  of  the  stones  in  their  walls.  In  the  castle  of 
Ozaka,  built  by  Hideyoshi,  some  of  the  stones  are  forty  feet  long,  ten 
feet  high,  and  several  feet  thick.  In  the  castle  of  Tokio,  in  the  cita- 
del or  highest  point,  the  walls  have  many  stones  sixteen  feet  long,  six 
wide,  and  three  thick.  These  were  brought  from  near  Hiogo,  over 
two  hundred  miles  distant. 

In  Asiatic  countries  labor  is  cheap  and  abundant.  What  the  Amer- 
ican accomplishes  by  an  engine  and  a  ton  of  coal,  the  exponent  of  so 
many  foot-pounds,  or  horse-power,  the  Asiatic  accomplishes  by  thou- 
sands of  human  arms.  A  signal  instance  of  the  quick  triumph  of 
muscle  came  under  my  own  observation  while  in  Tokio. 

A  foreigner  in  the  employ  of  the  Japanese  Government  was  con- 
sulted in  relation  to  the  choice  of  a  site  for  a  model  farm,  and  was 
shown  several  eligible  places,  one  of  which  was  included  within  the 
grounds  of  an  ex-daimio,  which  had  been  left  for  years  to  the  rank 
overgrowth,  which,  together  with  the  larger  trees  and  bushes,  made  the 
soil  so  rooty,  and  the  whole  place  so  unpromising  to  the  foreigner, 
that  he  declared  the  site  was  utterly  unfit ;  that  several  years  would  be 
required  to  bring  it  into  any  thing  like  proper  condition  for  tillage. 
He  then  drove  off  to  examine  another  proposed  site.  But  American 
ways  of  thinking  were,  in  this  case,  at  fault. 

The  Japanese  ofiicer  in  charge  immediately  and  quietly  hired  eight 
hundred  laborers  to  clear  and  smooth  the  land.  They  worked  in  re- 
lays, night  and  day.  In  one  week's  time  he  showed  the  American  "  a 
new  site,"  with  which  he  was  delighted.  It  was  chosen  for  the  model 
farm.  It  was  the  same  site  he  had  first  glanced  at.  The  potential 
energy  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  land,  worthless  as  real  estate,  being  the 
property  of  the  official,  could  be  sold  to  the  Government  for  a  model 
farm  at  the  highest  of  fancy  prices,  paid  out  of  the  national  treasury. 
The  actual  energy  of  eight  hundred  pairs  of  arms  developed  a  wilder- 
ness into  leveled  farm-fields  within  a  week. 

The  yashiki  is  a  product  of  architecture  distinctively  Japanese. 
Its  meaning  is  "  spread-out  house."  It  is  such  a  homogeneous  struct- 
ure that  it  strikes  the  eye  as  having  been  cut  out  of  a  solid  block.  It 
is  usually  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  square,  inclosing  from  ten  thou- 
sand to  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  square  feet  of  ground.  The 
four  sides  of  the  square  within  are  made  up  of  four  rows,  or  four  un- 
broken lines  of  houses.  In  the  centre  are  the  mansions  of  the  daimio 
and  his  ministers.     The  lesser  retainers  occupy  the  long  houses  which 


394  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

form  tlie  sides  of  tlie  square.  The  space  is  filled  up  within  with  gar- 
dens, both  for  use  and  pleasure,  recreation-grounds,  target  walks,  and 
kura,  or  fire-proof  warehouses.  Mito's  grounds  were  of  marvelous 
beauty.  The  yashiki,  on  the  street  front,  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
continuous  house  on  stone  foundations,  with  rows  of  wooden  barred 
or  grated  windows. 

The  cut  represents  an  "  evening  view  "  of  Kasumiya  Street,  a  slope 
between  the  yashiki  of  the  Daimio  of  Ogaki,  in  Mino,  on  the  left,  and 
that  of  Hiroshima,  in  Aki,  on  the  right;  and  of  Sakurada  Avenue. 
Each  of  these  proud  lords,  in  erecting  his  mansion,  found  that  his  ri- 
val was  building  as  high  and  fine  a  stone  foundation  as  he  was.  Aki 
was  determined  to  get  higher  than  Ogaki,  lest  a  fudai's  windows 
should  look  down  on  a  kokushiu's  lattice ;  while  Ogaki  was  bound  to 
"  get  even  "  with  Aki.  The  rival  masonry  might  have  grown  higher, 
had  not  the  shogun  ordered  them  to  desist. 

All  around  the  yashikis  ran  a  ditch,  or  moat,  from  four  to  twelve 
feet  wide,  usually  of  running  water.  Most  of  the  walls  were  faced 
with  square  tiles,  fastened  diagonally,  presenting  the  appearance  of 
thousands  of  black  lozenges,  with  rounded  ridges  of  white  plaster 
about  three  inches  high.  To  break  the  monotony  of  the  street  front, 
there  was  one  great  roofed  gate,  for  the  lord  and  master,  flanked  with 
porters'  lodges,  and  a  smaller  one,  or  postern,  on  another  side,  for  serv- 
ants and  retainers.  It  was  a  very  important  point  of  etiquette  as  to 
who  should  or  should  not  enter  through  the  main  gate.  On  no  ac- 
count would  any  one,  unless  of  very  high  rank,  be  admitted  in  a  ve- 
hicle of  any  sort.  At  a  certain  gate,  called  Gejo,  leading  to  the  hon 
maru,  or  citadel  of  the  Yedo  castle,  all  daimios  were  obliged  to  dis- 
mount from  their  palanquins  and  walk.  The  abbot  of  the  temple  of 
Zozoji,  at  Shiba,  as  a  mark  of  high  rank,  could  enter  in  a  palanquin. 
Such  a  privilege  was  equal  to  a  patent  of  nobility. 

The  castle-moats,  on  varying  levels,  to  make  a  current  and  prevent 
stagnation,  were  supplied  with  water  brought  in  stone-lined  aqueducts 
from  the  Tonegawa,  nine  miles  distant.  In  the  moats  it  varied  from 
four  to  twelve  feet  in  depth.  The  scarp  and  counter-scarp  were  faced 
with  stone,  and  where  the  castle  was  on  high  ground  the  sloping  em- 
bankments were  sodded,  the  water  flowing  scores  of  feet  below.  In 
the  shallow  parts,  lotus-flowers  grew  luxuriantly  in  summer,  and  in 
winter  thousands  of  water-fowl,  ducks,  geese,  storks,  and  herons  made 
it  their  secure  home,  the  people  never  harming  them — a  statement  al- 
most incredible  to  a  foreign  sportsman.     A  number  of  the  shogun's 


STUDIES  IN  THE  CAPITAL.  397 

swans  added  grace  and  beauty  to  the  peaceful  scene.  It  was  forbid- 
den to  fire  a  gun  within  five  ri  of  the  castle.  I  wondered  how  for- 
eign sportsmen  could  resist  the  temptation. 

Let  the  reader  imagine  a  space  of  several  miles  square  covered  with 
yashikis.  To  walk  through  the  streets  inside  the  castle  enceinte  was 
a  monotonous  and  gloomy  task.  There  was  nothing  to  break  the  dull 
uniformity  of  black  or  white  tiles  and  windows,  except  here  and  there 
a  sworded  samurai  or  a  procession.  Occasional  variety  was  obtained 
in  a  very  large  yashiki  by  erecting  a  wall  around  the  entire  inclosure, 
and  building  the  houses  inside.  This  made  the  monotony  worse, 
since  the  eye  had  no  relief  in  looking  at  windows,  in  which,  perchance, 
might  be  a  pot  of  flowers,  or  peeping  eyes.  It  scarcely  added  to  the 
cheerfulness  to  meet  no  common  folk,  but  only  proud  and  pompous 
men  with  two  swords,  the  mark  of  the  Japanese  gentleman  of  feudal 
days. 

The  winter  head-dress  of  the  Japanese  of  both  sexes  is  a  black 
cloth  cap,  fitting  close  to  the  skull,  with  long  flaps,  which  were  tied 
around  over  the  neck,  mouth,  and  nose,  exposing  only  the  eyes.  The 
wearing  of  this  cap  made  a  most  remarkable  difference,  according  to 
sex.  The  male  looked  fiendishly  malignant,  like  a  Spanish  brigand, 
the  effect  of  two  scowling  eyes  being  increased  by  the  two  swords  at 
his  belt.  The  phrase  "  he  looked  daggers  at  me  "  had  a  new  signif- 
icance. "With  the  women,  however,  the  effect  was  the  reverse.  A 
plump,  well-wrapped  form  lost  no  comeliness ;  and  when  one  saw  two 
sparkling  eyes  and  a  suggestion  of  rosy  cheeks,  the  imagination  was 
willing  to  body  forth  the  full  oval  of  the  Japanese  beauty. 

A  dinner  given  in  my  honor  by  the  ex-prince  of  Echizen,  in  his  own 
yashiki,  enabled  me  to  see  in  detail  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  this 
style  of  mansion.  Like  all  the  large  clans  and  kokushiu  daimios, 
Echizen  had  three  yashikis — the  Superior,  Middle,  and  Inferior.  In 
the  second  lived  the  ordinary  clansmen,  while  to  the  third  the  serv- 
ants and  lower  grade  of  samurai  are  assigned.  Some  of  these  yashi- 
kis covered  many  acres  of  ground ;  and  the  mansions  of  the  Go  Sanke 
families  and  the  great  clans  of  Satsuma,  Kaga,  Choshiu,  and  Chikuzen 
are  known  at  once  upon  the  map  by  their  immense  size  and  com- 
manding positions.  Within  their  grounds  are  groves,  shrines,  culti- 
vated gardens,  fish-ponds,  hillocks,  and  artificial  landscapes  of  unique 
and  surpassing  beauty.  The  lord  of  the  mansion  dwelt  in  a  central 
building,  approached  from  the  great  gate  by  a  wide  stone  path  and 
grand  portico  of  keyaki-wood.     Long,  wide  corridors,  laid  with  soft 

26 


398  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

mats,  led  to  the  master's  chamber.  All  the  wood-work,  except  certain 
portions,  stood  in  virgin  grain  like  watered  silk,  except  where  relieved 
here  and  there  by  a  hard  gleam  of  black  lacquer-like  enamel.  The 
walls,  gorgeously  papered  with  gold,  silver,  or  fanciful  and  colored 
designs,  characteristic  of  Japanese  art — among  which  the  pine,  plum, 
and  cherry  tree,  the  bamboo,  lily,  the  stork,  tortoise,  and  lion,  or  fans, 
were  the  favorites.  The  sliding  doors,  or  partitions,  of  which  three 
sides  of  a  Japanese  room  is  composed,  were  decorated  with  paintings. 
Some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Japanese  art  I  ever  saw  were  in  the 
yashikis  of  Tokio. 

The  plan  of  the  city  of  Yedo,  conceived  by  lyeyasu,  was  simply 
that  of  a  great  camp.  This  one  idea  explains  its  centre,  divisions,  and 
relations.  In  the  heart  of  this  vast  encampment  was  the  general's 
head-quarters — a  well-nigh  impregnable  castle.  On  the  most  eligible 
and  commanding  sites  were  the  tents  of  his  chief  satraps.  These 
tents  were  yashikis.  The  architectural  prototype  of  a  yashiki  is  a 
Japanese  tent.  In  time  of  war,  the  general's  head-quarters  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  roofless  curtain  of  wide  breadths  of  canvas  stretched 
perpendicularly  on  posts,  presenting  a  square  front  like  a  wall  outside, 
and  a  roomy  area  within,  having  in  its  centre  the  general's  tent.  In 
place  of  this  tent  put  a  house ;  instead  of  the  canvas  stretch  continu- 
ous long  houses,  forming  a  hollow  square  inclosing  the  mansion,  and 
you  have  the  yashiki.  Shallow  observers — foreigners,  of  course — 
on  first  seeing  these  stretched  canvas  screens,  supposed  they  were 
"  forts,"  and  the  crests  (mon)  of  the  general,  "  port  -  holes  "  for  can- 
non !  Yedo,  the  camp  city  of  the  East,  was  full  of  these  tents,  am- 
plified and  made  permanent  in  wood  and  stone. 

These  edifices  made  the  glory  of  old  Yedo,  but  Tokio  sees  fewer 
year  by  year  and  fire  by  fire.  They  were  the  growth  of  the  necessi- 
ties of  feudalism.  The  new  age  of  Japan  does  not  need  them,  and 
the  next  decade,  that  shall  see  thousands  swept  away,  will  see  none 
rebuilt ;  and  the  traveler  will  look  upon  a  yashiki  as  one  of  the  many 
curiosities  of  Old  Japan.  Yedo  was  the  city  of  the  Tokugawas,  and 
the  camp  of  clans.  Its  architectural  products  sprung  from  the  soil  of 
feudalism.  Tokio  is  the  national  capital,  the  city  of  the  mikado,  an4 
its  edifices  are  at  once  the  exponents  of  modern  necessities  and  en- 
lightened nationality. 


AMONG   THE  MEN  OF  NEW  JAPAN.  399 


VI. 

AMONG   THE  MEN  OF  NEW  JAPAN. 

I  SPENT  from  January  3d  to  February  16th,  1871,  in  the  new  capi- 
tal of  Japan,  visiting  the  famous  places  in  the  city  and  suburbs,  seeing 
the  wonderful  sights,  and  endeavoring  by  study  and  questioning  to 
reduce  to  order  the  myriad  impressions  that  were  made  upon  all  my 
senses  like  a  mimic  cannonade.  During  two  weeks  I  taught  as  a  vol- 
unteer in  the  Imperial  College.  At  the  house  of  the  superintendent  I 
met  many  of  the  officials  in  the  educational  and  other  departments, 
learning  their  ideas  and  methods  of  thinking  and  seeing.  Among  my 
novel  employments  was,  upon  one  occasion,  the  searching  of  Wheaton's 
and  other  works  on  international  law  for  rules  and  precedents  cover- 
ing an  imminent  case  of  hostilities  in  Yokohama  harbor.  The  captain 
of  a  French  man-of-war,  resurrecting  one  of  the  exploded  regulations 
of  the  republic  of  1795,  was  threatening  to  seize  a  German  merchant 
ship,  which  had  been  sold  to  the  Japanese,  and  the  officials  of  the 
Foreign  Office  had  come  to  their  long-trusted  American  friend  for  ad- 
\dce  and  the  law's  precedents.  It  came  to  nothing,  however.  No  seiz- 
ure was  made,  nor  hostile  gun  fired.  The  furore  of  traveling  abroad  was 
then  at  fever-heat,  and  thousands  of  young  men  hoped  to  be  sent  to 
study  abroad,  at  government  expense,  where  tens  only  could  be  chosen. 
I  made  a  call  on  Terashima  Munenori,  the  Vice-minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  then  in  Tsukiji :  presenting  letters  from  Mr.  Hatakeyama  Yo- 
shinari,  I  was  received  very  kindly.  Iwakura  (to  whom  I  bore  letters 
from  his  son)  and  Mr.  Okubo  at  that  time  were  on  an  important 
political  mission  to  Satsuma,  Choshiu,  and  Tosa,  sent  thither  by  the 
mikado.  The  ex-Prince  of  Echizen  gave  an  entertainment  in  my  hon- 
or at  his  mansion.  The  daimios  of  Uwajima  and  Akadzuki,  and  sev- 
eral of  their  karos  (ministers),  were  present  at  the  dinner.  He  present 
ed  me  with  his  photograph,  with  some  verses,  of  the  making  of  which 
he  was  very  fond.  Mr.  Arinori  Mori,  a  young  samurai  of  the  Satsuma 
clan,  and  a  great  friend  of  Iwakura,  called  to  see  me,  and  received  let- 
ters of  introduction  to  my  friends  in  America.     He  was  then  in  na- 


400  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

tive  dress,  wearing  the  traditional  two  swords,  the  abolition  of  which 
he  had  in  vain  advocated  some  months  before.  He  had  just  received 
his  appointment  as  charge  d'affaires  of  Japan  in  the  United  States. 
Messrs.  Mori,  and  Sameshima  —  since  charge  d'affaires  at  Paris,  now 
(1876)  Vice-minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  Tokio — stood  so  high  in  the 
confidence  of  Iwakura  that  they  were  dubbed,  in  the  political  slang 
of  the  capital,  "  the  legs  of  Iwakura."  Mr,  Katsti  Awa,  though  absent 
in  Shidzuoka,  sent  me  a  very  pleasant  letter  of  welcome  to  Japan.  I 
enjoyed  a  delightful  call  on  Mr.  Kanda,  the  ex-President  or  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Assembly,  in  which  Mr.  Mori  had  argued  reforms, 
the  second  deliberative  body  that  had  been  called  into  existence,  ac- 
cording to  the  oath  of  the  mikado  in  Kioto,  in  1868,  that  representa- 
tive institutions  should  be  formed.  I  found  Mr.  Kanda  a  student  of 
English  and  American  literature,  and  an  earnest  thinker.  His  son,  a 
bright  lad,  was  to  accompany  Mr.  Mori  to  America.  I  also  met  a  num- 
ber of  the  prominent  and  rising  men  of  the  country,  especially  those 
who  had  been  active  in  the  late  revolution.  The  mikado  was  begin- 
ning to  ride  out  in  public  ;  and  I  saw  at  various  times  a  number  of  the 
kuge,  both  ladies  and  gentlemen,  in  their  ancient,  gorgeous  costumes, 
with  their  retainers  and  insignia,  I  witnessed,  also,  a  grand  review  of 
the  imperial  army,  a  wrestling -match,  exhibitions  of  acrobatics  and 
jugglery,  theatrical  performances,  and  many  things  in  the  political, 
social,  and  military  world  that  will  never  again  be  seen  in  Japan.  I 
visited  the  first  hospital  opened  in  Tokio,  by  Matsumoto,  and  the  ex- 
cellent school  of  Fukuzawa,  rival  of  the  Imperial  College.  None  of 
the  large  modern  buildings  in  European  style,  which  now  adorn  the 
city,  were  then  built.     The  city  was  then  more  Yedo  than  Tokio. 

I  repeatedly  visited  Oji,  so  often  described  by  Oliphant  and  others ; 
Meguro,  near  which  are  the  graves  of  the  lovers,  "Gompachi  and 
Komurasaki ;"  Takanawa,  the  Mecca  of  Japanese  loyalty,  where  are 
the  tombs  and  statues  of  the  forty -seven  renins,  and  of  their  lord, 
whom  they  died  to  avenge ;  Kame  Ido,  the  memorial  of  the  deified 
martyr,  Sugawara  Michizane  ;  Shiba,  Uyeno,  Mukojima,  and  the  places 
so  well  known  to  residents  and  tourists,  the  sight  of  which  but  added 
zest  to  an  appetite  for  seeing  all  that  is  dear  to  a  Japanese,  which  a 
residence  of  years  failed  to  cloy.  I  was  several  times  at  Zempukuji 
(Temple  of  Peace  and  Happiness),  one  of  the  oldest  shrines  of  the 
Shin  sect  of  Buddhists,  founded  by  Shinran  himself,  who  with  his 
own  hands  planted  the  wonderful  old  jinko-tree,  which  still  flourishes. 
Within  the  temple  grounds  were  the  buildings  of  the  legation  of  the 


AMONO   THE  ME.V  OF  A^EW  JAPAN.  401 

United  States  of  America.  Here  had  dwelt  successively  Ministers 
Townsend  Harris,  Robert  H.  Pruyn,  and  General  Van  Valkenbergh. 
United  States  Vice-consul  C.  0.  Shepherd  was  then  occupying  the 
premises.  I  noticed  a  somewhat  dusty  portrait  of  Franklin  Pierce 
hung  on  the  walls  of  one  of  the  inner  empty  rooms.  The  one  bright 
oasis  spot  during  his  barren  administration  was  the  success  of  Perry's 
mission,  and  the  opening  of  Japan  to  the  world.  The  glory  of  the 
great  United  States  had  been  here  maintained,  by  its  Government 
never  paying  any  rent  for  its  tenantry  of  buildings,  and  by  extorting 
"indemnities"  for  every  accidental  fire,  for  every  provoked  injury, 
and  even  for  every  man  killed  in  the  open  and  active  hostilities  of 
war,  and  in  joining  the  governments  of  Europe  in  keeping  the  feeble 
empire  crushed  under  diplomacy,  backed  by  ships  and  cannon. 

One  of  the  most  important  persons  for  me  was  a  good  interpreter. 
A  tongue  was  more  than  a  right  arm.  To  procure  one  of  first-rate 
abilities  was  difficult.  When  the  embassy,  sent  out  by  the  ill-starred 
li  Kamon  no  kami,  visited  Philadelphia,  I  had  frequently  seen  a  lively 
young  man  whom  every  one  called  "  Tommy,"  who  had  made  a  de- 
cidedly pleasant  impression  upon  the  ladies  and  the  Americans  gen- 
erally. "  Tommy  "  was  at  this  time  in  Tokio.  The  Echizen  officers 
went  to  him  and  asked  him  to  accept  the  position  of  interpreter,  at  a 
salary  of  one  thousand  dollars,  gold,  per  annum.  This  was  tempting 
pay  to  a  Japanese ;  but  the  foreignized  Tommy  preferred  metropolitan 
life,  and  the  prospect  of  official  promotion,  to  regular  duties  in  an  in- 
terior province.  They  then  sought  among  the  corps  of  interpreters  in 
the  Imperial  College.  The  choice  fell  upon  Iwabuchi  (rock -edge), 
who,  fortunately  for  me,  accepted,  and  we  were  introduced.  This 
gentleman  was  about  twenty  years  old,  with  broad,  high  forehead,  lux- 
uriant hair  cut  in  foreign  style,  keen,  dancing  black  eyes,  and  blushing 
face.  He  was  a  ronin  samurai  of  secondary  rank,  and  rather  well  edu- 
cated. His  father  had  been  a  writing-master  in  Sakura,  Shimosa,  and 
Iwabuchi  was  an  elegant  writer.  He  wore  but  one  sword.  He  was 
of  delicate  frame,  his  face  lighted  by  intellect,  softened  by  his  habitual 
meekness,  but  prevented  by  a  trace  of  slyness  from  being  noble.  He 
seemed  the  very  type  of  a  Japanese  gentleman  of  letters.  He  was  as 
gentle  as  a  lady.  In  his  checkered  experience  at  Hakodate  and  other 
cities,  he  had  brushed  against  the  Briton,  the  Yankee,  the  French- 
man, and  the  Russian.  At  first  shy  and  retiring,  he  warmed  into 
friendship.  In  his  merry  moods  he  would  astonish  me  by  humming 
familiar  tunes,  and  recall  a  whole  chapter  of  home  memories  by  sing' 


402  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE, 

ing  snatches  of  American  college  and  street  songs.  In  his  angry 
moods,  when  American  steel  struck  Japanese  flint,  his  eyes  would 
snap  fire  and  his  frame  quiver.  For  over  a  year  Iwabuchi  was  inval- 
uable to  me,  until  my  own  articulation  became  bi-lingual ;  but  from 
first  to  last,  notwithstanding  occasional  friction,  arising  from  the  dif- 
ference in  American  and  Japanese  psychology,  we  continued,  and  re- 
main, fast  friends. 

My  business  with  the  oflBcers  of  the  Echizen  clan  was  finished.  I 
was  engaged  to  teach  the  physical  sciences  in  the  city  of  Fukui,  the 
capital  of  the  province,  two  hundred  miles  west  of  Tokio,  and  twelve 
miles  from  the  Sea  of  Japan.  In  accordance  with  custom  observed 
])etween  foreigners  and  Japanese,  we  made  a  contract,  which,  after 
passing  the  inspection  and  receiving  the  approval  of  the  Guai  Mu  Sho 
(Office  of  Foreign  Affairs),  was  written  out  in  duplicate  in  imposing 
Chinese  characters,  and  in  plain  English.  I  agreed  to  teach  chemistry 
and  physics  for  the  space  of  three  years,  and  "  not  to  enter  into  any 
trading  operations  with  native  merchants."  The  insertion  of  a  comic 
clause,  very  funny  indeed  to  the  American,  but  quite  justifiable  by 
the  bitter  experience  of  the  Japanese,  was,  that  the  teacher  must  not 
get  drunk. 

They,  on  their  side,  agreed  to  pay  my  salary ;  to  build  me  a  house 
after  the  European  style ;  and  after  three  years  to  return  me  safely  to 
Yokohama ;  to  hand  my  corpse  over  to  the  United  States  Consul  if  I 
should  die,  or  carry  me  to  him  should  I  be  disabled  through  sickness. 
Nothing  was  said  concerning  religion  in  any  reference  whatever,  but 
perfect  freedom  from  all  duties  whatsoever  was  guaranteed  me  on  Sun- 
days ;  and  I  had  absolute  liberty  to  speak,  teach,  or  do  as  I  pleased  in 
my  own  house. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  extreme  jealousy  with  which  the  mikado's 
ministers  guarded  the  supremacy  of  the  national  government,  the  first 
draft  of  the  contract,  made  by  myself,  was  rejected  by  the  Foreign  Of- 
fice because  I  had  written  "  the  government  of  Fukui,"  instead  of  the 
"  local  authorities,"  a  correction  which  appeared  in  the  final  docu- 
ments. 

I  made  the  acquaintance  of  several  of  the  daimios,  and  many  re- 
tainers of  various  clans.  A  Fukui  samurai,  whom  I  shall  call  Daremo, 
and  who  knew  to  a  rung  the  exact  status  of  every  one  on  the  social 
ladder,  always  informed  me  as  to  the  rank  of  the  various  personages 
whom  I  met  as  host  or  guest.  I  bought  the  latest  copy  of  the  Bu 
Kuan  (Mirror  of  the  Military  Families),  which  he  explained  and  trans- 


AMONG   THE  MEN  OF  NEW  JAPAN.  403 

lated  for  me.  In  discussing  each  one,  his  nose  rose  and  fell  with  the 
figures  before  him.  "That  gentleman  is  only  a  karo  of  a  10,000  koku 
daimio."  "  This  is  himself,  a  f udai  daimio  of  1 5,000  koku."  With 
profound  indiflEerence,  I  would  be  informed  that  the  person  who  called 
on  me  to  inquire  after  his  brother  in  New  York  was  "  merely  a  samu- 
rai of  a  30,000  koku  clan."  That  gentleman  whose  politeness  so  im- 
pressed me  was  "  a  hatamoto  of  800  koku ;  but  he  was  very  poor  since 
the  restoration."  Daremo's  congratulations  were  showered  thick  and 
fast  when  I  dined  with  the  kokushiu  Echizen  (360,000  koku),  and 
Uwajima  (100,000  koku),  with  five  or  six  karos.  He  also  translated 
for  me  the  letters  I  received  from  distinguished  Japanese  officers. 
With  the  aid  of  the  £u  Kuan  and  Daremo,  I  was  soon  able  to  dis- 
tinguish many  of  the  rising  and  falling  men  of  Japan. 

I  had  seen  the  great  objects  of  interest  to  a  tourist.  I  had  feasted 
my  eyes  on  novelty  and  a  new  life,  yet  the  freshness  of  continual  glad 
surprise  was  not  yet  lost.  I  had  seen  the  old  glory  of  Yedo  in  ruins, 
and  the  new  national  life  of  Japan  emerging  from  Tokio  in  chaos.  I 
had  stood  face  to  face  with  paganism  for  the  first  time.  I  had  felt 
the  heart  of  Japan  pulsing  with  new  life,  and  had  seen  her  youth 
drinking  at  the  fountains  of  Western  science.  I  had  tasted  the  hospi- 
tality of  one  of  the  "  beginners  of  a  better  time."  I  had  learned  the 
power  of  the  keen  sword.  For  the  first  time  I  had  experience  of  pa- 
ganism, feudalism,  earthquakes,  Asiatic  life  and  morality.  I  had  seen 
how  long  contact  with  heathen  life  and  circumstances  slowly  disinte- 
grates the  granite  principles  of  eternal  right,  once  held  by  men  reared 
in  a  more  bracing  moral  atmosphere.  I  met  scores  of  white  men, 
from  Old  and  New  England,  who  had  long  since  forgotten  the  differ- 
ence between  right  and  wrong.  I  had  seen  also  the  surface  of  Japan. 
I  was  glad  to  go  into  the  interior.  I  bid  good-bye  to  Tokio,  and 
went  to  Yokohama  to  take  the  steamer  to  Kobe,  whence  I  should  go, 
via  Lake  Biwa,  and  over  the  mountains  to  the  city  of  the  Well  of 
Blessing,  Fukui. 

Our  party  made  rendezvous  at  a  native  hotel.  It  was  to  be  both  my 
escort  and  following.  The  former  consisted  of  my  interpreter,  Iwa- 
buchi,  one  of  the  teachers  of  English  in  the  university ;  Nakamura,  the 
soldier-guard,  who  had  fought  in  the  late  civil  war ;  and  the  treasurer, 
Emori,  a  polished  gentleman,  and  shrewd  man  of  the  Japanese  world. 
There  were  two  servants,  and,  with  my  own  cook  and  his  wife,  we 
made  up  a  party  of  eight  persons,  with  as  many  characters  and  dispo- 
sitions as  faces.     The  ship  to  take  us  to  Kobe  was  one  of  the  fine 


404 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


steamers  of  the  Pacific  Mail  Company's  fleet,  tlie  Oregonian.  As  sev- 
eral days  would  elapse  before  her  departure,  I  made  a  visit  to  Kanaza- 
wa,  Kamakura,  Enoshima,  and  Fujisawa,  with  Nakamura,  and  an  Amer- 
ican friend  who  spoke  Japanese  fluently.  That  visit  was  afterward  re- 
peated many  times.  Every  spot  made  famous  by  Yoritomo,  Yoshit- 
sune,  Semman  and  Kugio,  the  Hojo,  Nitta  Yoshisada,  Nichiren,  and  the 
Ashikaga,  was  seen  over  and  over  again,  until  the  life  of  old  Japan 
became  as  vivid  to  me  as  the  thrilling  scenes  of  our  own  late  war. 
Besides  the  architectural  remains  of  these  classic  places,  is  a  rich  mu- 
seum of  armor,  weapons,  and  other  mediaeval  antiquities  in  the  temple 
on  Tsuruga-oka,  in  Kamakura. 

On  our  ride  back,  Fuji,  all  in  white,  loomed  up  grandly.  A  flurry 
of  snow  added  to  its  beauty.  In  such  a  snow-shower  the  artist  must 
have  made  the  spirited  sketch  here  reproduced.  Snow  rarely  falls  on 
the  Tokaido  to  a  depth  greater  than  two  inches,  and  usually  neither 
hoof  nor  sandal,  as  in  the  cut,  sinks  beneath  its  level.  The  Japanese, 
however,  make  a  great  fuss  over  a  little  cold.  They  go  about  with 
their  hands  in  their  sleeves,  which  stick  out  like  the  wings  of  a  trussed 
turkey,  repeating  ^^ samui,  samui"  (cold,  cold),  until  it  loses  all  origi- 
nality. 


Travelers  on  the  Tokaido  in  a  Snow-storm.    Fuji  san. 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  JAFAK  405 


VII. 

IN  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN. 

The  weather  was  rough  as  we  embarked,  late  in  the  afternoon  of 
February  22d,  on  the  Oregonian,  and  steamed  down  the  Bay  of  Yedo. 
At  night,  the  fixed  white  Hght  in  the  stone  tower  on  Cape  Idzu,  visi- 
ble twenty  miles,  reminded  us  of  the  new  order  of  things.  Of  old  a 
wood-fire  blazed  on  the  promontory.  The  iV«7  did  not  yet  know  the 
fate  to  befall  her.* 

The  next  day  was  foggy,  and  mal  de  mer  held  high  revel  among 
the  passengers.  The  Oregonian  was  true  to  the  reputation  of  its 
namesake  given  by  Bryant — "  where  rolls  the  mighty  Oregon."  My 
own  thoughts  were  less  poetic.  My  feelings  are  best  described  by 
the  Japanese  proverb,  "A  sea-voyage  is  an  inch  of  hell." 

About  midnight  we  rounded  the  promontory  of  Kii,  where  Jimmu 
passed  centuries  ago.  Its  splendid  light-house,  on  a  promontory  one 
hundred  and  thirty  feet  high,  on  O  Island,  holds  a  revolving  white 
light,  alternately  flashing  and  being  eclipsed  during  every  minute.  O 
is  a  good  harbor  for  wind-bound  junks,  and  the  fishermen  here  are 
noted  whalers,  hunting  whales  successfully  with  nets  and  spears.  The 
light  on  Cape  Shiwo,  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  feet  above  water,  may 
be  seen  for  twenty  miles.  Ships  from  China  make  this  point  night  or 
day. 

The  three  oflicers  of  our  party  had  been  empowered  to  take  cabin 
passage  with  their  foreign  charge ;  but  such  a  foolish  waste  of  money 
was  not  to  be  thought  of.  To  pay  forty  dollars  for  forty-eight  hours, 
and  three  hundred  and  forty-two  geographical  miles  of  nausea  in  a 
state-room,  was  not  according  to  their  ideas  of  happiness.     Far  better 

*  On  the  night  of  the  20th  of  March,  1874,  at  10.30  p.m.,  the  French  M.  M. 
steamer  Nil,  having  on  board  one  hundred  and  eleven  persons,  and  the  Japanese 
articles  on  exhibition  at  Vienna,  her  engines  being  out  of  order,  and  the  currents 
unusuaUj  strong,  lost  her  reckoning,  struck  a  rock  near  the  village  of  Irima,  in 
Toshida  Bay,  ten  miles  from  Cape  Idzu,  and  sunk  in  twenty-one  fathoms.  Only 
four  persons  were  saved.  A  marble  monument  was  erected,  and  now  commemo- 
rates the  accident,  which  was  robbed  of  many  of  its  saddest  features  by  the  kind- 
ness and  energy  of  the  natives. 


406  THE  3IIK ADO'S  EMPIRE. 

to  take  the  steerage,  save  the  money,  and  have  a  feast,  dance,  and  song 
with  the  gay  and  charming  singing-girls  of  Ozaka.  So  to  the  steer- 
age they  went,  and  solaced  their  transient  misery  with  visions  of  the 
Ozaka  paradise  and  the  black-eyed  houris.  They  suffered  "  an  inch 
of  hell "  for  a  yard  of  heaven. 

I  woke  on  the  second  morning  in  the  harbor  of  Hiogo  and  Kobe 
(the  Gate  of  God),  the  former  the  native  city,  the  latter  the  foreign 
town.  All  around  the  land-locked  water  were  bold  walls  of  green 
hills.  French,  English,  and  American  ships  of  war  lay  at  anchor,  and 
the  clumsy  junks,  with  their  great,  broad  sails,  plowed  across  the  path 
of  the  dancing  sunbeams.  Native  fishing  and  carriage  boats  were 
leaping  over  the  waters,  urged  on  by  the  stroke  of  the  naked  scullers. 
On  shore,  glorified  by  the  mild  winter's  sun,  rose  the  "  model  settle- 
ment," a  fresh  proof  of  Occidental  energy  on  Oriental  soil.  Until 
1868,  the  site  of  the  pretty  town,  laid  out  in  chess-board  regularity, 
was  a  mere  strip  of  sand.* 

Under  convoy  of  Iwabuchi  and  an  American  friend,  to  Avhom  I 
bore  letters,  I  spent  a  day  and  a  half  in  Kobe  and  Hiogo.  The  latter 
city  was  erected  in  the  days  of  Taira  glory.  Its  name  means  "  arse- 
nal," but  peaceful  trade  now  rules  its  streets.  Near  it  stands  Kiyo- 
mori's  tomb.  On  the  site  of  the  Taira  palace  stands  a  great  brothel. 
At  Minato  gawa,  near  Kobe,  Kusunoki  Masashige,  the  mirror  of  Jap- 
anese loyalty,  welcomed  death.  A  small  temple  stands  as  a  historic 
monument  of  the  act,  dedicated  to  his  spirit. 

In  the  cheerful  home  of  an  American  missionary,  to  whom  I  bore 
letters,  I  spent  a  few  delightful  hours.  They  seemed  to  have  brought 
the  freshness  and  fragrance  of  New  England  hills,  as  well  as  the  ener- 
gy and  patience  of  their  ancestors,  with  them.  The  time  for  active 
Christian  labor  had  not  yet  come ;  but  the  language  was  being  mas- 
tered, and  his  morning  hours  were  golden  in  the  study.  In  the  aft- 
ernoon, we  together  visited  a  famous  temple,  on  the  site  of  one  first 
erected  by  Jingu  Kogo,  on  her  return  from  Corea.  Crowds  of  pil- 
grims, in  white  robes,  with  wallet,  staff,  rosary,  bell,  and  memorial  shell 
sewed  to  their  sleeve,  were  on  the  route  or  return.  We  spent  the 
evening  at  the  house  of  one  of  the  merchant  princes  of  Kobe,  in 
whose  establishment  Oriental  luxuriance  and  American  taste,  barbaric 
pomp  and  cozy  comfort,  were  combined. 


*  The  figures  of  the  ofllcial  register  of  Kobe  (May,  1874)  are:   houses,  3846; 
population, 8554;  foreign  residents,  333 ;  in  the  foreign  "concession,"  67 houses. 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN. 


407 


Our  party  were  early  on  the  steamboat,  which  carried  the  Stars  and 
Stripes  at  her  stern,  and  was  commanded  by  a  Yankee  captain.  It 
was  crowded  with  natives,  who  rode  for  ichi  bu  (twenty-five  cents). 
The  five  or  six  foreigners  in  the  cabin  paid  each  two  "  clean  Mexi- 
cans." These  silver  eagles  are  the  standard  of  value  in  Japan  and 
China,  though  Uncle  Sam's  trade-dollars  and  Japanese  gold  yeyi  are 
now  contesting  their  supremacy. 

We  steamed  along  the  coast  for  three  hours ;  passed  the  forts  built 
in  1855,  and  well  mounted  and  manned ;  passed  the  light-house  of 
Tempozan  (Hill  of  Heavenly  Peace),  and  at  noon,  February  25th,  1871, 
I  stood  in  the  city  called,  in  poetry,  Naniwa — in  prose,  Ozaka. 


Buddhist  Piljrrims. 


All  the  large  daimios  formerly  had  yashikis  in  Yedo,  Ozaka,  and 
in  Kioto,  as  well  as  in  their  own  capitals,  for  the  use  of  the  clan. 
They  served  as  caravansaries,  at  which  the  lord  or  his  retainers  might 
lodge,  when  on  business  or  travel,  and  be  treated  according  to  their 
rank.  But  one  or  two  samurai  and  their  families  occupied  the  Echi- 
zen  yashiki  in  Ozaka,  which  could  lodge  a  hundred  or  more  men,  A 
suite  of  rooms  was  soon  swept  and  dusted  out,  rugs  laid  on  the  mat- 
ting, and  dinner,  in  mixed  Japanese  and  American  style,  was  served. 

Ozaka  is  a  gay  city,  with  lively  people,  and  plenty  of  means  of 
amusement,  especially  theatres  and  singing  -  girls.      The  ladies  are 


408  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

handsomer,  dress  in  better  taste,  tie  their  girdles  in  a  style  nearer  per- 
fection, and  build  coifEures  that  are  at  once  the  envy  and  despair  of 
Tokio  damsels.     Ozaka  has  every  sort  of  gay  life.     In  all  the  large 

cities  there  are  geisha,  noted 
for  their  wit,  beauty,  skill  in 
playing  the  three-stringed  ban- 
jo. The  daughters  of  Kioto 
and  Tokio  do  excellently,  but 
those  of  Ozaka  excel  them  all. 
Ozaka  is  also  the  greatest 
commercial  city  in  Japan.  I 
was  interested  in  the  metal  re- 
fineries and  foundries,  where 
The  Shmisen.  the  rosy  copper  ingots  were 

cast,  and  brass  cannon  of  elegant  workmanship  turned  out.  With 
Iwabuchi  as  guide,  I  rambled  over  the  city,  and  stood  on  many  a 
spot  made  classic  by  Nobunaga,  Hideyoshi,  and  lyeyasu.  Iwabuchi's 
fluent  tongue  and  knowledge  of  history  were  as  spectacles  to  me,  en- 
abling me  to  see  the  past  as  he  summoned  it  from  resurrection. 

An  ofiicer  from  Fukui  brought  us  word,  February  27th,  that  we 
were  to  leave  Ozaka  that  night,  and  that  at  Fushimi  an  honorary  es- 
cort of  seven  mounted  officers  of  the  clan  would  meet  me,  they  hav- 
ing come  down  from  Fukui,  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles,  to  escort 
me.  We  were  to  proceed  up  the  Yodo,  the  river  that  drains  six  prov- 
inces, visit  the  temple  of  Hachiman  or  Ojin  Tenno,  dine  in  historic 
Fushimi,  and  thence  proceed  on  horseback  to  Lake  Biwa.  The  mor- 
row was  to  be  a  red-letter  day. 

We  left  Ozaka  at  night,  about  ten  o'clock.  It  was  very  cold,  and 
bright  moonlight,  but  the  boat  was  a  "  house-boat,"  and  the  cabin  with- 
in was  neatly  matted,  and  with  rugs  and  hibachi  we  kept  up  a  genial 
temperature  until  bed-time.  We  passed  hundreds  of  boats  like  our 
own,  and  after  making  our  way  through  the  city,  that  might  be  a 
Venice  if  it  were  not  wooden,  passed  the  long  rows  of  fire-proof  store- 
houses, and  gradually  emerged  into  the  country,  where,  except  a  scat- 
tered village  here  and  there,  we  saw  only  the  grand  mountains  and 
pines,  and  the  silent  landscape.  The  boat  was  provided  with  four 
rowers,  though  after  we  left  the  city,  the  river  being  shallow,  they  had 
to  pole  along,  like  Mississippi  flat-boat  walkers.  Throughout  the 
frosty  night  we  slept,  waking  occasionally  to  listen  to  the  ripples  un- 
der the  bow.     The  sendo  plied  their  poles,  and  at  day-break  we  were 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN.  409 

far  from  Ozaka,  with  the  classic  ground  of  Kawachi  on  our  right,  and 
Scttsu  on  our  left. 

The  sun  clothed  the  hills  in  light,  revealing  the  landscape,  and  kin- 
dled the  frost  on  our  cabin-roof  into  resplendent  prismatics.  We  were 
in  the  clear  water  of  the  Yodo  River,  which  flowed  at  a  gentle  current 
between  banks  of  undergrowth,  with  groves  of  firs  and  bamboo,  and 
here  and  there  a  group  of  thatched  villages,  through  which  the  Jesuits 
and  Franciscans  preached  Mary,  St.  Peter,  and  Christ,  over  two  centu- 
ries ago.  Along  the  shores  stood  white  herons,  tall  storks,  and,  occa- 
sionally, huge  hawks. 

While  musing  on  the  past,  and  imagining  the  Portuguese  missiona- 
ries, crucifix  in  hand,  preaching  on  that  open  space,  or  erecting  a  cross 
on  that  knoll,  Nakamura  came  out  and  pointed  out  the  villages  of  Ha- 
shimoto (foot  of  the  bridge)  and  Yamazaki  (mountain  point),  where, 
in  1868,  the  contest  at  Fushimi  was  continued.  The  Tokugawa  army 
held  Hashimoto,  while  the  mikado's  troops  attacked  them  by  land,  and 
bombarded  them  from  a  redoubt  in  Yamazaki,  until  they  fled,  defeated 
and  in  disorder,  to  Ozaka,  when  the  shogun  notified  the  foreign  min- 
isters that  he  could  no  longer  protect  them.  I  enjoyed  Nakamura's 
talk  richly,  and,  refreshed  by  the  "  sweet  mother  of  fresh  thoughts  and 
health,"  body  and  mind  were  ready  to  drink  in  the  sweet  influences  of 
that  glorious  morning  in  the  heart  of  Japan.  But  what  of  the  boat- 
men ? 

After  a  hard  night's  toil,  poling  and  walking  in  a  nipping  frost,  I 
wished  to  see  the  breakfast  by  which  they  laid  the  physical  basis  for 
another  day's  work.  At  the  stern  of  the  boat,  resting  on  a  little  fur- 
nace, was  the  universal  rice-pot,  and  beside  it  a  small  covered  wooden 
tub,  full  of  rice.  Some  pickled  or  boiled  slices  of  the  huge  radish 
called  dai-kon  lay  in  another  receptacle.  The  drink  was  the  cheapest 
tea.  It  may  possibly  be  true,  what  some  foreigners  assert,  that  the 
lower  classes  in  Japan  feast  on  rats,  "  The  daily  ration  of  a  Japanese 
laborer  was  one  mouse  per  diem  ;"  so  I  was  once  told  in  America.  I 
never  saw  or  heard  of  such  animals  being  eaten  during  all  the  time  I 
was  in  Japan ;  but  I  now  looked  for  some  stimulating  food,  some  piece 
of  flesh  diet  to  be  eaten  by  these  men,  who  had  to  make  muscle  and 
repair  the  waste  of  lubricating  their  joints.  But  nothing  further  was 
forthcoming,  and  the  sendo  whose  turn  came  first  sat  down  to  his 
breakfast.  The  first  course  was  a  bowlful  of  rice  and  a  pair  of  chop- 
sticks. In  the  second  course,  history  repeated  itself.  The  third  course 
was  a  dipperful  of  tea,  apparently  one-half  a  solution  of  tannic  acid, 


410  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

in  wliicli  a  raw  hide  might  have  been  safely  left  to  tan.  I  wonder 
whether  the  disease  of  ossification  of  the  coats  of  the  stomach,  so  com- 
mon in  Japan,  arises  from  the  constant  drinking  such  astringent  liq- 
uor. The  fourth  course  was  a  bowl  of  rice  and  two  slices  of  radish ; 
the  fifth  was  the  same.  A  dipperful  of  tea-liquor  finished  the  meal, 
and  the  pole  was  resumed.  I  noticed  grist-mills  on  scows  or  rafts 
anchored  in  the  river,  the  current  turning  the  huge  wheels  slowly  to 
grind  or  hull  rice.  They  were  quite  similar  to  those  I  had  noticed  on 
the  Rhine  and  other  European  rivers. 

At  nine  o'clock  we  came  in  front  of  the  village  Yawata,  at  which 
there  was  a  guard-house,  which  we  knew,  at  a  distance,  by  its  peculiar- 
ly shaped  lantern  and  canvas  hangings,  like  curtains,  on  which  was  the 
huge  crest  of  the  mikado — an  open  chrysanthemum  flower.  Our  boat 
hove  to,  and  Nakamura,  the  officer  of  the  party,  explained  who  we 
were,  and  what  our  business  was,  and  we  then  landed  in  the  village. 

While  our  boat,  with  the  servants,  was  sent  ahead  to  Fushimi,  we 
four  wended  our  way  up  the  mountain  Otoko  yama  to  the  part  called 
Pigeon-peak,  where  stands  the  great  Shinto  temple,  on  a  site  first  built 
upon  in  860  a.d.,  and  dedicated  to  Ojin  Tenno,  the  son  of  Jingu  Kbgo, 
who  conquered  Corea  by  the  divine  spirit  bestowed  on  her  then  un- 
born son.  It  was  made  further  famous  by  the  gift  from  Hideyoshi 
of  a  golden  gutter,  to  collect  the  sacred  droppings  of  the  sanctuary. 
Ascending  the  last  of  many  flights  of  stone  steps,  we  stood  upon  a 
plateau.  A  long  avenue  arcade,  with  overarching  pines,  and  lined  with 
tall  stone  lanterns,  led  to  the  temple  facade.  Two  priests,  robed  in 
pure  white,  with  high  black  lacquered  caps  on  their  heads,  were  bear- 
ing offerings  of  fish,  fruit,  and  other  food,  to  place  upon  the  altar,  each 
article  being  laid  on  a  sheet  of  pure  white  paper,  or  ceremonial  trays. 
In  the  perfectly  clean  and  austerely  simple  nave  of  the  temple  stood 
an  altar,  having  upon  it  only  the  ffohei,  or  wands,  with  notched  strips 
of  white  paper  dependent. 

There  were  no  idols,  images,  or  pictures,  only  the  gohei,  the  offer- 
ings, and  the  white-robed  priests  at  prayer.  The  impressive  simplici- 
ty, the  sequestered  site  on  a  lofty  mountain  surrounded  with  tall  trees 
of  majestic  growth  and  of  immemorial  antiquity,  the  beauty,  the  si 
lence,  all  combined  to  instill  reverence  and  holy  awe  alike  in  the  alien 
spectator  as  in  the  native  worshiper.  The  head  of  the  foreigner  un- 
covered, and  his  feet  were  unshod  simultaneously  with  the  unsandal- 
ing  of  the  feet,  the  bowing  of  the  head,  and  the  reverent  meeting  of 
the  palms  of  his  companions. 


Zy  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAK  411 

On  the  porch  the  priests,  having  finished  their  prayer,  came  out, 
and  politely  greeted  the  American,  informing  him,  through  Iwabuchi, 
that  he  was  the  first  foreigner  who  had  ever  visited  the  temple.  They 
then  showed  him  the  fine  carving  and  ornaments  of  the  eaves  and  out- 
er walls,  and  the  portion  which  remained  of  the  large  golden  gutter, 
made  of  beaten  gold,  over  a  foot  in  diameter.  Only  a  few  feet  of  the 
once  extensive  gift  have  survived  the  ravages  of  war  and  the  necessi- 
ties of  rulers,  who,  in  Japan  or  elsewhere,  replenish  their  depleted  ex 
chequers  or  treasuries  from  the  riches  of  the  temples. 

The  records  of  this  temple  declare  that  it  was  erected  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  priest  Gio  Kio,  who  wished  to  dedicate  a  temple  to  Ojin 
Tenno  in  Bungo ;  that  it  was  the  desire  of  the  spirit  of  the  god  to 
dwell  near  the  capital,  so  as  to  watch  over  the  imperial  house.  Hence 
it  was  located  here.  The  Buddhists  had  already  canonized  him  as 
Hachiman  Dai  Bosatsu,  or  the  Incarnation  of  Buddha  of  the  Eight 
Banners.  Hence,  among  the  devotees  of  the  India  faith,  this  god  of 
war,  and  patron  of  warriors,  is  called  Hachiman,  and  by  those  of  the 
native  cult  Ojin  Tenno.  Hachi-man  (AacA^,  eight ;  man,  banners)  is 
the  Chinese  form  of  Yawata  (ya,  eight ;  tvata,  banners). 

We  descended  the  northern  side  of  the  mountain  toward  Fushimi, 
and  passed  through  Yodo,  an  old  castle  town,  to  which  the  defeated 
Tokugawa  army  retreated  after  their  rout  at  Fushimi.  Nakamura, 
who  was  familiar  with  every  foot  of  ground,  having  had  a  hand  in 
many  a  fight  in  and  around  Kioto  during  the  civil  war,  pointed  out 
the  site  of  the  battle  that  opened  the  war  of  the  Restoration.  For- 
getting the  fact  that  our  dinner  hour  had  come,  we  went  to  examine 
this  cock-pit  of  1868.  There,  on  the  west  bank,  the  Aidzu  and  Ku- 
wana  clans,  that  formed  the  van  of  Tokugawa's  army,  landed  on  the 
27th  of  January,  1868,  and,  attempting  to  pass  the  barriers  at  Toba, 
received  into  their  bosoms  the  canister  from  the  Satsuma  cannon. 
The  Tokugawa  troops  marched  along  a  narrow  path  in  the  rice-fields 
only  a  few  feet  wide,  like  a  causeway,  through  a  lake  of  paddy-field 
ooze.  To  move  from  the  path  was  to  sink  knee-deep  in  a  glutinous 
quagmire.  To  advance  was  to  climb  over  the  writhing,  wounded,  and 
slippery  dead  men,  only  to  face  cannon  aimed  point-blank,  while  the 
musketry  of  the  sheltered  Southerners  enfiladed  their  long,  snake-like 
lines.  Numbers  only  increased  the  sureness  of  the  immense  target  at 
which  Remington  riflemen  were  practicing  in  coolness  and  earnest. 
"  That  field,"  at  which  the  long  and  bony  finger  of  our  cicerone  point- 
ed, "  was  piled  with  dead  men  like  bundles  of  fire-wood." 


412  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

On  the  first  advance,  the  Tokugawa  men  broke  and  ran;  but,  on 
the  second,  the  fio-htino;  beQ;an  on  both  the  two  roads,  the  Fushimi 
and  the  Toba,  which  lead  to  Kioto.  "  Here,"  said  he,  "  is  where  the 
rebels  [Tokugawa  array]  were  surprised  while  eating,  at  early  morning. 
In  that  bamboo  grove,  our  men  \kuan  gun,  mikado's  army]  made  an 
ambuscade,  and  tore  up  the  rebel  ranks  dreadfully."  Then  the  village 
of  Toba  caught  fire,  and  the  rebels  fled  to  Yodo,  finding,  to  their 
chagrin,  that  the  castle  was  barred  against  them.  Fushimi  was  also 
burned  during  the  fight.  "  There,"  said  our  guide,  as  we  neared  the 
town,  "  is  where  the  fire  began." 

We  walked  up  the  historic  streets  in  which  the  tramp  of  armies 
had  so  often  resounded,  through  which  Nobunaga,  Hideyoshi,  lyeyasu, 
and  Xavier,  had  passed,  in  which  the  Jesuits  had  stood  preaching  to 
listening  crowds  of  people  like  those  before  me.  The  town  itself  dis- 
appointed me.  The  feeling  was  the  same  as  that  experienced  in 
Washington  in  1865.  I  went  thither  to  behold  the  demi-gods  who, 
through  a  hundred  battles,  had  borne  the  old  flag  to  victory,  I  saw 
Grant's  and  Sherman's  legions  of  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
men  march  iip  Pennsylvania  Avenue.  There  was  no  halo  round  their 
heads.  They  were  not  giants.  They  w^ere  plain  men  in  blue  blouses. 
Fushimi,  with  all  its  history,  was  a  poverty-stricken  Japanese  town. 

Further  recollections  of  Fushimi  are  mainly  of  vulgar  and  gastro- 
nomic interest,  I  remember  that  a  certain  man  had  climbed  up  a 
mountain,  and  then  tramped  down  again  at  an  appetite  -  sharpening 
pace,  and  that  his  special  objects  of  interest  and  desire  at  that  time 
were  something  to  eat.  Subordinate  to  these  were  a  bath  and  a  lounge. 
The  hungry  man  had  shed  his  tight-fitting  skin  of  boots,  coat,  and 
hat,  and  was  tranquil  in  looser  robes  over  the  soothing  warmth  of  a 
cone  of  live  coals  in  a  bronze  hibachi.  The  dissolving  views  of  his 
reveries,  compounded  of  what  he  had  seen  and  yearnings  of  what  he 
expected,  were  suddenly  broken  by  the  advent  of  a  steaming  and  fra- 
grant tray  of  food  cooked  by  one  of  the  best  culinary  artists  in  Japan, 
a  native  who  had  learned  the  art  at  the  club  in  Yokohama,  It  is,  of 
course,  too  well  known  to  Englishmen  and  others  that  the  American 
at  his  meals  is  an  animal  not  to  be  lightly  disturbed.  After  the  feed 
is  over,  he  is  placable,  and  ready  for  business, 

I  was  scarcely  through  my  dish  of  lily -bulbs,  and  had  not  yet 
touched  my  rice  and  curry,  and  California  canned-meats,  when  Iwabu- 
chi,  my  interpreter,  announced  the  arrival  of  five  samurai  from  Fukui, 
who  had  traveled  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles  to  meet  the  American, 


/iV  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN.  413 

and  wished  to  see  him  immediately,  to  pay  their  respects,  and  announce 
themselves  as  my  escort  to  Fukui.  They  would  be  in  the  room  in  a 
moment. 

"  Can  they  not  wait  a  few  minutes  till  I  finish  my  dinner  ?"  I  asked. 

"  I  am  afraid  not,"  replied  he ;  "  they  are  very  eager  to  see  you  im- 
mediately.    Such  are  their  orders  from  their  superior  at  Fukui." 

"  Well,  but  I  am  in  deshabille.     I  can't  be  seen  in  this  style." 

"  Oh !  indeed,  they  won't  care  for  that.  Besides,  here  they  are  at 
the  door.     They  merely  sent  me  to  announce  them." 

It  was  too  late  to  stop  the  invasion,  so  the  animal  must  forego  his 
provender  for  a  time.  The  paper  sliding-doors  were  pulled  aside,  and 
five  stalwart  men  entered  and  stood  in  line,  eyes  front,  facing  me.  I 
mentally  waited  to  see  how  the  ceremonies  would  proceed.  In  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye  they  all  sunk  on  their  knees,  spread  their  hands 
prone  before  them,  and  bowed  their  heads  for  full  fifteen  seconds  on 
the  floor.  Then,  resilient,  all  sat  in  a  row  on  their  heels,  and  spread 
out  their  robes,  with  hands  in  their  hakama.  The  leader  then  handed 
Iwabuchi  an  imposing  paper  to  read,  which  set  forth  that  they  had 
been  sent  by  the  daimio  from  Fukui,  to  bear  the  congratulations  of 
the  authorities,  and  to  escort  the  American  teacher  to  Fukui.  This 
solemnly  done,  they  bowed  profoundly  again  and  departed.  It  was 
all  over  within  two  minutes.  The  meal  was  finished  in  peace  and 
abundance,  and  then  began  the  preparations  for  the  ride  to  Otsu, 
eight  miles  distant.  The  baggage  and  servants  were  dispatched  by 
boat,  and  at  half -past  four  all  were  mounted,  and  we  started.  Our 
cavalcade  consisted  of  nine  horses  and  riders. 

The  air  was  damp,  and  the  sky  was  leaden,  when  we  started.  The 
whole  household  were  at  the  gate  of  the  court-yard,  to  bow  low  and 
cry  ''''  sayonara^''  and  the  whole  village  was  assembled,  and  stood  agape 
to  see  the  foreigner. 

Out  past  the  shanties  of  the  village,  our  path  lay  over  a  wooded 
mountain,  and  then  the  snow  fell,  turning  to  slush  as  it  touched  coat, 
horse,  or  earth.  In  an  hour  we  were  all  white  with  cloggy  masses  of 
snow,  and  in  places  wet  to  the  skin  with  the  cold  soaking  of  sleet. 
Twilight  succeeded  the  day,  and  darkness  the  twilight,  until  only  the 
gigantic  forms  of  the  firs  bearded  with  snow,  and  so  silent,  were  out- 
lined through  the  slow  shower  of  flakes.  Far  up  into  vague  infinity 
loomed  the  mountains,  occasionally  a  beetling  rock  thrusting  out  its 
mighty  mass  in  a  form  of  visible  darkness.  After  five  hours  of  such 
riding  it  grew  uncomfortable.     Every  flake,  as  it  fell,  seemed  to  have 

27 


414  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

weight.  To  cold,  wet,  chattering  travelers,  what  comforts  could  a 
Japanese  inn  afford? 

The  same  difference  exists  in  Japan  as  in  highly  civilized  countries 
in  regard  to  hotels  and  their  keepers,  as  concerning  unexpected  or  an- 
nounced guests.  To  come  suddenly  to  a  Japanese  inn  in  winter  is  to 
shiver,  as  in  a  refrigerator,  and  wait  cheerlessly  for  an  intolerably  long 
time,  and  understand  all  about  Greenland,  before  the  fire  and  food  are 
brought,  the  thaw  sets  in,  and  comfort  is  attained.  At  Otsu  (now 
called  Shiga),  however,  a  blazing  fire  was  ready  as  our  party  rode  into 
the  court-yard.  Boots  and  coat  off,  I  was  led  into  the  best  room,  on 
which  a  pile  of  silken  quilts  was  spread  for  my  bed,  and  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  room  was  that  sum  of  delights,  a  kotatsu.  Poor,  civilized 
reader,  or  Western  barbarian,  you  do  not  know  what  a  kotatsu  is? 
No?  Let  me  tell  you.  In  the  very  centre  of  the  room  lift  up  that 
square  foot  of  matting,  and  you  will  find  a  stone-lined  bowl,  a  few 
inches  deep.  In  this  the  fat  and  red-cheeked  chamber-maid  puts  a 
shovelful  of  live  coals.  Over  it  she  sets  a  wooden  frame,  a  foot  high, 
called  a  yagura,  after  the  castle-tower  which  it  imitates.  Over  this 
she  spreads  a  huge  quilt.  It  is  an  extemporary  oven,  in  which  you 
can  bake  yourself  by  drawing  the  quilt  about  you,  and  find  a  little 
heaven  of  heat,  exchanging  shivers  for  glow.  A  kotatsu  may  be  safe- 
ly warranted  to  change  a  grumbler,  who  believes  Japan  to  be  a  wretch- 
ed hole  of  a  barbarian  country,  into  a  rhapsodist  who  is  ready  to  swear 
that  the  same  country  is  a  paradise,  within  ten  minutes. 

The  next  morning  we  were  to  take  steamer,  and  cross  Lake  Biwa 
to  Hanoiira,  at  the  north  end  of  the  lake.  Kioto  lay  but  seven  miles 
distant  from  us,  and  I  could  easily  have  visited  the  sacred  city ;  but  I 
was  eager  to  get  to  my  work.  Besides,  I  wished  to  study  it  when  I 
could  best  appreciate  it,  and  see  it  with  a  knowledge  of  Japanese  his- 
tory for  my  spectacles.  So  I  postponed  the  trip  till  three  years  later. 
I  glance  round  Otsu  in  a  short  walk.  Its  name  means  Great  Harbor. 
I  saw  some  of  the  very  places  mentioned  by  Kaempfer  and  the  Jes- 
uits. 

Our  hotel  was  near  the  steamer's  dock.  At  9  a.m.,  our  party, 
twelve  in  all,  were  on  board,  and  a  lighter,  full  of  our  baggage,  was 
in  tow.  The  little  steamer  screeched  once  or  twice,  ending  in  a  pro- 
longed squeal,  and  we  were  fairly  out  on  the  bosom  of  Japan's  largest 
lake.  It  was  a  strange  sight,  here  in  Inland  Japan,  to  see  a  steamboat 
pulsing  over  the  water,  and  stretching  its  long  scarfs  of  smoke  in  the 
pure  air  against  the  white  snow  and  the  azure  of  the  mountains.    The 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN.  415 

Golden  Age,  always  alloyed  with  poverty  and  ignorance  and  discom- 
forts, was  past  for  Japan  ;  the  Iron  Age  of  smoke,  of  coal,  of  comfort, 
of  wealth,  was  coming. 

The  Lilliputian  steamer,  compared  with  one  of  our  Hudson  River 
ferry-boats,  was  as  a  Japanese  tea-cup  to  a  soda-water  tumbler,  or  a 
thimble  to  a  gill.  It  was  only — I  am  afraid  to  say  how  many  feet 
short,  and  inches  narrow.  Its  engines,  like  its  entire  self,  were  oscil- 
lating. Captain,  engineer,  fireman,  and  crew  were  all  Japanese.  The 
accommodations  of  the  passengers  were  strictly  graded.  The  cabin, 
in  the  stern,  was  ten  feet  by  six,  and  four  feet  high.  At  one  end,  a 
platform,  six  inches  high,  three  feet  wide,  six  feet  long,  and  covered 
with  a  rug,  was  the  "first-class."  At  the  side  was  a  set  of  sword- 
racks.  The  fioor  of  the  rest  of  the  same  cabin,  six  inches  lower,  was 
"second-class."  The  promenade-deck  was  ten  feet  by  six,  two  square 
feet  being  occupied  by  the  refreshment-vender  of  the  boat,  who  fur- 
nished tea,  boiled  rice,  rice  cracknels,  pickles,  rice  rolls  wrapped  in  sea- 
weed, boiled  cuttle-fish,  etc.,  to  those  who  wished  refreshment.  He 
seemed  to  drive  a  brisk  trade ;  for,  besides  our  party  of  eight,  who  oc- 
cupied the  cabin  and  deck,  our  servants  and  about  a  dozen  other  na- 
tives filled  a  hole  in  the  bow,  which  was  "third-class." 

I  preferred  first-class  air.  I  kept  on  deck,  watching  the  snow-clad 
mountains,  and  the  historic  towns,  castles,  and  villages,  and  now  and 
then  a  boat  under  sail  or  oar.  Biwa  ko,  as  the  natives  call  it,  is  as 
green  and  almost  as  beautiful  as  a  Swiss  lake.  It  is  named  after  the 
musical  instrument  called  a  biwa,  because  shaped  like  it.  Tradition 
says  that  in  one  night  Fuji  san  rose  out  of  the  earth  in  Suruga,  and 
in  one  night  the  earth  sunk  in  Omi,  and  this  lake,  sixty  miles  long, 
was  formed.  The  monotony  of  the  voyage  was  broken  at  four 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  little  boat  swung  to  its  moorings 
at  the  village  of  Hanoiira.  The  place  reminded  me  of  Kussnacht,  at 
the  end  of  Lake  Lucerne.  We  stepped  out  into  what  seemed  a  vil- 
lage of  surpassing  poverty.  The  houses  were  more  than  ordinarily 
dilapidated.  The  streets  were  masses  of  slush  and  mud.  The  people 
seemed,  all  of  them,  dirty,  poor,  ragged.  I  had  full  opportunities  of 
becoming  acquainted  with  all  of  them,  for  every  one  quickly  informed 
his  neighbors  that  a  foreigner  was  among  them,  and  soon  the  color  of 
his  eyes  and  hair,  his  clothes  and  actions,  were  discussed,  and  himself 
made  the  nine  days'  wonder  of  the  village. 

I  began  to  realize  the  utter  poverty  and  wretchedness  of  the  people 
and  the  country  of  Japan.     It  was  not  an  Oriental  paradise,  such  as  a 


416 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


reader  of  some  books  about  it  may  have  supposed.  I  had  only  a  faint 
conception  of  it  then.  I  saw  it  afterward,  until  the  sight  oppressed 
me  like  nightmare.  At  present,  novelty  lent  its  chromatic  lenses,  and 
tinged  all  my  view.  Then,  too,  I  thought  that  the  wretched  weather 
and  leaden  sky  had  something  to  do  with  my  feelings ;  and  when  the 
servant-maids  brought  water  and  waited  on  my  companions,  as  they 
took  off  their  wet  boots,  sandals,  and  socks,  with  such  hearty  cheer, 
merry  smiles,  and  graceful  skill,  every  thing  looked  as  if  sunshine  had 
sifted  through  a  cloud-rift. 

I  was  quite  restored  to  myself  again  by  a  sight  that  banished  all 
disgust.     A  jolly-looking,  fat  girl  was  half  hobbling,  half  staggering 

along  on  her  clogs,  her  generous 
physique  quivering  like  heaps  of 
jelly.  Her  left  hand  grasped  the 
cross-handle  of  a  bucket  of  water, 
which  was  in  a  state  of  general 
splash,  like  herself.  Her  right 
arm,  bared  by  her  bag-like  sleeves 
being  bound  to  her  armpits,  was 
extended  far  over  toward  the 
ground  to  countervail  gravity  on 
the  other  side.  I  momentarily 
expected  this  buxom  Gill  to  stum- 
ble and  tumble ;  but  not  she.  She 
knew  her  business  too  well.  Her 
tout  ensemble,  her  face  reddened 
by  exercise,  her  vigorous  puffing, 
her  belt  flying  in  the  wind,  like 
Mr.  Gough's  coat-tails,  were  too 
funny  to  resist.  My  risibilities 
exploded ;  whereat  hers  did  like- 
wise. I  cheerfully  sat  down,  and  let  her  wash  my  cold  feet  in  warm 
water,  which  being  over,  I  got  up,  entered  the  best  room  in  the  house, 
and  curled  up  under  a  kotatsu. 

We  started  off  the  next  morning  at  eight  o'clock.  We  were  to 
walk  eighteen  miles  before  the  end  of  our  day's  journey  to  Tsuruga,  a 
sea-port  town.  Our  party  prepared  for  the  journey  over  mountain- 
paths  by  taking  off  their  riding  sandals  or  heavy  wooden  clogs,  and 
girding  on  the  feet  a  pair  of  straw  sandals,  which  they  bought  for 
eighty-five  "  cash"  (less  than  one  cent)  per  pair.    For  myself,  a  fine,  large, 


Bringing  Water  to  wash  Travelers'  Feet. 
(Hokusai.) 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN. 


417 


and  very  handsome  norimono,  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  two  men,  was 
provided.  It  was  a  fine,  large  box,  like  a  palanquin,  except  that  the 
pole  by  which  it  rested  on  the  two  men's  shoulders  passed  through 
the  top  instead  of  being  fastened  at  the  centre,  as  in  India,  The  one 
I  rode  in  was  gold-lacquered  without,  and  richly  upholstered  and  pa- 
pered within,  with  neat  curtains  of  bamboo  split  into  fine  threads. 
Once  inside,  there  was  room  to  sit  down.  If  one  does  not  mind  be- 
ing a  little  cramped,  he  can  spend  a  day  comfortably  inside.  For 
high  lords  and  nobles  four  men  are  provided,  and  the  long  supporting 
bar  is  slightly  curved  to  denote  high  rank.  I  entered  the  norimono 
in  the  presence  of  the  entire  village,  including  the  small  boys.     The 


ride  of  a  few  hundred  yards  sufficed  for  me.  The  sights  were  too 
novel  to  miss  seeing  any  thing,  and  so  I  got  out  and  walked.  I  was 
not  sorry  for  the  change.     The  air  was  bracing,  the  scenery  inspiring. 

A  double  pleasure  rewards  the  pioneer  who  is  the  first  to  penetrate 
into  the  midst  of  a  new  people.  Besides  the  rare  exhilaration  felt  in 
treading  soil  virgin  to  alien  feet,  it  acts  like  mental  oxygen  to  look 
upon  and  breathe  in  a  unique  civilization  like  that  of  Japan.  To  feel 
that  for  ages  millions  of  one's  own  race  have  lived  and  loved,  enjoyed 
and  suffered  and  died,  living  the  fullness  of  life,  yet  without  the  relig- 
ion, laws,  customs,  food,  dress,  and  culture  which  seem  to  us  to  be  the 
vitals  of  our  social  existence,  is  like  walking  through  a  living  Pompeii. 

Our  path  wound  up  from  the  village  to  a  considerable  height.  On 
both  sides  of  the  mountain  path  and  pass  the  ground  was  terraced 


418  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

into  rice -fields,  whicli  were  irrigated  by  the  stream  that  is  usually 
found  flowing  between  two  hills.  During  the  day  we  went  through 
valleys  of  ravishing  beauty.  In  them  the  ground  was  divided  into  ir- 
rigated rice-fields,  which  were  now  bare,  and  dotted  with  the  clumps 
of  rice-stubble  as  it  was  left  when  cut  by  the  reaper's  hook.  At  in- 
tervals were  small  villages,  surrounded  by  the  universal  and  ever-beau- 
tiful bamboo.  On  both  sides  of  the  valley,  bold  hills,  thickly  clothed 
with  pine  and  fir  and  solemn  evergreen,  rose  to  the  clouds.  And 
all  along,  with  a  frequency  like  that  of  mile-stones,  stood  the  kosatsu 
(edict -boards),  on  which  hung  the  slander  and  prohibition  against 
Christianity.     We  were  still  in  the  province  of  Omi. 

Frequently  along  the  road  I  observed  large,  square  posts  of  new 
wood,  plentifully  ornamented  with  Chinese  characters,  which  marked 
the  boundaries  of  the  province,  subdivision,  or  district.  At  noon  we 
crossed  the  frontier  of  Omi  and  entered  the  province  of  Echizen,  and 
at  two  o'clock  that  division  of  it  which  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Fukui  Han.  Being  now  within  the  dominions  of  "  our  prince," 
we  expected  evidences  of  it,  in  which  we  were  not  disappointed.  At 
every  village  the  nanushi,  or  head-men,  arrayed  in  their  best  dress, 
came  out  to  meet  us,  presenting  their  welcomes  and  congratulations. 
Sometimes  they  would  salute  us  half  a  mile  or  more  from  the  village, 
and  after  welcoming  us,  bowing  literally  to  the  earth,  they  would  has- 
ten on  before  and  conduct  us  through  the  village  to  the  extreme  limit, 
and  there  take  their  adieu,  with  bows,  kneelings,  and  sayonara.  To- 
ward evening,  having  lunched  and  rested  two  hours  at  noon,  we  arrived 
near  Tsuruga,  and  were  met  by  the  ofiicers  of  the  city,  and  conducted 
to  the  best  hotel  in  the  place. 

My  eight  companions  were  unusually  merry  that  night,  and,  to  add 
to  their  enjoyment,  Melpomene,  Terpsichore,  and  Hebe,  or,  in  other 
words,  two  geishas,  were  present  to  dispense  music,  dancing,  and  sake. 
Several  of  the  samurai  danced  what  might  be  called  stag-dances,  from 
their  novelty  and  vigor.  I  occupied  myself  in  making  notes  of  the 
day's  trip,  Iwabuchi  had  pointed  out  many  places  of  historic  inter- 
est, the  lore  of  which  I  was  not  then,  but  was  afterward,  fully  able  to 
appreciate.  I  found  in  the  room  I  occupied  a  work  in  Japanese,  treat- 
ing of  the  Opium  War  in  China,  with  vivid  illustrations  of  the  foreign 
steamers,  artillery,  and  tactics.  It  was  well  thumbed  and  dog-eared, 
having  evidently  been  read  and  reread  many  times.  It  had  been  pub- 
lished in  Japan  shortly  after  the  war  in  China,  and  prepared  the  Japa- 
nese mind  for  what  they  had  to  expect. 


LSf  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN.  419 

Tsuruga  expects  to  become  a  great  city  some  day.*  It  is  to  be  the 
terminus  of  a  railroad  from  Ozaka  and  Kioto.  A  canal  is  to  connect 
its  liarbor  with  Lake  Biwa — a  scheme  first  proposed  by  Taira  Shige- 
mori,  son  of  Kiyomori,  in  the  twelfth  century.  It  is  to  become  the 
largest  and  wealthiest  port  on  the  west  coast.  I  think  there  is  good 
ground  for  these  hopes.  Its  geographical  position  is  every  thing  to  be 
desired,  and  its  harbor  the  best  on  the  west  coast.f 

We  made  an  early  start.  We  were  to  reach  Takefu,  a  town  about 
seventeen  miles  distant.  We  first  walked  down  to  the  sea-shore,  where 
I  caught  a  splendid  view  of  Tsuruga  harbor,  two-thirds  of  a  circle  of 
blue  sea  within  rocky  and  timbered  headlands.  On  the  sandy  strand 
were  a  dozen  or  more  junks  beached  for  the  winter,  propped  and  cov- 
ered with  straw  mats.  In  one  or  two  tall  sheds  made  of  poles  and 
mats  were  the  keels  and  frames  of  new  junks,  with  new  timber  and 
copper  lying  near,  and  one  nearly  finished.  They  were  all  on  the  an- 
cient model.  Emerging  into  the  road  to  Fukui,  we  came  to  the  stone 
portal  of  a  large  Shinto  temple.J  Within  a  grove  of  grand  old  giant 
firs  stood  the  simple  shrine,  without  image,  idol,  or  picture,  save  only 
the  strips  of  white  paper  and  the  polished  mirrors.  My  guards  stop- 
ped, clapped  their  hands  three  times,  placed  them  reverently  together, 
bowed  their  heads,  and  uttered  a  prayer.  The  act  was  as  touching  as 
it  was  simple. 

About  seven-eighths  of  Echizen  is  mountain-land,  and  to-day  was 

*  Tsuruga  was  made  the  capital  of  Tsuruga  ken,  including  the  province  of 
Echizeu,  in  1873;  thus  becoming  an  official  seat,  leaving  Fuliui  in  the  back- 
ground. 

t  A  Japanese  gazetteer  or  cyclopedia,  in  describing  a  city,  is  especially  minute 
in  regard  to  the  history  and  traditions.  It  describes  fully  the  temples,  shrines, 
customs,  and  local  peculiarities,  and  usually  winds  up  by  recounting  the  "fa- 
mous scenes"  or  "natural  beauties"  of  the  place,  whether  it  be  Kioto  or  Fukui. 
Thus  the  "  Echizen  Gazetteer  "  says :  "  The  ten  fine  scenes  ('  sceneries,'  as  the  be- 
ginners in  English  put  it)  of  Tsuruga  are — 1st,  the  red  plum-trees  in  the  temple 
grounds  of  Kei ;  2d,  the  full  moon  at  Amatsutsu ;  3d,  the  white  sails  of  the  return- 
ing junks  seen  from  Kiomidzu;  4th,  the  evening  bells  at  Kanegasaki;  5th,  the  tea- 
houses at  Iro ;  6th,  the  dragon's  light  (phosphorescence)  on  the  sea-shore;  7th, 
the  verdure  at  Kushikawa;  8th,  the  evening  snow  on  Nosaka;  9th,  the  travelers 
on  Michinokuchi ;  10th,  the  evening  glow  at  Yasudama." 

X  The  gods  worshiped  at  these  shrines  are — Jingu  Kogo,  mother  of  Ojin  Ten- 
no  ;  Ukemochi,  the  goddess  of  cereals  and  food  ;  Yamato  Dak^,  conqueror  of  the 
Kuanto;  Ojin  Tenno,  or  Hachiman,  god  of  war;  Takenouchi,  prime  minister  of 
Jingu;  and  Tamahime,  sister  of  the  latter.  The  large  granite  tori-i  was  erected 
by  Hideyasu,  first  of  the  Tokugawa  daimios  of  Echizen.  Near  the  city  are  the 
ruins  of  old  fortifications  of  Nitta  Yoshisada,  and  Asakura  Yoshikagi,  the  foe  of 
Nobunaga. 


420  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

one  of  climbing.  The  snow  lay  eight  and  ten  feet  deep  on  each  side 
the  hard  line  of  path.  The  path  itself  was  only  such  as  is  made  by 
the  tramping  of  human  feet  and  by  horses.  We  were  now  in  full 
force — foreigner,  interpreter,  guards,  servants,  and  porters,  about  forty 
of  whom  carried  our  baggage.  We  were  strung  out  over  the  white 
landscape  in  Indian  file,  numbering  fifty -four  persons  in  all.  One 
coolie,  the  pioneer,  had  a  can  of  kerosene  on  his  back ;  another,  my 
wraps  and  hand-baggage ;  another  had  his  head  under  the  seat  of  a 
rocking-chair,  the  space  between  the  rockers  being  well  packed.  Oth- 
ers bore  miscellaneous  packages.  When  a  box  was  too  heavy  for  one 
man,  it  was  slung  on  a  pole  and  carried  by  two.  The  valleys  were  ev- 
idently, judging  from  their  tracks,  well  stocked  with  rabbits  and  foxes, 
and  in  the  rice-fields  flocks  of  fat  wild  geese  and  ducks  offered  tempt- 
ing marks,  on  whict  one  of  the  samurai,  who  had  a  revolver,  spent 
much  vain  powder.  The  white  heron  were  plentiful,  and  occasionally 
we  saw  the  huge  storks,  six  feet  high,  stalking  along  the  streams.  On 
the  hills  where  the  path  wound  through  the  woods  the  snow  had  been 
disturbed  by  the  wild  boar.  We  stopped  to  rest  at  the  house  of  a 
noted  hunter,  on  whose  floor  lay  three  huge  carcasses  and  tusked  heads. 
He  showed  us  his  long,  light  spear,  with  which  he  had  transfixed  one 
hundred  and  thirteen  wild  hogs  that  winter.  It  had  a  triangular, 
bayonet -like  blade.  The  village  bought  the  meat  of  him,  and  what 
he  had  left  over  he  sent  to  Tsuruga  and  Fukui.  Monkeys  were  also 
plentiful  in  the  woods. 

In  all  the  villages  the  people  were  on  the  lookout  for  the  coming 
foreigner.  The  entire  population,  from  wrinkled  old  men  and  stout 
young  clowns,  to  hobbling  hags,  girls  with  red  cheeks  and  laughing 
black  eyes,  and  toddling  children,  were  out.  The  women,  babies,  and 
dogs  seemed  especially  eager  to  get  a  sight  of  the  to-jin,  and  see  what 
sort  of  an  animal  he  was.  The  village  houses  were  built  of  a  frame  of 
wood,  with  wattles  of  bamboo  smeared  with  mud,  and  having  a  thatch- 
ed roof.  Within,  the  floor  was  raised  a  foot  or  so  above  the  ground, 
and  covered  with  mats.  When  the  rooms  had  partitions,  they  were 
made  of  a  frame  of  wood  covered  with  paper,  and  made  to  slide  in 
grooves.  In  the  middle  of  the  floor  was  the  fire-place.  From  the 
ceiling  hung  pot-hooks,  pots,  and  kettles — one  for  tea,  one  for  rice, 
another  for  radishes,  beans,  or  bean -cheese.  In  these  villages  good- 
nature and  poverty  seemed  to  be  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  old  faces  were  smoke-dried  and  wrinkled,  and  the  skin 
seemed  to  be  tanned  on  the  inside  by  long  swilling  of  strong  tea. 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN. 


421 


Amidst  this  monotony  of  ui?::- 
liness,  I  was  glad  to  see  the 
merry,  twinkUng  black  eyes, 
and  red  cheeks  of  pretty  girls, 
and  the  sweet  faces  of  chil- 
dren, rosy  and  chubby,  spite 
of  dirt  and  slush,  as  they 
paused  in  their  work  of  mak- 
ing snow-men,  to  gaze  upon 
the  stranger.  Most  of  the 
people,  in  addition  to  the 
usual  Japanese  dress,  wore 
long,  high  boots  of  plaited 
straw,  admirable  for  walking 
in  the  snow,  called  "  Echizen 
boots,"  the  worth  of  which  I 
proved. 

Our  route  for  the  next  day 
lay  through  a  lovely  valley 
formed  by  a  river.  The  rate 
of  traveling  had  not  been  se- 
vere. The  record  of  each  day  was  very  much  like  a  page  of  the  "Anab- 
asis," and  from  two  to  four  of  Xenophon's  parasangs  were  our  daily 
journey.  Long  before  I  arrived  at  my  place  of  destination,  I  found  the 
way  the  Japanese  have  of  doing  things  was  not  that  of  America,  and  that 
life  in  Japan  would  be  a  vastly  different  thing  from  the  split-second  life 
in  New  York.  It  took  us  three  days  and  a  half  to  do  what  I  afterward 
accomplished  easily,  by  the  same  means,  in  a  day  and  a  quarter.  That 
large  bodies  move  slowly  is  true,  to  an  exasperating  extent,  in  Japan. 
A  journey  of  ten  Japanese  samurai  means  unlimited  sleep,  smoking  of 
pipes,  drinking  of  tea,  and  drowsy  lounging.  A  little  more  tea,  one 
more  smoke,  and  the  folding  of  the  legs  to  sit,  is  the  cry  of  the  Japa- 
nese yakunin.  Such  things  at  first  were  torture,  and  a  threat  of  in- 
sanity to  me,  when  I  found  that  time  had  no  value,  and  was  infinitely 
cheaper  than  dirt  in  Japan.  Finally,  I  became,  under  protest,  used  to 
it.  On  this  occasion  I  rather  enjoyed  it.  My  eyes  were  not  full  of 
seeing  yet,  and,  though  impatient  to  reach  my  field  of  labor,  yet  this 
was  the  grand  manner  of  traveling,  and  best  for  heart  and  eye  and 
memory.  Besides,  it  would  be  undignified  to  make  haste  in  the 
prince's  own  dominions,  and  the  porters,  under  their  heavy  loads. 


Villan;e  in  Echizen. 


422  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

must  not  be  hurried.  It  also  gave  me  opportunity  to  learn  from  my 
interpreter  every  thing  of  historic,  local,  and  legendary  interest,  and 
thus  fit  myself  to  appreciate  what  I  afterward  had  read  to  me  from 
the  "  Gazetteer  of  Echizen." 

Twelve  miles  from  Fukui,  I  found  an  officer  of  the  daimi5,  who  had 
been  sent  to  meet  and  welcome  me.  After  being  introduced,  he  of- 
fered me  presents  of  a  duck,  and  a  box,  handsomely  wrapped  in  white 
paper,  and  tied  in  cord  of  red  and  white,  and  filled  with  gorgeous- 
ly colored  red,  green,  and  yellow  sweetmeats.  We  were  to  rest  at 
Takefu  for  the  night,  and  next  morning  take  horses  and  ride  to  Fu- 
kni.  Meanwhile  there  was  to  be  a  grand  dinner.  Iwabuchi  and  I 
sallied  out  to  see  the  town. 

It  was  a  poor  place.  It  had  formerly  been  of  more  importance, 
and  named  Fuchiu,*  but  had  declined.  It  numbered  probably  twelve 
thousand  people,  having  thirty -four  streets,  and  two  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  forty-nine  houses,  and,  being  a  post-relay  town,  twenty- 
five  houses  were  kept  for  hire  to  travelers.  The  streets  were  broad, 
and  a  stream  of  water  flowed  between  stone  banks  in  the  middle  of 
the  street.  There  were  many  iron -workers;  and  broad  knives,  hoes, 
scissors,  the  rude  plow-coulters,  and  the  most  useful  articles  of  Japa- 
nese domestic  cutlery  were  special  productions.  One  of  Nobunaga's 
most  famous  arrow-makers  came  from  Takefu.  Macaroni  and  vermi- 
celli, hemp  and  hempen  cloth,  were  also  staples.  The  Government 
edicts  were  posted  up  conspicuously  on  a  stone  platform,  with  impos- 
ing roofed  frame  of  substantial  timber.  Two  or  three  temples,  with 
spacious  grounds  and  lofty  trees,  the  stone  path  flanked  by  two  im- 
mense stone  or  bronze  lanterns,  were  among  the  adornments  of  the 
place. 

Familiarity,  like  a  leaven,  was  breeding  contempt,  as  I  began  to  see 
what  actual  Japanese  life  was.  I  thanked  God  I  was  not  of  the  race 
and  soil.     Was  it  Pharisaical  ? 

We  returned  to  the  hotel — not  very  inviting  without,  but  attractive 
within.  In  two  fine  large  rooms  brilliant  screens  of  gold  and  silver 
spangled  paper,  or  depicted  with  battle-scenes,  such  as  the  destruction 
of  the  Mongol  fleet  in  1281,  and  the  capture  of  Kamakura  by  Nitta 

*  Fuchiu,  was  formerly  the  general  name  of  the  capital  of  a  province.  The 
word  means  "interior  of  the  government."  After  the  Restoration,  in  1868,  the 
mikado's  government  changed  the  names  of  the  many  towns  all  over  the  empire, 
named  Fuchiu,  among  which  were  those  in  Echizen  and  Suruga,  the  latter  being 
called  Shidzuoka  (peaceful  hill). 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN.  423 

in  1333,  and  of  Kioto  court  life,  were  ranged  along  the  wall,  and  bra- 
ziers of  figured  bronze  shed  a  genial  glow  through  the  mellow-lighted 
room.  They  had  placed  a  new-made  table  for  the  foreigner  to  eat  by 
himself.  The  oflScers,  now  twelve  in  number,  and  the  chief  men  of 
the  town  sat  round  the  floor  in  an  oval.  Four  girls,  all  of  them  good- 
looking,  brought  in,  not  the  dishes,  but  each  time  a  tableful  of  dishes, 
and  set  one  before  each  guest.     Forthwith  the  meal  began. 

On  fourteen  little  tables,  each  a  foot  square,  four  inches  high,  made 
of  wood  lacquered  black,  and  lustrous  as  jet,  were  as  many  pairs  of 
chopsticks  made  of  new,  clean  wood,  ready  bifurcated  but  unsplit,  to 
show  they  had  not  been  used.  The  maids  attended,  with  full  tubs  of 
steaming  rice  and  pots  of  tea,  to  replenish  the  rapidly  emptied  bowls. 
Fish,  boiled  eggs,  lobster,  and  various  made-dishes  were  served  on  enor- 
mous porcelain  plates  the  size  of  the  full  moon.  The  nimble  tapering 
fingers  of  the  laughing  girls  handed  out  their  contents.  Then  came 
the  warm  sake.  The  tiny  cups  circulated  around,  the  girls  acting  as 
Hebes.  Smoking  and  story-telling  followed  after  the  candles  were 
brought  in.  In  the  evening,  after  each  had  enjoyed  his  hot  bath,  the 
quilts  were  spread,  and  the  top-knotted  heads  were  laid  on  their  wood- 
en pillows  and  paper  pillow-cases,  and  sleep,  dreams,  and  snores  had  at- 
tained their  maximum  of  perfection  before  nine  o'clock.  In  my  dream, 
I  was  at  home  in  America,  but  failed  to  catch  the  train  to  get  back  to 
Japan. 

Twelve  horses,  saddled  and  bridled,  were  ready  next  morning,  which 
was  the  4th  of  March.  After  the  last  pipe  had  been  smoked,  the  last 
cup  of  tea  drank,  and  the  last  joke  cracked,  with  swords  thrust  in  gir- 
dle, wooden  helmet  tied  on  head  under  the  chin,  and  straw  sandals  in 
stirrup,  the  cavalcade  moved.  We  started  off  slowly  through  the  town 
and  crowded  streets,  and  out  into  the  valley  toward  Fukui.  It  was  a 
day  of  wind,  light  showers,  and  fitful  flakes  of  snow,  alternating  with 
rifts  of  sunlight  that  lent  unearthly  grandeur  to  the  wrinkled  hills.  A 
brisk  ride  of  two  hours  brought  us  within  sight  of  Fukui.  We  were 
in  a  level  plain  between  two  walls  of  mountains.  Just  as  Nakamura 
cried  out,  "  Yonder  is  Fukui,"  a  burst  of  sunshine  threw  floods  of 
golden  glory  over  the  city. 

I  shall  never  forget  my  emotions,  in  that  sudden  first  glimpse  of  the 
city  embowered  in  trees,  looming  across  the  plain,  amidst  the  air  laden 
with  snow-flakes,  and  seen  in  the  light  reflected  from  storm-clouds. 
There  were  no  spires,  golden-vaned ;  no  massive  pediments,  facades,  or 
grand  buildings  such  as  strike  the  eye  on  beholding  a  city  in  the  West' 


424  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMFIRB. 

ern  world.  I  had  formed  some  conception  of  Fulcui  while  in  Amen- 
ca :  something  vaguely  grand,  mistily  imposing — I  knew  not  what.  I 
now  saw  simply  a  dark,  vast  array  of  low-roofed  houses,  colossal  tem- 
ples, gables,  castle-towers,  tufts  of  bamboo,  and  groves  of  trees.  This 
was  Fukui. 

As  usual,  officers  came  out  at  the  city  limits  to  meet  us.  We  rode 
through  the  streets,  thronged  with  eagerly  curious  people.  The  thor- 
oughfares were  those  of  an  ordinary  Japanese  town,  not  of  my  ideal 
Fukui.  In  a  few  minutes  we  crossed  a  bridge  over  a  river,  suddenly 
stopped,  entered  the  gate  of  a  handsome  court-yard  lined  with  trees, 
and  before  the  door  of  a  fine  large  old  house  dismounted  and  entered. 
I  was  welcomed  by  several  officers,  all  in  their  best  silks,  swords,  san- 
dals, and  top-knots,  with  bows,  and  such  awkward  but  hearty  hand- 
shakings as  men  unused  to  it  might  be  supposed  to  achieve. 

I  then  entered  my  future  abode.  It  was  a  Japanese  house,  foreign- 
ized  by  American  comforts.  All  the  partitions  and  windows  were  of 
glass.  A  Peekskill  stove,  with  pipe  and  fire,  was  up,  and  glowing  a 
welcome.  I  found  a  handsome  bedstead,  wash-stand,  and  good  furni- 
ture. How  did  all  this  come  here?  I  soon  understood  it,  for  one 
merry-eyed  officer  told  me,  in  broken  English,  "  I  been  in  New  York. 
I  understand.  You  like  ?"  I  immediately  seized  the  speaker's  hand, 
and  made  him  my  friend.  Sasaki  (well  named  Tree  of  Help)  was  aft- 
erward my  right-hand  man.  Then  followed  the  dinner.  This  feature 
of  foreign  civilization  was  specially  attractive  to  the  Japanese.  To 
sit  at  a  huge  table  on  chairs,  with  plates,  knives,  forks,  casters,  and 
epergne ;  to  experience  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  soup,  fish,  vege- 
tables, flesh,  and  fowl,  with  the  glittering  gastronomic  tools ;  to  tickle 
the  palate  and  gorge  the  stomach  with  meat  and  wine  and  luscious 
sweets,  seemed  to  them  a  sure  proof  of  the  superiority  of  foreign  civil- 
ization. Eight  of  us  sat  down  to  a  foreign  dinner  of  manifold  courses 
of  fluid  and  solid  fare,  my  own  cook  having  arrived  in  Fukui  the  day 
before.  The  officers  left  me,  and  I  spent  the  day  in  unpacking  trunks, 
and  adorning  my  room  so  as  to  give  an  American  home-look  to  my 
quarters. 

In  the  evening  I  had  a  call  from  an  officer  who  came  to  pay  his  re- 
spects to  the  foreign  instructor.  I  invited  him  to  stay  to  supper. 
He  did  so.  Fortunately  he  understood  a  little  English,  having  spent 
some  time  in  Yokohama.  He  gave  me  much  useful  information.  He 
invited  me  to  make  his  home  a  place  of  daily  resort.  He  offered  to 
assist  me  in  the  choice  of  a  good  servant,  a  good  horse,  the  best  flow- 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  JAPAN. 


425 


ers,  pictures,  curiosities,  and  whatever  I  might  wish  to  buy.  He  also 
taught  me  the  vahie,  symbols,  and  denominations  of  the  local  paper 
money  of  Fukui.     I  was  already  familiar  with  the  national  kinsatsu 

(money  cards).  A  fac-simile  of  a  nishiu 
piece,  worth  about  twelve  cents,  is  given 
in  the  cut.  The  ten  and  one  rio  (dollar), 
and  bu  (quarter)  pieces  are  much  larger. 
The  dragons  with  horns,  hair,  scales,  claws, 
and  mustaches,  jewel  and  mikado  crests, 
are  very  conspicuous.  The  Chinese  char- 
acters read  "  Money,  nishiu,"  and  "  Mim 
Bu  Sho,  Currency  Office." 

For  centuries  past,  every  great  daimio 
has  issued  paper  money  current  only  in 
his  han.  There  are  over  one  hundred 
local  varieties  in  the  empire,  of  varied  col- 
ors, values,  and  sizes.  The  Fukui  denom- 
inations were  one -tenth,  one -fifth,  one- 
half  :  one,  three,  five,  ten,  and  fifty  cents. 
The  designs  on  them  are  the  God  of 
Wealth,  the  treasure-ship  which  every  Jap- 
anese hopes  to  have  "  come  in,"  the  pile 
of  kobans  (oval  gold  coins)  which  he  ex- 
pects to  "  raise,"  bags  of  rice — the  stand- 
Fac-simiie  of  Kinsatsu.   Issue  of  ard  of  value — dragons,  flowers,  birds,  and 

the  zoology  of  the  zodiac. 
The  officer  further  said  I  must  have  relaxation.     He  offered  to 
show  me  the  fairest  and  brightest  maiden,  whom  I  might  bring  to  my 
house,  and  make  my  playmate.    I  thanked  him,  and  accepted  all  his 
offers  but  the  last. 

The  night  was  clear  and  cold.  The  same  familiar  stars  glittered 
overhead  as  those  seen  in  the  home  sky.  The  wild  geese  sailed  in  the 
bright  air,  the  moon  bathing  their  plumage  in  silver.  The  temple-bell 
boomed  solemnly  as  I  lay  down  to  rest. 


426 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE, 


VIII. 

RECEPTION  BY  THE  DAIMIO.—MT  STUDENTS. 

The  next  day  was  a  Sabbath  in  a  Sabbathless  land.  I  awoke  to 
■find  a  perfect  day — a  heaven  of  cloudless  blue,  and  every  thing  quiet 
and  still.  How  should  I  spend  Sunday  here  ?  There  were  no  church- 
bells  pealing,  no  church,  no  pews,  no  pulpit,  no  street -cars,  no  pave- 
ment, no  Sunday-school,  no  familiar  friends.  I  walked  to  the  gate 
of  the  court-yard  and  looked  out  upon  the  street.  Business  and  traf- 
fic were  going  on  as  usual.  The  samurai  on  clogs,  in  his  silk  and 
crested  coat,  swords  in  girdle  and  cue  on  clean -shorn  crown,  was 
walking  on,  in  his  dignity,  as  the  lord  of  society.  The  priest,  in  his 
flowing  crape  and  brocade  collar,  with  shaven  head,  and  rosary  on 


On  the  Tow-path.    (Hokusai.) 

wnst,  was  on  his  way  to  the  temple.  The  merchant,  in  his  plain, 
wadded  cotton  clothes,  tight  breeches,  and  white  -  thonged  sandals  of 
straw,  was  thinking  of  his  bargains.  The  laborer,  half  naked  and 
half  covered  in  the  fabrics  of  Eden,  in  sandals  of  rice-straw,  tunic,  and 
hat,  making  himself  a  fulcrum  for  his  scale-like  method  of  carrying 
heavy  burdens,  passed  staggering  by.  A  file  of  his  brethren,  with 
hats  in  the  shape  of  inverted  wash-bowls,  engaged  on  some  heavy  work 
at  the  river-side,  were  resting  on  a  log,  looking,  in  the  distance,  like  a 
row  of  exaggerated  toad-stools.     The  seller  of  fish,  vegetables,  oil,  and 


RECEPTION  BY  THE  DAIMIO.—MY  STUDENTS.  427 

bean-cheese,  each  uttering  his  trade-cry,  ambled  on.  On  the  opposite 
shore,  with  ropes  over  their  shoulders,  a  gang  of  straw-clad  men — not 
mules — were  towing  a  boat  up  stream,  against  the  current. 

I  returned  indoors.  Breakfast  over,  I  sought  the  companionship  of 
my  dear,  silent  friends,  which  I  had  brought  with  me,  and  which  had 
not  yet  been  arranged,  though  I  had  already  made  my  plans  for  a 
book-case.  It  was  about  half-past  nine,  when  the  gate  at  the  end  of 
the  court-yard  opened,  and  in  rode  Nakamura,  my  guard  of  yesterday. 
Behind  him  came  three  of  the  daimio's  grooms,  one  of  them  leading 
a  gorgeously  caparisoned  horse.  The  grooms  were  dressed  in  only  one 
garment,  a  loose  blue  coat  coming  to  a  little  below  the  hips,  with 
socks  on  his  feet,  and  the  usual  white  loin-cloth  around  his  waist. 
On  the  back  of  his  coat  was  the  crest  of  his  prince.  The  horse  was 
the  most  richly  dressed.  It  was  decked  as  if  for  a  tournament  or 
ball.  Its  tail  was  incased  in  a  long  bag  of  figured  blue  silk,  which 
was  tied  at  the  root  with  red  silk  cord  and  tassels.  The  hair  of  the 
mane  and  top-knot  was  collected  into  a  dozen  or  more  tufts  bound 
round  with  white  silk,  and  resembling  so  many  brushes  or  pompons. 
The  saddle  was  an  elaborate  piece  of  furniture,  lacquered  and  gilded 
with  the  crests  of  Tokugawa.  The  saddle-cloths  and  flaps  were  of 
corrugated  leather,  stamped  in  gold.  The  stirrups  were  as  large  as 
shovels,  and  the  rider,  removing  his  sandals  when  he  mounted,  rested 
the  entire  soles  of  his  feet  in  them.  The  material  was  bronze,  orna- 
mented with  a  mosaic  of  silver  and  gold.  The  bridle  was  a  scarf  of 
silk,  and  the  bit  and  halter  different  from  any  I  had  seen  elsewhere. 
From  the  saddle,  crupper,  and  halter  depended  silken  cords  and  tassels. 
Altogether,  it  reminded  me  of  one  of  the  steeds  on  the  Field  of  the 
Cloth  of  Gold.  The  horse  had  been  sent  to  convey  me  to  meet  the 
prince  and  his  chief  oflScers,  who  were  to  receive  me  in  the  main  room 
of  the  Han  Cho,  or  Government  Office.  Nakamura  was  to  escort  me, 
and  Iwabuchi  was  to  be  present,  to  speak  for  us. 

We  mounted  and  rode  along  the  wide  street  facing  the  castle-moat, 
which  was  lined  on  one  side  by  the  yashikis  of  the  chief  men  of  the 
clan,  and  called  Daimio  Avenue.  A  few  minutes'  ride  brought  us  to 
one  of  the  gates  called  Priests'  Gate,  and,  riding  inside  of  another  wall 
and  moat,  we  reached  the  main  entrance  to  the  Han  Cho,  and  dis- 
mounted. The  gate  was  the  same  as  that  seen  in  front  of  all  large 
yashikis  and  official  places  in  Japan,  like  two  massive  crosses  with 
their  arms  joined  end  to  end.  We  passed  up  the  broad  stone  path 
through  a  yard  covered  with  pebbles.     Before  the  door  was  a  large 


428  THE  HIE  ADO'S  EMPIRE. 

raised  portico  or  vestibule.  Kneeling  pages  waited  to  receive  us,  and 
an  officer  in  rustling  silk  came  out  to  welcome  us. 

We  removed  our  shoes  and  entered.  Passing  along  a  corridor  of 
soft  and  scrupulously  clean  mats,  we  reached  the  hall  of  audience,  into 
which  we  were  ushered  with  due  ceremony.  The  pages  and  attend- 
ants kneeled  down,  while  the  daimio  and  his  six  ministers  rose  to  re- 
ceive us.  Tables,  chairs,  and  hand  -  shakings  were  new  things  then, 
yet  they  were  there.  I  advanced  and  bowed  to  the  prince,  who  ap- 
proached me  and  extended  his  hand,  uttering  what  I  afterward  learned 
were  words  of  welcome.  After  shaking  hands,  he  put  an  autograph 
letter  in  my  hand.  Iwabuchi  from  the  first  had  fallen  down  on  his 
hands,  knees,  and  face,  and  talked  with  uplifted  eyes.  I  was  next  in- 
troduced to  his  long-named  high  retainers,  and  then  we  all  sat  down 
to  the  table.  It  was  piled  up  with  tall  pyramids  of  half -peeled 
oranges  and  sliced  sponge-cake — the  usual  orthodox  Japanese  refresh- 
ments. In  the  centre  was  a  huge  bouquet,  composed  entirely  of  twigs 
of  plum  blossoms  and  the  steely,  silver-glossy  shoots  of  a  wild  plant, 
surrounded  at  the  base  with  camellias  of  many  tints,  both  single  and 
double.  The  little  pages — pretty  boys  of  ten  or  twelve — brought  us 
tiny  cups  of  tea  in  metal  sockets.  As  we  lifted  out  the  cups,  they 
bowed  low,  and  slid  away. 

The  prince  and  his  ministers  handed  me  their  cards,  imposing  slips 
of  white  paper,  inscribed  with  their  names  and  titles  in  Chinese  char- 
acters.    They  were  as  follows : 

Matsudaira  Mochiaki,  Governor  of  the  Fukui  Han ;  Ogasawara 
Morinori,  Daisanji  (Great  Minister)  ;  Murata  TJjihisa,  Daisanji  (Great 
Minister) ;  Sembon  Hisanobu  (Vice-great  Minister) ;  Otani  (Minister) ; 
Omiya  Sadakiyo  (Chamberlain). 

Then  followed  a  lively  conversation,  which  kept  Iwabuchi's  two 
tongues  busy  for  nearly  an  hour.  Icy  etiquette  melted  into  good-hu- 
mor, and  good -humor  flowed  into  fun.  At  the  end  of  that  time  we 
had  made  the  mutual  discovery  that  we  could  get  along  together  very 
well.  American  freedom  and  Japanese  ease  made  strangers  friends.  Ed- 
ucation and  culture  easily  bridge  the  gulf  that  lies  between  two  races, 
religions,  and  civilizations.  I  felt  perfectly  at  home  in  the  presence  of 
these  courtly  and  polished  gentlemen,  and  an  hour  passed  very  pleasantly. 

The  daimio' s  autograph  letter  ran  as  follows : 

"  It  is  a  matter  of  congratulation  that  the  President  of  your  coun- 
try is  in  good  health. 


RECEPTION  BY  THE  DAUflO.—MY  STUDENTS. 


429 


"  I  greatly  rejoice  and  am  obliged  to  you  that  you  have  arrived  so 
promptly  from  so  great  distance  over  seas  and  mountains,  to  teach  the 
sciences  to  the  youth  of  Fukui, 

"  Concerning  matters  connected  with  the  school  and  students,  the 
oflBcers  in  charge  of  education  will  duly  consult  you. 

"  As  Fukui  is  a  secluded  place,  you  will  be  inconvenienced  in  many 
respects.  Whenever  you  have  need  of  any  thing,  please  make  your 
wants  known  without  ceremony. 

"Matsudaira,  Fukui  Han-Chijiy 


These  words  struck  the  key-note  of  my  whole  reception  in  Fukui. 
During  the  entire  year  of  my  residence,  unceasing  kindnesses  were 
showered  upon  me.  From  the  prince  and  officers  to  the  students, 
citizens,  and  the  children,  who  learned  to  know  me  and  welcome  me 
with  smiles  and  bows  and  "  Good-morning,  teacher,"  I  have  nothing 
to  record  but  respect,  consideration,  sympathy,  and  kindness.  My  eyes 
were  opened.  I  needed  no  revolver,  nor  were  guards  necessary.  I 
won  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  among  the  happiest  memories  are 
those  of  Fukui. 

Among  those  whom  I  learned  to  love  was  the  little  son  of  the  dai- 
mio,  a  sprightly,  laughing  little  fellow,  four  or  five  years  old,  with  snap- 
ping eyes,  full  of  fun,  and  as  lively 
as  an  American  boy.  Little  Mat- 
sudaira wore  a  gold-hilted  short 
sword  in  his  girdle ;  while  a  lad 
of  thirteen,  his  sword-bearer,  at- 
tended him,  to  carry  the  longer   

badge  of  rank.  His  head  was 
shaved,  except  a  round  space  like 
a  cap,  from  which  a  tiny  cue  pro- 
jected. The  photograph  which 
his  father  gave  me  and  the  wood- 
cut do  but  scant  justice  to  the 
exquisitely  delicate  brown  tint 
of  his  skin,  flushed  with  health, 
his  twinkling  black  eyes,  his  rosy 
cheeks,  and  his  arch  ways,  that 
convinced  his  mother  that  he  was 
the  most  beautiful  child  ever  born  of  woman.  I  often  met  him  in 
Fukui  and,  later,  in  Tokio.    He  is  to  be  educated  in  the  United  States. 

28 


A  Little  DaimiO.    (From  a  photograph.) 


430  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

As  yet  I  had  seen  little  of  the  city  in  which  I  expected  to  dwell  for 
three  years.  I  had  reached  the  goal  of  my  journeyings.  Hitherto,  in 
all  my  travels,  Fukui  loomed  up  in  my  imagination,  and,  spite  of  my 
actual  experience  of  Japanese  towns,  the  ideal  Fukui  was  a  grand  city. 
All  the  excitement  of  travel  was  now  over,  and  I  was  to  see  the  actual 
Fukui.  I  rode  around  the  castle  circuit,  and  out  into  the  city,  and  for 
a  long  distance  through  its  streets.  I  was  amazed  at  the  utter  pover- 
ty of  the  people,  the  contemptible  houses,  and  the  tumble-down  look 
of  the  city,  as  compared  with  the  trim  dwellings  of  an  American  town. 
I  rode  through  many  streets,  expecting  at  last  to  emerge  into  some 
splendid  avenue.  I  rode  in  vain ;  and,  as  I  rode,  the  scales  fell  from 
my  eyes.  There  was  no  more  excitement  now  to  weave  films  of  gla- 
mour before  my  vision.  I  saw  through  the  achromatic  glasses  of  act- 
uality. I  realized  what  a  Japanese — an  Asiatic  city — was.  All  the 
houses  of  wood,  the  people  poor,  the  streets  muddy,  few  signs  of 
wealth,  no  splendid  shops.  Talk  of  Oriental  magnificence  and  luxu- 
ry !  What  nonsense !  I  was  disgusted.  My  heart  sunk.  A  desper- 
ate fit  of  the  blues  seized  me.     I  returned  home,  to  chew  the  cud  of 


gloomy  reflections. 


Servant  before  his  Master. 

Fukui  was  the  home  of  Kusakabe,  my  former  student,  who  died  in 
New  Brunswick.  His  father  had  heard  of  my  coming.  In  the  after- 
noon he  called  to  see  me.  A  lacquered  trayful  of  very  fine  oranges, 
on  which  lay  the  peculiarly  folded  paper,  betokening  a  gift,  and  a  slip 
of  paper  written  with  Chinese  characters  —  the  visiting-card  —  was 
handed  me  by  Sahei,  who,  as  usual,  fell  down  on  all  fours,  with  face 
on  his  hands,  as  though  whispering  to  the  floor.  It  was  the  Oriental 
way  of  visiting  with  a  gift  in  the  hand.  He  had  come  to  the  house 
by  way  of  the  rear  instead  of  the  front  gate,  in  token  of  humility  on 


RECEPTION  BY  THE  DAIMIO.—MT  STUDENTS.  431 

his  part  and  honor  to  mc.  I  bid  my  servant  usher  him  in,  and  a 
sad-looking  man  of  fifty  or  more  years  entered.  Through  Iwabuchi 
his  story  was  soon  told.  His  wife  had  died  of  grief  on  hearing  of 
her  son  dying  a  stranger  in  a  strange  land.  Two  very  young  sons 
were  living.  His  other  children,  five  in  number,  were  dead.  His 
house  was  left  unto  him  desolate.  I  gave  him  the  gold  key  of  the 
Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society,  of  Rutgers  College,  into  which  his  son  had 
been  elected,  he  having  stood  at  the  head  of  his  class.  His  father  re- 
ceived the  emblem  reverently,  lifting  it  to  his  forehead. 

On  the  next  day  my  regular  work  was  to  begin.  Horses  were  sent 
again,  and  I  rode  to  the  school,  a  building  which  was  the  citadel  of 
the  castle,  and  was  once  the  residence  of  the  old  prince.  I  was  met 
by  the  oflScers  of  the  school  in  the  room  I  was  to  occupy.  On  the 
table  were  sponge-cake,  oranges,  and  plum-blossom  bouquets,  as  usual, 
while  the  omnipresent  tea  was  served,  and  the  tiny  pipes  were  smoked. 
It  was  very  evident  that  the  men  who  had  been  desirous  of  a  teacher 
of  chemistry  had  very  nebulous  ideas  about  what  that  science  was. 
Howerver,  they  were  ready,  with  money  and  patience,  to  furnish  the 
necessary  apparatus  and  lecture  -  room ;  and  our  preliminaries  being 
agreed  on,  I  w^as  conducted  through  the  other  rooms  to  see  the  sights 
of  the  school. 

I  was  surprised  to  find  it  so  large  and  flourishing.  There  were  in 
all  about  eight  hundred  students,  comprised  in  the  English,  Chinese, 
Japanese,  medical,  and  military  departments.  A  few  had  been  study- 
ing English  for  two  or  three  years,  under  native  teachers  who  had 
been  in  Nagasaki.  In  the  medical  department  I  found  a  good  collec- 
tion of  Dutch  books,  chiefly  medical  and  scientific,  and  a  fine  pair  of 
French  dissection  models,  of  both  varieties  of  the  human  body.  In 
the  military  school  was  a  library  of  foreign  works  on  military  subjects, 
chiefly  in  English,  several  of  which  had  been  translated  into  Japanese. 
In  one  part  of  the  yard  young  men,  book,  diagram,  or  trowel  in  hand, 
were  constructing  a  miniature  earthwork.  The  school  library,  of  En- 
glish and  American  books — among  which  were  all  of  Kusakabe's — 
was  quite  respectable.  In  the  Chinese  school  I  found  thousands  of 
boxes,  with  sliding  lids,  filled  with  Chinese  and  Japanese  books.  Sev- 
eral hundred  boys  and  young  men  were  squatted  on  the  floor,  with 
their  teachers,  reading  or  committing  lessons  to  memory,  or  writing 
the  Chinese  characters.     Some  had  already  cut  off  their  top-knots.* 

*  In  one  of  the  popular  street-songs  hawked  about  and  sung  in  the  streets  0/ 


432 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


Studeut  buroiiig  the  Midnight  Oil.     (Photograph  fiom  life.) 

At  one  end  of  the  buildings  were  large,  open  places  devoted  to 
physical  exercise.  Several  exhibitions  of  trials  of  skill  in  fencing  and 
wrestling  were  then  made  for  my  benefit.  Six  of  the  students  repair- 
ed to  the  armory  and  put  on  the  defensive  mail,  to  shield  themselves 
in  the  rough  work  before  them — as  Japanese  swords  are  for  use  with 
both  hands,  having  double-handed  hilts  without  guards.  The  foils 
for  fencing  are  made  of  round,  split  bamboo,  and  a  good  blow  will 
make  one  smart,  and  bruise  the  flesh.  So  the  fencing -master  and 
students  first  donned  a  corselet,  with  shoulder-plates  of  hardened  hide 
padded  within,  and  heavily  padded  gauntlets.  On  their  heads  were 
wadded  caps,  having  a  barred  visor  of  stout  iron  grating.  Taking 
their  places,  with  swords  crossed,  they  set  to.     All  the  passes  are  cut- 


Fukui,  Ozaka,  and  Tokio,  at  this  time  was  a  stanza  satirizing  the  three  fashions  of 
wearing  the  hair:  in  Western  style;  in  the  fashion  of  the  Osei,  or  ante-feudal  era; 
and  the  orthodox  samurai  mode.  One's  political  proclivities  were  thus  expressed 
by  his  hair.  An  unshaven  head  with  all  the  hair  worn,  but  made  into  a  top-knot 
cue,  marked  the  wearer  as  a  "  mikado -reverencer,"  or  believer  in  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Osei  era.  A  head  shaven  on  the  mid -scalp  and  temples,  with  cue, 
denoted  one  who  clung  to  the  mediaeval  ideals  of  feudalism.  A  short-haired 
head,  clipped  and  cueless,  like  a  Westerner,  was  a  sign  of  foreignizing  tenden- 
cies. The  students  led  this  fashion.  The  cut  represents  one  at  night,  studying 
by  the  light  of  his  paper  lantern,  inside  which  is  a  dish  of  oil,  with  pith  wick. 
To  the  right  of  his  little  study-table  are  his  brush-pens,  in  their  usual  porcelain 
receptacle;  and  behind  him  is  his  library  or  book-case,  in  which  the  books  are 
ranged,  with  their  edges  outward.  In  a  Japanese  library,  the  titles  of  all  works 
are  marked  on  their  edge  as  well  as  the  cover. 


RECEPTION  BY  THE  DAIMIO.—MY  HTUBENTS.  433 

ting  blows,  thrusting  being  unknown.  Pretty  severe  whacks  are  given, 
and  some  bruising  done,  spite  of  armor.  Foils  are  used  up  like  lances 
in  a  tournament.  The  young  men  kept  up  the  mimic  battle  for  fif- 
teen minutes,  or  as  long  as  their  wind  and  muscle  lasted,  and  the  se- 
vere ordeal  was  over,  the  victory  being  won  by  those  who  had  given 
what  would  have  been  disabling  wounds  had  swords  been  used. 
Then  followed,  by  another  set  of  students,  the  spear  exercise.  Long 
spears  were  used  first,  and  several  fine  passes  in  carte  and  tierce  were 
made ;  the  offensive  and  defensive  were  tried  alternately,  to  show  me 
all  the  various  thrusts  and  foils  of  the  science. 

The  party  having  short  spears  succeeded,  the  manoeuvres  being  dif- 
ferent. So  far  it  was  mere  scientific  display,  no  one  being  severely 
punched.  At  a  signal  of  the  clappers  another  set  took  blunt  spears, 
leaped  into  the  arena,  and  a  sham  fight  began,  the  thrusts  being  real 
lunges  that  knocked  down  and  bruised  the  limbs  or  damaged  the 
breathing  apparatus  of  the  man  put  hors  du  combat  quite  badly.  In 
about  five  minutes  half  the  party  were  down,  and  the  remainder,  all 
crack  lances,  continued  the  battle  for  several  minutes  longer,  with 
some  fine  display,  but  no  mortal  thrusts.  They  were  called  off,  and 
the  men  with  sword  and  cross-spear  began  a  trial  of  skill.  The  cross- 
spear  is  long,  like  a  halberd,  with  a  two-edged  blade  set  at  right  an- 
gles across  it  within  six  inches  from  the  top.  It  is  intended  especially 
for  defense  against  a  sword,  or  a  horse  soldier.  In  this  instance,  one 
or  two  of  the  swordsmen  were  jerked  to  the  floor  or  had  their  helmets 
torn  off;  while,  on  the  other  side,  the  halberdiers  suffered  by  having 
their  poles  struck  by  severing  blows  of  their  opponents'  swords  or 
actually  received  the  *'  pear-splitter  "  stroke  which  was  supposed  to 
cleave  their  skulls. 

Next  followed  wrestling.  Though  a  cold  day  in  winter,  the  stu- 
dents were  dressed  only  in  coarse  sleeveless  coats  of  hemp  cloth.  Ap- 
proaching each  other,  they  clinched  and  threw.  The  object  seemed 
to  be  to  show  how  an  unarmed  man  might  defend  himself.  Wrest- 
lings and  throwings  were  followed  by  sham  exhibitions  that  bore  a 
frightful  resemblance  to  real  choking,  dislocation  of  arm,  wringing  of 
the  neck,  etc.  Throughout  the  exhibition,  the  contestants,  while  at- 
tacking each  other,  uttered  unearthly  yells  and  exclamations.  I  was 
highly  impressed  with  the  display,  and  could  not  fail  to  admire  the 
splendid,  manly  physique  of  many  of  the  lads. 

I  waited  to  see  the  school  dismissed,  that  I  might  see  my  pupils  in 
the  open  air.     At  the  tapping  of  the  clapperless  bell,  the  students  put 


434  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

away  their  brushes,  ink -stones,  and  sticks  of  ink,  wrapped  up  their 
books  and  portable  matter  in  square  pieces  of  silk  or  calico,  making 
neat  bundles ;  put  their  short  swords,  which  lay  at  their  sides,  in  their 
girdles ;  and  each  and  all  bowing  low,  with  face  to  the  floor,  to  their 
teachers,  rose  up  and  went,  first,  to  the  sword -room  to  put  on  their 
long  swords.  This  was  a  large  apartment  near  the  entrance,  in  which 
were  rows  of  numbered  racks,  containing  seven  hundred  or  more 
swords.  Each  student  presented  his  check  or  ticket  of  branded  pine 
wood,  and  his  sword  was  handed  him  by  one  of  the  keepers.  Thrust- 
ing it  in  his  girdle,  and  adjusting  the  pair,  each  scholar  passed  to  the 
clog-room,  where  seven  hundred  pairs  of  clogs  or  sandals  were  stow- 
ed in  numbered  order.  These  set  on  the  ground,  and  the  owner's 
toes  bifurcating  into  the  thong,  the  student  added  a  half-cubit  to  his 
stature,  and  trudged  homeward.  The  scraping  and  clatter  of  hundreds 
of  wooden  clogs  over  the  long  stone  bridge  were  deafening.  All  were 
'  bare  -  headed,  with  the  top  -  knot,  cue,  and  shaven  mid  -  scalp,  most  of 
them  with  bare  feet  on  their  clogs,  and  with  their  characteristic  dress, 
swagger,  fierce  looks,  bare  skin  exposed  at  the  scalp,  neck,  arms,  calves, 
and  feet,  with  their  murderous  swords  in  their  belts,  they  impressed 
upon  my  memory  a  picture  of  feudalism  I  shall  never  forget. 

As  I  walked,  I  wondered  how  long  it  would  require  to  civilize  such 
"  barbarians."  Here  were  nearly  a  thousand  young  samurai.  What 
was  one  teacher  among  so  many  ?  Could  it  be  possible  that  these 
could  be  trained  to  be  disciplined  students  ?  These  were  my  thoughts 
then.  A  few  months  later,  and  I  had  won  their  confidence  and  love. 
I  found  they  were  quite  able  to  instruct  me  in  many  things.  I  need 
fear  to  lose  neither  politeness  nor  sense  of  honor  among  these  earnest 
youth.  In  pride  and  dignity  of  character,  in  diligence,  courage,  gen- 
tlemanly conduct,  refinement  and  affection,  truth  and  honesty,  good 
morals,  in  so  far  as  I  knew  or  could  see,  they  were  my  peers.  Love 
is  always  blind,  they  say.     Was  it  so  in  this  case  ? 


LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HO  USE.  435 


IX. 

LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HOUSE. 

Now  that  the  excitement  of  travel  was  over,  I  settled  down  to  my 
duties,  to  sm-vey  the  place  and  surroundings,  and  to  try  and  under- 
stand the  life  around  me.     I  first  examined  my  quarters. 

The  old  mansion  assigned  to  me  was  one  hundred  and  ninety-seven 
years  old.  It  had  been  in  possession  of  the  same  family  during  that 
period.  The  house  had  been  built  on  part  of  the  site  of  Shibata's  old 
castle,  in  which  he  and  his  band  committed  hara-kiri  and  underwent 
voluntary  cremation.  Across  the  river  rose  Atago  yama.  On  this 
hill,  Hideyoshi  encamped  with  his  army.  A  few  score  feet  to  the 
west  of  my  gate  was  a  stone  on  which  tradition  says  Shibata  stood 
when  he  drew  an  arrow  to  the  head,  and  shot  it  into  his  enemy's 
camp,  splitting  the  pole  of  the  canopy,  or  mammoth  umbrella,  under 
which  Hideyoshi  sat.  The  moat  which  bounded  the  north  side  of 
my  estate  was  part  of  the  old  fortress,  and  a  few  rods  eastward  stood 
a  gate-way  still  intact,  though  no  "  harsh  thunder "  could  be  grated 
from  its  hinges,  which  rust  had  long  united  together.  My  whole 
estate  was  classic  soil,  and  I  suspect  more  than  one  old  conservative 
growled  to  see  the  foreigner  on  the  spot  made  sacred  by  Echizen's 
greatest  hero,  whose  devotion  to  Yamato  damashi  ideals  had  been  at- 
tested in  blood,  fire,  and  ashes. 

It  was  a  grand  old  house  of  solid  timber,  with  spacious  rooms,  and 
long,  well-lighted  corridors.  It  was  sixty  feet  broad,  by  one  hundred 
feet  deep.  Though  of  .one  story,  it  had  an  immense  and  lofty  sloping 
roof  and  shaggy  eaves.  The  rooms  numbered  twelve  in  all.  The 
floors  were  laid  with  soft  neat  mats,  and  the  paper  sliding  screens 
could  all  be  taken  out,  if  need  were,  to  make  a  hall  of  vast  area  with 
manv  square  columns.  The  corridors,  which  were  ten  feet  wide,  passed 
outside  the  rooms,  yet  were  part  of  the  house.  The  walls,  where  solid, 
were  papered.  The  ceiling,  of  fine  grained  wood,  was  twelve  feet  from 
the  floor.     In  the  rear  were  the  kitchen  and  servants'  quarters. 

The  entire  estate  comprised  about  ten  acres,  the  sides  of  which,  ex- 


436 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


tending  inward  to  a  depth  of  thirty  feet,  were  lined  with  the  dwellings 
of  the  former  retainers  and  servants.  In  the  central  area  had  been 
gardens  and  stables. 

All  these  accessories  to  the  mansion  were  in  the  rear.    The  front  of 
the  house  looked  out  upon  a  long,  beautiful  garden.     To  the  left  was 
a  wall  of  tiles  and  cement,  too  high  for  any  inquisitive  eyes  to  peep 
over,  which  extended  all  around  the  inclosure.     Along  the  inner  side 
was  a  row  of  firs.     These  trees  had  been  planted  by  the  first  ancestor 
of  the  family  that  had  followed  Hideyasu  to  Fukui  in  the  sixteenth 
century.     They  were  now  tall  and  grave  sentinels,  of  mighty  girth 
and  wide-spreading  limbs,  that  measured  their  height  by  rods  and  their 
shadows  by  furlongs.     By  day  they  cast  grateful  shade,  and  at  night 
sifted  the  moonbeams,  over  the  path.     Near  the  end  of  the  court-yard 
was  the  main  gate,  made  of  whole  tree-trunks,  and  crowned  by  an  im- 
posing roof.     Just  within  it  was  the  porter's 
lodge,  where  a  studious  old  mom-ban  (gate- 
keeper) kept  watch  and  ward  over  the  port- 
al, through  which  none  could  enter  except 
men  of  rank  and  office.     He  usually  had 
his  nose  inside  a  book  when  I  saw  him,  for 
he  w'as  a  great  reader,  and  near-sighted. 
Near  the  lodge  was  a  clump  of  trees,  and 
beneath  their  shadow  and  protection  had 
It  was  an  ark  cut  out  of  solid  stone,  four 
feet  high.     Within  it  had  been  the  sacred  vases,  mirror,  and  white 
paper,  all  holy  symbols  of  the  Shinto  faith,  which  the  family  pro- 
fessed.    All  around  the  now  neglected  garden  were  blossoming  ca- 
mellias, red  as  maiden  blushes,  or  white  as  unstained  innocence.     On 
another  hillock,  tufted  here  and  there  with  azaleas  and  asters,  were 
several  dwarfed  pines.     The  rockery  and  fish-pond,  long  neglected, 
were  overgrown  and  scarcely  perceptible.     Evidently  it  had  been  a 
charming  place  of  great  beauty,  for  the  traces  were  yet  to  be  seen 
of  former  care  and  adornment.     To  the  right  was  an  arm  of  one  of 
the  castle  moats,  full  of  running  water.     Beyond  its  banks  and  mossy 
and  flower-decked  stone  walls  were  the  gardens  of  several  samurai 
families,  in  which  sweet  rosy-cheeked  children  played,  or  boys  fished, 
or  pretty  girls  came  down  to  look  at  the  lotus  -  flowers.     The  echo 
of  their  merry  laugh  often  reached  me.     In  the  deep  parts  of  the 
stream,  clear  as  crystal,  darted  the  black,  silvery,  or  speckled  fish ; 
while  in  the  shallower  portions  great  turtles  crawled  and  stuck  their 


The  Stndions  Gate-keeper. 

been  the  family  shrine. 


LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HOUSE.  437 

wedge-like  noses  above  the  water.  In  summer  the  lotus-flowers  grew 
and  bloomed,  slowly  rising  from  the  long  roots  in  the  ooze,  unfolding 
their  first  emerging  tips  into  glorious  concave  shields  of  green,  two 
feet  in  diameter,  corded  beneath  like  the  veins  of  a  gladiator,  and  hold- 
ing on  their  bosses  translucent  pebbles  of  dew.  Then  rose  the  closed 
bolls,  like  a  clasped  hand  that  trembled  with  the  trembling  water,  giv- 
ing no  sign  of  the  beauty  within  —  the  mighty  flower  in  its  bosom. 
Then,  as  the  sunshine  of  summer  fell  aslant  the  cool  water,  the  boll, 
tenderly  and  shyly,  as  if  afraid,  unfolded  day  by  day  until  the  splen- 
did revelation  of  the  lotus  was  complete.  Massive  shield  and  glorious 
flower  made  a  picture  of  unearthly  loveliness  to  the  child  who  strove 
to  pluck  the  remote  beauty,  or  to  the  adult  to  whom  the  lotus-flower 
is  the  emblem  of  eternal  calm.  The  little  Japanese  child  who  first, 
with  the  glorifying  eyes  of  childhood,  looks  upon  its  purity,  finds  in  it 
an  object  of  unspeakable  delight.  The  mature  believer  in  Buddha 
sees  in  it  shadowed  forth  creative  power,  universe,  and  world-growth. 
The  "  lotus  springs  from  the  mud  "  is  ever  the  answer  of  the  Asiatic 
to  him  who  teaches  that  the  human  heart  is  corrupt,  and  unable  to 
cleanse  itself.  The  calyx  of  the  lotus  is  a  triangle  whose  base  is  a  cir- 
cle— symbols  of  spirit  and  form,  of  eternity  and  triunity.  In  Nirvana, 
Buddha  sits  on  a  lotus-flower.  As  the  mortal  body  of  the  believer  ap- 
proaches the  cremation  house,  that  the  borrowed  elements  of  his  body 
may  be  liberated  from  their  fleshly  prison  and  returned  to  their  pri- 
mordial earth  and  air,  a  stone  carved  to  represent  a  lotus-flower  re- 
ceives the  bier.  To  the  Buddhist  the  lotus  is  a  thing  of  beauty,  a  joy 
forever,  because  the  constant  symbol  of  poetic  and  religious  truth. 

I  was  glad  they  had  put  me  in  this  old  mansion.  It  was  full  of 
suggestive  history.  It  had  been  a  home.  Pagan,  heathen,  Asiatic — 
it  mattered  not ;  it  was  a  home.  Here  in  this  garden  the  infant  had 
been  carried  until  a  child — growing  up,  the  playmate  of  the  flowers 
and  birds,  amidst  Nature,  until  it  knew  her  moods,  and  loved  her  with 
the  passionate  fondness  for  her  which  is  so  intense  in  the  people  of 
these  islands.  Here  children  played  among  the  flowers,  caught  their 
first  butterflies,  began  their  first  stratagem  by  decoying  the  unwary  fish 
with  the  nook,  and  picked  off  the  lotus  petals  for  banners,  the  leaves 
for  sun-shades,  and  the  round  seeds  to  eat,  or  roll  like  marbles.  Then, 
as  the  boys  grew  up,  they  put  on  the  swords,  shaved  off  their  fore-hair, 
and  progressed  in  the  lore  of  Chinese  sages  and  native  historians,  and 
were  fired  with  the  narratives  of  the  exploits  of  Taiko  and  Yoritomo 
and  lyeyasu ;  while  the  girls  grew  in  womanly  grace  and  beauty,  and 


438  THE  3IIKAD0'S  EMPIRE. 

perfected  themselves  in  household  etiquette  and  studied  the  "  Woman's 
Great  Learning."  Then  had  come  the  marriage  ceremonial,  with  no 
spoken  vows,  and  made  without  priest  or  official,  followed  by  festal 
cheer,  wine,  music,  dance,  and  exchange  of  presents.  Here  the  bride 
became  mother.  Hence,  after  one  hundred  days,  she  went  with  her 
child  to  the  temple,  where  the  robed  and  shaven  bonze  wrote  a  name- 
chami;  and  put  it  in  the  child's  prayer-bag.     In  this  house  had  been 


The  Wedding  Party.     (From  a  Japanese  painting  on  silk.) 


celebrated  many  a  household  festival.  These  rooms  had  echoed  with 
merry  laughter,  or  resounded  with  the  groans  and  sobs  of  grief.  Hence 
had  gone  out  the  funeral  procession,  when  the  bodies  of  loved  parents 
were  borne  to  the  grave  or  the  cremarium.  The  funeral  cortege,  with 
lanterns,  and  hearse  of  pure  white  wood  borne  on  four  men's  shoulders, 
with  robed  bonzes  and  men  in  ceremonial  dress  and  muffled  swords, 
and  women  in  pure  white  robes  and  half-moon-like  caps  of  floss  silk, 


LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HOUSE.  439 

had  passed  out  this  gate.  Prayers  had  been  read,  candles  lighted,  bells 
tinkled,  the  corpse  laid  on  the  pyre,  and  the  fire  lighted  by  the  broth- 
er of  the  deceased,  and  the  ashes  deposited  in  the  vase  in  the  family 
monument  in  that  cemetery  beside  the  mountain  yonder.  In  this  fam- 
ily oratory  a  new  black  tablet,  gilt-lettered,  was  set  among  the  ances- 
tral names,  to  be  honored  through  coming  generations. 

Every  day  some  new  discovery  showed  me  that  this  had  been  a 
home.  Birth,  marriage,  death,  sickness,  sorrow,  joy,  banquet — all  the 
fullness  of  life,  though  not  like  ours,  had  sanctified  it.  I  thought  of 
the  many  journeys  to  Yedo  and  Kioto  of  the  father  on  business,  the 
sons  on  travel  for  culture  and  education,  and  the  daughter  for  relig- 
ion's sake,  or  to  the  distant  home  of  her  husband.  I  pictured  the 
festival  days,  the  feast  of  dolls  for  the  girls,  when  the  great  nursery- 
room  was  liecked  with  all  the  rich  toys  with  which  girls  delight  to 
mimic  the  real  life  of  motherhood  and  housekeeping,  which  is  but  a 
few  years  off.  There  stood  the  bamboo  poles  on  which  was  hung  the 
huge  paper  carp,  to  show  that  a  boy  had  been  born  during  the  year, 
or  that  the  heir  of  the  house  would  rise  in  the  world  and  surmount 
all  difficulties,  like  a  carp  leaps  the  water-fall.  New-year's-day  had 
come  to  this  house,  the  only  time  when  profound  Sabbath  reigns  in 
Japan,  Then  the  servants  and  retainers  pledged  anew  their  loyalty, 
congTatulated  their  master,  and  received  gifts  of  money  and  clothes. 
I  thought  of  the  religious  festivals  when  the  mansion  and  all  the  ten- 
antry of  the  estate  hung  out  gay  lanterns,  and  the  master's  household, 
like  a  great  heart,  sympathized  in  the  birth,  death,  marriage,  sorrow, 
or  joy  of  the  tenantry.  Thus,  for  centuries  in  this  dwelling,  and  on 
this  ancestral  estate,  lived  the  family  in  peace  and  prosperity. 

Then  came  foreigners  and  many  troubles — civil  war,  revolution,  the 
overthrow  of  the  shogun,  the  restoration  of  the  mikado,  the  threaten- 
ed abolition  of  the  feudal  system.  Great  changes  altered  the  condi- 
tion of  Fukui.  The  revenues  of  the  estate  were  reduced,  the  family 
moved  to  humbler  quarters,  the  retainers  and  tenantry  dispersed,  and 
now  the  foreigner  was  here. 

All  this  I  found  out  gradually,  but  with  each  bit  of  revelation  the 
old  mansion  wore  new  charms.  I  loved  to  walk  in  the  grand  old  gar- 
den at  night,  shut  in  from  all  but  the  stars  and  the  faint  murmur  of 
the  city,  and  the  few  glimmering  lights  on  the  mountain  across  the 
river,  or  when  the  moon  sifted  her  beams  through  the  tall  firs,  or 
bathed  her  face  among  the  lotus-flowers  in  the  moat,  or  silvered  the 
ivy  on  the  v,-all.     I  had  come  hither  to  be  a  builder  of  knowledge,  to 


440  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

help  bring  the  new  civilization  that  must  destroy  the  old.  Yet  it  was 
hard  to  be  an  iconoclast.  I  often  asked  myself  the  question — Why 
not  leave  these  people  alone  ?  They  seem  to  be  happy  enough ;  and 
he  that  increaseth  knowledge  increaseth  sorrow.  The  sacredness  of 
human  belief  and  reverence  had  consecrated  even  the  old  shrine,  and 
other  hands  than  mine  must  remove  the  stones  of  the  deserted  fane. 
What  vulgarity  to  make  a  dining-room  of  the  family  oratory,  where 
the  ancestral  tablets  once  stood,  and  the  sacred  lights  and  incense  burn- 
ed !  I  found  tied  to  the  front  of  the  house  a  case  of  light  wood,  con- 
taining an  amulet,  written  in  Sanskrit  and  Chinese,  for  the  protection 
of  the  house.  I  took  it  down,  for  I  had  no  faith  in  its  protection; 
but  I  kept  it  carefully  as  a  curious  memento,  because  others  had  trust- 
ed in  it,  and  every  thing  human  is  sacred,  even  faith,  if  our  own  is. 
I  found  nailed  on  the  inner  lintel  of  the  great  gate  a  pile  of  charms  of 
thin  wood,  to  ward  off  disease  and  evil.  One  had  been  added  every 
year,  like  strata  upon  strata,  until  the  deposit  was  a  half-foot  thick. 
They  had  on  them  the  name  and  seal  of  the  temple  in  which  they  had 
been  written,  and  were  inscribed  with  Sanskrit  quotations  from  the 
sacred  books. 

Under  the  new  administration,  the  personnel  of  my  establishment 
was  as  follows :  My  interpreter,  Iwabuchi,  occupied  a  pleasant  little 
house  in  the  rear  and  within  call,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  assist  me  when 
visitors  came,  though  most  of  them  went  first  to  Iwabuchi's  house. 
I  found  that  even  in  the  kitchen  the  feudal  spirit  of  grades  and  rante 
was  strictly  observed.  My  cook  had  an  assistant,  who  himself  had  a 
small  boy,  who  often  hired  other  small  boys  to  do  his  work.  My 
"  boy,"  or  body  -  servant,  had  another  man  to  help  him.  Even  the 
betto,  or  groom,  employed  an  underling  to  do  all  the  actual  manual 
work.  Theoretically,  it  required  a  large  force  of  men  to  guard  and 
wait  on  the  foreigner,  and  I  was  amazed  to  find  myself  so  famous  and 
surrounded. 

To  begin  at  the  height  of  rank  and  honor :  first,  there  was  the  dai- 
mio's  officer,  who  had  been  appointed  to  look  after  my  wants.  He 
had  an  office  for  daily  use  in  one  of  the  distant  rooms  of  the  building. 
Under  him  was  a  subofficial,  and  also  a  clerk.  These  three  men  were 
considered  necessary,  as  foreigners  were  known  to  have  many  wants, 
to  require  troublesome  attention.  Then,  the  foreigner  was  a  stranger 
in  the  city  and  neighborhood,  and  as  the  people  were  unfamiliar  with 
men  of  his  strange  breed,  some  of  them  might  insult  him,  or  a  wan- 
dering jo-i  (foreigner  -  hater)  might  kill  him,  in  which  case  an  in- 


LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HOUSE. 


441 


demnity  of  fifty  thousand  dollars  would  have  to  be  paid  by  the  Gov- 
ernment. Hence,  four  stalwart  samurai,  each  with  their  two  swords, 
were  set  apart  for  my  protection.  These  escorted  me  to  and  from 
school,  and  went  with  me  in  my  walks  and  rides,  and  at  first  were 
very  serviceable  guides,  until  my  familiarity  with  the  language  and 
people,  and  my  perception  of  their  perfectly  harmless  character,  made 
these  armed  men  bores.  They  performed  duty  on  alternate  days,  and 
occupied  a  part  of  the  long  house  to  the  left.  Then,  there  were  five 
or  six  of  the  larger  students,  who  wished  to  live  near  their  teacher. 
They  occupied  another  room  under  the  same  roof  with  the  four 
guards.  At  the  rear  entrance  to  the  inclosure  of  my  house  was  an- 
other gate  and  porter's  lodge,  in  which  a  man  kept  watch  and  ward, 
admitting  none  but  the  privileged,  though  all  who  entered  here  were 
of  much  lower  rank  than  those  who  came  to  the  front  gate.  To  man 
the  two  gates — front  and  rear — a  corps  of  eight  men  were  appointed, 
who  did  duty  alternately.  Their  duties  were  not  onerous.  Thev  con- 
sisted in  reading,  eating,  sleeping,  drinking  tea,  bowing  to  me  as  I 
passed,  and  keeping  out  stragglers.  The  long  house,  stretching  away 
to  the  eastward,  was  full  of  folks  of  the  humbler  sort,  with  many  chil- 
dren and  babies,  and  of  dogs  not  a  few.  These  youngsters,  with  their 
quaint  dress,  curiously  shaved  heads,  and  odd  ways,  were  often  a 
source  of  great  amusement  to  me.  The  fun  reached  its  climax  when 
they  attempted  to  walk  bamboo  poles  or  turn  somersaults  on  them, 


Boye  playing  on  Bamboo  Bars.    (Hokusai.) 


442  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

often  in  the  latter  motion  becoming  real  gymiiasts,  in  the  etymolog- 
ical sense  of  the  word.  In  imitating  wrestling-matches,  they  made 
a  small  arena  of  sand  ringed  by  twisted  rice-straw,  and  then  the  nude 
little  dumplings  of  humanity,  some  of  them  less  than  four  years  old, 
stamped  their  feet,  eat  their  salt,  rinsed  their  mouths,  slapped  their 
knees,  and  then  clinched  in  mimic  rage,  tugging  away  until  victory 
was  declared  for  one  or  the  other,  by  the  Lilliputian  judge  with  fan 
in  hand.  Even  the  applause,  to  the  casting  in  the  ring  of  fans  and 
garments  to  be  redeemed,  as  in  the  real  triumph  of  the  elephantine  fat 
fellows,  who  look  as  though  stuffed  with  blubber  by  means  of  a  sau- 
sage-blower, were  given  with  comical  accuracy  of  imitation.  When 
the  infant  Hercules  got  hold  of  his  antagonist's  clout  —  the  master- 
grip  of  the  game,  which  put  the  unlucky  one  "  in  chancery,"  a  shout 


The  Grip  of  Victory. 


went  up  from  the  spectators  like  the  Roman  "AaSe^"  or  the  modern 
prize-fighter's  cheers.  Even  the  dogs  seemed  to  enjoy  the  fun,  while 
mothers  and  nurse -maids,  with  babies  strapped  on  their  backs,  over- 
flowed in  a  new  stream  of  palaver. 

Of  the  inmates  of  my  house  I  must  not  omit  mention.  My  serv- 
ant was  selected  and  brought  to  me  on  the  first  day  of  my  arrival,  and 
shown  his  future  master.  Falling  down  upon  his  hands  and  knees, 
and  bowing  his  forehead  to  the  floor,  he  murmured  something  which 
was  meant  to  be  a  promise  of  good  and  faithful  service.  Then,  rais- 
ing his  body,  he  sat  upon  his  knees  and  heels,  and  waited  further  or- 
ders. I  own  I  was  not  prepossessed.  Sahei  was  less  than  sixty  inches 
high,  with  a  remarkably  ugly  phiz,  thick  protruding  lips,  flat  nose — not 
always  scrupulously  attended  to — and  eyes  of  the  dull,  alligator  hue  so 
common  among  the  lower  classes.     His  skin  was  of  the  most  unsatis- 


LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HOUSE.  443 

factory  tint.  His  motions  were  ungraceful.  His  hands  and  feet,  for 
a  Nihonese,  were  clumsy.  His  scalp  and  cue — strong  points  in  the 
tout  ensemble  of  a  handsome  native  —  were  not  attractive.  My  first 
sight  of  him  awakened  regrets  that  Sasaki  had  not  selected  a  hand- 
somer specimen  of  his  people  to  wait  on  me.  When  one  has  a  stran- 
ger daily  under  his  nose  and  eyes,  the  aesthetics  of  physical  form  and 
face  assume  a  vast  degree  of  importance.  I  yearned  for  a  more  comely 
form,  more  attractive  face,  and  more  delicately  tinted  skin.  I  thought 
of  the  pretty  pages  in  the  prince's  palace,  and  the  fine-looking  boys 
with  smooth,  cafe-au-lait  skins  and  rosy  cheeks  in  school.  "  I  shall 
keep  Sahei  a  few  weeks  in  deference  to  the  official  who  recommended 
him ;  then  I  shall  get  a  handsomer  boy,"  thought  I,  as  I  dismissed 
him  for  a  while.  I  was  also  at  first  disappointed  in  my  new  servant, 
supposing  him  to  be  single.  I  had  intended  to  have  a  married  man 
with  a  family,  that  I  might  be  able  to  see  more  of  actual  Japanese  life 
under  my  own  roof.  A  bachelor's  quarters  afford  a  poor  field  for  the 
study  of  the  home  life  of  a  people.  I  was  greatly  and  pleasantly  dis- 
appointed. Sahei  was  not  from  the  rice-fields.  He  had  traveled  to 
Tokio,  had  been  in  the  war  as  a  page,  and  was  intelligent  and  fit  to 
wait  on  a  gentleman.  He  had  once  been  a  carpenter  by  trade,  and 
could  do  handy  jobs  about  the  house,  and  he  did  help  me  greatly  to 
make  things  comfortable  when  it  would  cost  too  much  time  and  trou- 
ble to  set  the  whole  official  machinery  of  Fukui  in  motion  to  drive  a 
nail,  or  put  up  a  shelf  for  flower-vase,  or  a  little  Paris  clock.  Sahei 
was  more  comely  in  character  than  in  person.  Cheerful,  faithful,  dili- 
gent, careful  of  his  master,  quick  to  answer  his  call,  tender  of  him  as 
to  a  child,  and  though  a  heathen,  Sahei  was,  according  to  Pope's  defi- 
nition, the  noblest  work  of  God.  He  was  not  only  honest  in  handling 
his  master's  money,  but  as  alert  as  a  watch-dog  to  guard  against  im- 
position, or  loss  through  ignorance.  Furthermore,  Sahei  had  a  family 
— wife,  baby,  and  child's  maid.  This  I  did  not  learn  until  a  week  aft- 
erward, when  he  came  to  announce  with  shame,  and  as  if  expecting  my 
displeasure,  that  he  had  a  wife ;  she  waiting  behind  the  entry  door-way 
to  hear  what  the  danna  san  (master)  would  say.  Might  he  present 
her  to  me?  His  delight  at  my  pleased  surprise  betrayed  itself  in  a 
broad  grin,  and  in  a  moment  more  he  was  leading  his  baby  by  the 
hand,  while  his  wife  waddled  forward,  accompanied  by  her  little  maid. 
Mother,  baby,  and  maid,  in  succession,  fell  on  their  knees,  and  polished 
their  foreheads  on  their  hands  laid  prone  on  the  matting.  Then,  sit- 
ting on  their  heels,  they  bashfully  looked  up  at  their  new  master.     I 


444  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

bid  them  all  stand  up,  and  took  their  photograph  in  my  eye.  The 
imposing  physique  of  Mrs.  Sahei  utterly  dwarfed  her  insignificant  lord, 
and  suggested  a  contrast  between  a  pudding  and  a  tart.  She  was  of 
healthily  tinted  skin  of  lighter  shade,  with  black  eyes  that  sparkled 
as  though  her  head  were  a  voltaic  battery  and  her  eyes  the  terminals. 
Closer  acquaintance  confirmed  my  impressions  of  her.  She  was  an  af- 
fectionate mother,  and  a  jealous  and  careful  wife.  Continually  bub- 
bling over  with  fun,  she  reminded  me,  when  laughing,  of  a  bowl  full  of 
jelly  when  well  shaken.  She  was  a  diligent  worker.  Her  tongue  was 
as  sharp  as  a  freshly  honed  razor,  especially  after  her  liege  lord  had 
spent  too  much  money  on  geishas  and  sake ;  for  the  otherwise  exem- 
plary Sahei  had  two  weaknesses,  which  were  evident  even  to  his  mas- 
ter. He  would  occasionally  make  his  throat  a  funnel  for  sake,  and  he 
delighted  to  spend  an  occasional  evening  amidst  the  fascinations  of 
the  singing  girls,  coming  home  late  at  night,  with  flushed  veins  and  a 
damaged  purse,  to  meet  with  a  Caudle  lecture  on  his  return.  Here 
was  the  bakufu,  or  "  curtain  government,"  of  a  sort  quite  different  from 
that  we  read  of  at  Kamakura.  I  always  knew,  by  Sahei's  sheepish 
looks  and  the  general  flavor  of  demoralization  in  his  appearance  next 
morning,  when  he  had  been  eating  forbidden  and  costly  fruit. 

The  baby  was  as  pretty  and  bright-eyed  a  morsel  of  flesh  as  one 
could  wish  to  see.  His  name  was  Sataro  (first-born  darling  of  Sahei). 
He  was  two  years  old,  just  able  to  keep  his  centre  of  gravity,  and  voy- 
age across  the  rooms  and  through  the  house,  with  only  an  occasional 
sprawl  on  the  matting.  Baby,  on  his  first  introduction,  bobbed  his 
head  in  adult  style,  and  chirped  out, "  Okaio,  sensei "  (good-morning, 
teacher),  his  baby  talk  making  it  sound  like  "  chen-chey."  I  immedi- 
ately dubbed  him  "  Chenkey."  Let  me  give  his  photograph.  Chen- 
key  was  a  chubby  boy,  with  rosy  cheeks,  sparkling  black  eyes,  skin  al- 
most as  light  in  tint  and  as  soft  and  smooth  as  an  American  mother's 
darling.  His  head  was  shaved  entirely,  except  a  round  spot  on  the 
back  part ;  his  mother  shaved  his  diminutive  pate  once  a  week,  and 
usually  kept  him  so  sweet  and  wholesome  that  a  romp  with  him  rare- 
ly involved  damage  from  sticky  lips  or  soiled  baby  hands. 

I  must  not  forget  Obun  (tea-tray),  the  little  maid  who  attended  to 
Chenkey,  carried  him  about,  dressed  him,  and  made  her  back  a  seat 
for  him.  Obun  was  eleven  years  old,  a  thin,  frail,  sad-looking  child, 
that  freshened  up  under  a  kind  word  like  a  wilted  flower  when  touched 
by  rain-drops.  Obun  evidently  had  heard  the  dreadful  stories  about 
the  foreigners,  and  believed  them.    Timidly,  and  with  suppressed  fear, 


LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HOUSE. 


445 


she  had  come  to  greet  the  sensei,  and  only  after  days  and  weeks  of  fa- 
miliar intercourse  and  serving  me  at  table  could  she  lay  aside  her  fears. 
Even  then  she  was  a  sad-eyed,  dreamy  child,  always  looking  down  deep- 
ly and  solemnly  into  flowers,  or  gazing  at  the  blue  sky  or  the  distant 
mountains,  or  watching  the  stars  at  evening.  Obun  had  had  a  hard 
life  of  it.  Her  mother  had  died  in  giving  her  birth,  and  the  orphan 
was  then  bandied  about  among  nurses  and  relatives  until  she  was  old 
enough  to  take  care  of  a  baby,  when  she  was  given  as  a  servant  to 
Sahei  for  her  food  and  clothes. 

The  personnel  of  Sahei's  establishment  did  not  end  with  wife,  baby, 
and  maid.  It  was  not  for  the  lord  of  the  kitchen  to  draw  water,  clean 
fish,  and  do  the  work  of  the  scullery.     Not  he.     For  this  he  must 

have  a  boy.  "  That  boy  "  was 
Gonji.  Gonji's  wages  were  his 
rice  and  robes  —  two  of  the  lat- 
ter per  annum.  He  was  scarce- 
ly worth  his  full  rations.  Lazy, 
and  uniquely  stupid  in  some 
things,  and  bright  enough  in 
others,  the  keenness  of  his  ap- 
petite kept  pace  with  the  capac- 
ity of  his  stomach.  His  favorite 
occupations  were  worrying  dogs, 
playing  with  Chenkey,  on  whom 
he  doted,  and  amusing  himself  at 
watching  the  sensei,  whose  very 
existence  was  a  profound  mystery 
to  him,  and  whose  every  motion 
was  a  subject  of  wondering  cogi- 
tation. Sometimes,  when  spruced  up,  he  enjoyed  the  honor  of  waiting 
on  the  danna  san.  To  see  the  white  man  eat,  threw  Gonji  in  a  brown 
study  at  once,  as  on  knees  and  heels,  with  waiter  before  him,  he  an- 
ticipated my  wants. 

Every  day  of  my  life  in  the  old  mansion  was  full  of  novelty.  Ev- 
ery trivial  event  was  a  chink  to  let  in  a  new  ray  of  light  upon  Japa- 
nese life,  character,  or  ideas.  One  day  Obun  came  into  the  dining- 
room  after  dinner,  looking  around  for  something,  and  answering  my 
inquiring  eye  with  the  words  "0  mama.''''  "What  do  you  mean, 
child  ?  Do  you  think  your  mother  is  alive,  and  where  did  you  learn 
that  English?"     While  I  was  pondering  the  problem  of  the  possible 

29 


Gonji  In  a  Brown  Study. 


446  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

affinity  of  the  Japanese  with  the  Aryan  languages,  the  little  maid  seized 
an  empty  plate,  appearing  surprised  at  its  emptiness,  and  went  out. 
I  afterward  found  that  o  mama  meant  "  boiled  rice,"  which  I  had  used 
to  feed  a  flock  of  sacred  pigeons  belonging  to  the  big  temple  near  by, 
which  sometimes  flew  into  my  garden. 

Sahei's  family  had  no  sooner  comfortably  installed  themselves  in 
the  servants'  quarters  than  their  evening  bath  must  be  got  ready. 
The  old  mansion,  like  all  Japanese  houses,  was  provided  with  a  huge 
caldron  and  furnace  quite  near  the  house,  for  heating  water  for  the 
bath  taken  daily  by  every  member  of  every  Japanese  family.  Although 
somewhat  familiar  with  the  sight  of  Eves,  innocent  of  fig-leaves,  tub- 
bing themselves  in  the  open  street  in  broad  daylight,  I  had  supposed 
the  presence  of  the  foreigner  and  stranger  would  deter  any  exhibi- 
tion of  female  nudity  in  or  about  my  house  in  Fukui.  Vain  thought ! 
The  good  wife  innocently  disrobed,  unmindful  of  the  cold  air,  im- 
mersed and  made  her  bath  and  toilet,  with  Chenkey  in  her  arms. 
Having  finished,  she  was  followed  by  Obun,  then  by  her  husband, 
brother,  uncle,  and  Gonji,  in  succession,  who  had  been  about  and 
around,  heating  and  carrying  the  water.  I  can  not  call  them  specta- 
tors, for  they  took  no  interest  whatever,  except  as  assistants,  in  the 
spectacle,  which  to  them  was  an  ordinary  sight,  awakening  no  other 
emotions  than  those  we  feel  in  seeing  a  female  face  or  hand. 

Night  came  —  glorious  moonlight  nights  they  were  in  Fukui.  In 
the  kitchen  the  servants  lighted  their  lamps — a  long  slender  wick  of 
pith,  in  a  dish  of  oil,  set  half-way  up  in  a  square  paper-shaded  frame, 
three  feet  high — a  standing  lantern,  in  the  base  of  which  were  sulphur- 
tipped  chips,  or  matches,  and  flint,  steel,  and  tinder.  Or,  they  set  a 
hollow  paper -wicked  candle,  made  of  vegetable  tallow,  in  a  copper, 
bronze,  or  wooden  candlestick  two  feet  high. 

"  These  people  have  a  theory  of  candles,"  thought  I,  "  as  Symmes 
had  about  the  earth.  Both  theories  are  opposed  to  orthodoxy. 
Symmes's  world  and  a  Japanese  candle  both  have  a  hole  through 
them ;  but  the  former  theory  is  representative  of  a  fact,  while  the  lat- 
ter is  not  yet  proved  to  be  so."  These  hollow  candles  are  stuck  on  a 
spike,  not  set  in  a  socket  like  ours.  The  French  and  English  buy  this 
vegetable  tallow  in  Japan,  bleach  it,  and  import  the  "  wax "  candles 
made  from  it,  selling  to  the  Japanese  at  an  advanced  price.  It  hap- 
pened once,  so  I  have  read,  that  a  Japanese  junk  drifted  to  the  shores 
of  California.  A  newspaper  reporter  announced  in  type,  with  sensa- 
tional intent,  next  day,  that  the  junk  had  been  salt-water-logged  so 


LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HOUSE. 


447 


long  that  tlie  wick  had  been  entirely  corroded  by  the  action  of  the 
water,  until  the  candle  had  a  hole  entirely  through  it ! 

In  v[\\  own  room,  I  had  my  Connecticut  lamp,  well  fed  with  Penn- 
sylvania petroleum. 

The  snow  had  begun  to  melt,  and,  at  intervals,  a  heavy,  thunderous 
noise  overhead  told  of  a  huge  snow-slide — the  accumulation  of  winter 
sliding  off.  Over  the  castle  and  city  and  yashiki  gates,  and  over  the 
doors  of  houses,  I  had  noticed  a  long  timber  bar  riveted  to  the  roof, 
which  prevented  the  snow  from  falling  on  the  heads  of  people  below, 
while  it  slid  freely  in  other  places.  Anon  the  whirring  of  wings,  and 
the  screaming  of  the  flocks  of  wild  geese  as  they  clove  the  air,  told 


Night  Scene  on  the  River-flats.     (Hokusai.) 

how  these  restless  birds  enjoyed  the  night  as  well  as  the  day.  These 
geese  were  my  nocturnal  barometer.  I  could  tell  from  the  height  or 
lowness  of  their  flight,  and  the  volume  of  sound  of  their  throats,  what 
were  the  "  weather  probabilities  "  for  the  morrow. 

A  view  from  my  garden-gate  included  the  street,  the  river-flats,  a 
few  boats  like  black  spots  on  the  water,  the  bridge,  and  the  masts  ris- 
ing spectrally  beyond  Atago  yama  with  its  twinkling  lights,  people 
returning  home,  and  coolies  hurrying  along  with  belated  travelers. 
The  moon  shone  overhead,  but  yet,  dimly  seen,  reminded  me  vividly 
of  a  sketch  by  one  of  the  native  artists,  whose  great  merits  and  pe- 
culiarities I  was  then  beginning  to  appreciate  and  distinguish.    I  could 


448  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

hear  the  voices  outside,  the  women's  chatting,  the  children's  prattle, 
and  the  coolies'  grunt. 

The  crows  of  Fukui  were  as  numerous,  merry,  audacious,  and  ab- 
surd as  their  black  brethren  in  the  pine-roosts  of  New  Jersey  or  the 
corn-fields  of  Pennsylvania.  I  wondered  who  it  was  who  had  lived 
in  Japan  three  months,  and  then  innocently  asked  if  there  were  any 
crows  in  the  country.  These  filthy  feeders  amused  me  daily  with 
their  noisy  conventions,  or  their  squabbles  around  the  kitchen  refuse. 
Occasionally  they  ventured  on  bolder  raids.  On  one  occasion  a  state- 
ly raven,  seeing  through  the  window  a  morsel  of  bread  on  the  break- 
fast-table, meditated  a  theft.  A  Japanese  crow  of  the  olden  time 
ought  not,  in  the  nature  of  things,  to  be  expected  to  understand  either 
the  chemical  composition  or  the  physical  properties  of  that  familiar 
alkaline  silicate  called  glass.  Viewing  with  his  raven  eye  from  his 
eyrie  in  the  firs  that  morsel  of  bread,  and  knowing  well  the  virtues  of 
wheat,  our  crow  made  a  dash  with  outspread  wings  and  beak  at  the 
bread.  The  result  was  a  badly  stunned  bird  with  a  bumped  head  and 
nearly  broken  beak.  Nothing  daunted,  my  "  Nevermore  "  gathered 
himself  up,  and  proceeded  to  survey  the  situation.  Here  was  a  new 
and  puzzling  subject  of  study.  Glass  was  evidently  a  new  phenome- 
non. It  was  transparent  and  hard,  yet  there  was  the  bread,  and  the 
crow's  craw  was  empty.  What  was  it,  this  invisible  and  pervisual 
barrier  ?  It  was  not  water,  nor  yet  air.  Perhaps  it  was  ice,  and  Mr. 
Crow  laid  his  eye  against  the  pane  to  test  the  temperature — flattening 
it  like  a  child  its  nose  on  a  rainy  Sunday.  Ah !  happy  thought !  per- 
haps it  would  yield  to  blows. 

Perseverantia  omnia  vincit.  Tap,  tap,  tap,  sounded  the  pick- like 
beak  on  the  tough  glass  pane  with  a  regularity  less  gentle  than  that 
of  Poe's  ebony  visitor.  All  in  vain,  however ;  the  pane  yielded  not, 
the  tantalizing  bread  had  to  be  yielded,  and  the  black  Tantalus  flew 
off  with  its  dismal  "  Nevermore,"  to  report  adversely  to  its  comrades, 
and  hold  a  debate  on  the  subject  of  the  unknowable.  Despair  brood 
ed,  not  on  wisdom,  but  on  a  pine-tree. 

The  black  rascals  were  sometimes  more  successful.  With  impu 
dence  almost  human,  and  with  cheek  quite  as  hard,  they  would  even 
occasionally  fly  into  the  house.  One  day  Chenkey  was  standing  on 
the  veranda  next  the  garden,  eating  a  rice  -  cracknel,  called  kaminari 
sembei  (thunder-cake).  A  vigilant  karasu  (crow)  hopped  from  a  tree- 
branch  to  the  fence,  and,  pretending  to  be  asleep,  calmly  watched  his 
opportunity  with  one  eye.    Chenkey  had  just  taken  a  bite,  and  turned 


LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HOUSE.  449 

Ms  liead  around  for  a  moment.  In  a  trice  the  black  thief  had  swoop- 
ed and  stolen  the  cake.  An  incredible  uproar  of  caws  in  the  tree- 
tops,  a  few  tears  from  Chenkey,  and  it  was  all  over. 

Strange  to  say,  the  natives,  as  their  poetry  attests,  hear  in  the  hoarse 
notes  of  this  sable  bird  the  plaintive  sounds  of  love.  "  Concerning 
tastes,"  and  associations  also,  "  it  is  not  to  be  disputed."  With  us  a 
lamb  is  an  emblem  of  mildness;  with  the  Japanese,  of  stupidity,  or 
even  obstinacy.  Should  I  call  a  native  a  goose  {gan),  he  would  see  no 
more  point  in  the  allusion  than  if  I  called  him  a  turkey  or  a  pheasant. 
In  Japan,  sheep  and  tame  geese  are  unknown,  except  from  reading  of 
them.  The  wild  goose  is  one  of  the  swiftest,  most  graceful,  and  alert 
birds.     It  is  rather  a  compliment  to  be  called  a  (Japanese)  goose. 

There  was  a  goodly  number  of  rats  in  the  old  mansion,  though  they 
rarely  disturbed  me  in  the  day-time.  Their  favorite  place  of  playing 
what  seemed  to  be  foot-ball,  or  Congress,  was  ovir  the  ceilings,  run- 
ning along  the  beams  immediately  above  the  rafters.  The  builder  of 
the  mansion  had  foreseen  the  future,  and,  with  wise  benevolence,  had 
cut  square  holes  through  certain  portions  of  the  fine  lattice-work  that 
might  be  spoiled  by  irregular  gnawing,  and  thus  earned  the  gratitude 
of  all  rodent  generations.  I  detei-mined  to  be  rid  of  these  ancient 
pests,  and  went  out  in  search  of  a  cat.  I  saw  a  number  of  fat  Tabi- 
thas  and  aldermanic  Thomases  which  I  asked  for,  or  offered  to  pur- 
chase, in  vain.  I  preferred  a  lean  feline  specimen  that  would  seek 
the  rats  from  motives  of  hunger,  but  I  could  get  none.  The  people 
loved  their  pets  too  well.  But  one  day,  on  passing  a  hemp  shop,  I 
saw  a  good-natured  old  lady  sitting  on  her  mats,  with  a  fine  tortoise- 
shell  tabby,  and  instantly  determined  to  get  that  cat.  Accosting  her 
with  the  usual  bow,  I  said,  in  my  best  Japanese,  "  Good-morning,  old 
lady.  "VVill  you  sell  me  that  cat?  I  should  like  to  buy  it."  The 
American  reader  will  question  the  propriety  and  ray  politeness  in 
using  the  adjective  old.  Not  so  the  Japanese.  It  is  an  honor  to  be 
addressed  or  spoken  of  as  old.  Every  one  called  me"sewsei"  (elder- 
born,  or  teacher).  One  of  the  first  questions  which  a  Japanese  will 
.isk  you  is,  "  How  old  are  you  V  It  is  a  question  which  American  la- 
dies do  not  answer  very  promptly.  But  the  questioner  masks  no  in- 
sult. It  is  not  in  the  same  spirit  as  that  of  the  young  men  who  re- 
fer to  their  maternal  parent  as  the  "  old  woman."  The  old  lady  was 
pleased.  Concerning  the  sale  of  her  cat,  however,  she  demurred.  Her 
neko  was  a  polite,  well-bred  animal.  I  was  a  foreigner  from  some  out- 
landish place  beyond  the  sea.     Could  she  trust  Puss  with  me  ?     With 


450 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


head  inclining  forty-five  degrees  over  her  left  shoulder,  she  considered. 
Looking  up,  she  said,  "  I  will  not  sell  you  the  cat ;  but  if  you  love  it, 
you  can  have  it."  Of  course,  I  loved  it  on  the  spot.  Taking  the 
name  of  the  street,  and  number  of  the  house,  I  sent  Sahei  for  it.  In- 
stalled in  my  dwelling,  it  proved  to  be  handsome  and  lazy,  disturbing 
but  little  the  ancient  population,  which,  however,  never  troubled  me 
except  by  their  frisky  noise.  My  repeated  invitations  to  a  banquet  of 
arsenic  were  as  often  declined,  with  thanks  and  squeals ;  but  on  wrap- 
ping up  a  piece  of  seasoned  meat  in  a  small  box  in  a  tight  bundle  of 


,,;,,,!,  «^,.,,^^_^^,v^, 


Father  and  Children. 

paper,  they  partook  luxuriantly  and  subsided.  The  old  lady  came  oc- 
casionally to  see  her  former  pet,  and  found  in  the  foreigner's  house  un- 
limited delight  over  photograph-album,  stereoscope,  and  wall  pictures, 
and  endless  food  for  wonder  and  subsequent  gossip,  at  the  home  of 
her  son  and  grandchildren — a  very  affectionate  family,  as  I  had  occa- 
sion to  witness,  but  with  a  weakness  for  sake. 

The  most  remarkable  fact  concerning  the  majority  of  cats  in  Japan 
is  that  they  have  no  tails,  or,  at  least,  a  mere  stump  or  tuft,  like  a  rab- 


LIFE  IN  A  JAPANESE  HOUSE.  451 

bit's.  They  resemble  the  Manx  cat  in  this  respect.  Whether  wholly 
natural,  or  the  long  result  of  art,  I  could  never  satisfactorily  determine. 
It  always  struck  me  as  a  great  feline  affliction,  since  the  chief  play- 
thing of  a  kitten  is  its  tail.  To  run  around  after  their  caudal  stumps 
was  a  sorry  game  in  the  Japanese  cats,  compared  with  the  lively  revo- 
lutions of  those  boasting  twelve  inches  of  tail.  An  American  gentle- 
man once  took  one  of  these  bob-tailed  cats  to  California.  The  creat- 
ure had  evidently  never  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  long -tailed 
brethren  of  its  species,  and  the  unwonted  sight  of  their  terminal  ap- 
pendages seemed  to  incite  the  feline  nature  of  Japan  to  the  highest 
pitch  of  jealousy  and  rage.  It  was  continually  biting,  scratching,  howl- 
ing, and  spitting  at  other  cats,  invariably  seizing  their  tails  in  its  teeth 
when  practicable. 

My  other  dumb  companion  in  Fukui  was  a  black  dog,  with  but  one 
eye.  It  was  an  American  dog  that  had  strayed  away  from  Yokohama, 
and  had  followed  the  daimio's  retinue  across  the  country.  Happen- 
ing to  pass  some  farmers,  who,  reversing  the  proverb  "  Love  me,  love 
my  dog,"  and  hating  foreigners,  whom  they  believed  to  be  descend- 
ants of  these  brutes,  one  of  them  struck  the  poor  creature  in  the  eye 
with  a  grass-hook,  and  made  him  a  Cyclops  from  that  moment.  He 
was  an  affectionate  animal,  and  apparently  fully  understood,  as  I  could 
tell  from  the  language  of  his  tail,  that  I  was  one  of  his  own  country 
creatures,  concentrating  all  his  affection  in  his  remaining  orb.  I  was 
most  amused  at  the  name  given  him  by  the  people.  The  Japanese 
word  for  dog  is  inu.  Some  of  the  young  men  who  had  been  to  Yo- 
kohama had  heard  the  "  hairy  foreigners  "  calling  their  dogs  by  crack- 
ing their  fingers  and  crying  "  Come  here."  This  the  Japanese  sup- 
posed to  be  the  name  of  the  dog.  Frequently  in  Fukui  those  who 
wished  to  display  their  proficiency  in  the  barbarian  language  would 
point  to  my  canine  Cyclops,  and  cry  out  "  Look  at  that '  Come-here  '^ 
how  black  he  is  !"  "  Oh  !  see  how  fast  the  American  man's  '  Come- 
here  '  is  running !" 

With  a  cat,  a  one-eyed  dog,  gold-fish,*  home  flowers,  and  plenty  of 
human  life  behind  and  about  me,  the  city  in  \dew,  the  mountains 
round  about,  and  the  lovely  solitude  of  garden  and  trees  in  front  of 
me,  and  my  books,  I  was  happy  in  ray  immediate  surroundings. 

*  These  were  the  kin-yiyo  (gold-fish)  with  triple  tails,  like  lace,  and  variegated 
brilliant  colors,  which  have  been  recently  introduced  into  the  United  States. 


452  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


X. 

CHILDREN'S  GAMES  AND  SPORTS* 

The  aim  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan  is,  as  I  understand  it,  to 
endeavor  to  attain  any  and  all  knowledge  of  the  Japanese  country 
and  people.  Nothing  that  will  help  us  to  understand  them  is  foreign 
to  the  objects  of  this  society.  While  language,  literature,  art,  relig- 
ion, the  drama,  household  superstitions,  etc.,  furnish  us  with  objects 
worthy  of  study,  the  games  and  sports  of  the  children  deserve  our 
notice.  For,  as  we  believe,  their  amusements  reflect  the  more  serious 
affairs  and  actions  of  mature  life.  They  are  the  foretastes  and  the 
prophecies  of  adult  life  which  children  see  continually ;  not  always 
understanding,  but  ever  ready  to  imitate  it.  Hence  in  the  toy-shops 
of  Japan  one  may  see  the  microcosm  of  Japanese  life.  In  the  chil- 
dren's sports  is  enacted  the  miniature  drama  of  the  serious  life  of  the 
parents.  Among  a  nation  of  players  such  as  the  Japanese  may  be 
said  to  have  been,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  draw  the  line  of  demarka- 
tion  between  the  diversions  of  children  proper  and  those  of  a  larger 
growth.  Indeed,  it  might  be  said  that  during  the  last  two  centuries 
and  a  half,  previous  to  the  coming  of  foreigners,  the  main  business  of 
this  nation  was  play.  One  of  the  happiest  phrases  in  Mr.  Alcock's 
book  is  that  "  Japan  is  a  paradise  of  babies ;"  he  might  have  added, 
that  it  was  also  a  very  congenial  abode  for  all  who  love  play.  The 
contrast  between  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  character  in  this  respect  is 
radical.  It  is  laid  down  in  one  of  the  very  last  sentences  in  the  Tri- 
metrical  Classic,  the  primer  of  every  school  in  the  Flowery  Land,  that 
play  is  unprofitable !  The  whole  character,  manners,  and  even  the 
dress,  of  the  sedate  and  dignified  Chinamen,  seem  to  be  in  keeping 
with  that  aversion  to  rational  amusement  and  athletic  exercises  which 
characterizes  that  adult  population. 

In  Japan,  on  the  contrary,  one  sees  that  the  children  of  a  larger 

*  Read  by  tlie  author  before  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  March  18th,  1874. 


CHILDREN'S  GAMES  AND  Sl'OJiTS. 


453 


growth  enjoy  with  equal  zest  games  whicli  are  the  same,  or  nearly 
same,  as  those  of  lesser  size  and  fewer  years.  Certain  it  is  that 
adults  do  all  in  their  power  to  provide  for 
the  children  their  full  quota  of  play  and  harm- 
less sports.  We  frequently  see  full-grown  and 
able-bodied  natives  indulging  in  amusements 
which  the  men  of  the  West  lay  aside  with 
their  pinafores,  or  when  their  curls  are  cut.  If 
we,  in  the  conceited  pride  of  our  superior  civ- 
ilization, look  down  upon  this  as  childish,  we 
must  remember  that  the  Celestial,  from  the 
pinnacle  of  his  lofty  and,  to  him,  immeasura- 
bly elevated  civilization,  looks  down  upon  our 
manly  sports  with  contempt,  thinking  it  a 
condescension  even  to  notice  them. 

A  very  noticeable  change  has  passed  over 
the  Japanese  people  since  the  modern  advent 
of  foreigners,  in  respect  of  their  love  of 
amusements.  Their  sports  are  by  no  means 
as  numerous  or  elaborate  as  formerly,  and  they 
do  not  enter  into  them  with  the  enthusiasm 
that  formerly  characterized  them.  The  chil- 
dren's festivals  and  sports  are  rapidly  losing 
their  importance,  and  some  now  are  rarely 
seen.  Formerly  the  holidays  were  almost  as 
numerous  as  saints'  days  in  the  calendar.  Ap- 
prentice-boys had  a  liberal  quota  of  holidays 
stipulated  in  their  indentures ;  and  as  the  chil- 
dren counted  the  days  before  each  great  holi- 
day on  their  fingers,  we  may  believe  that  a 
great  deal  of  digital  arithmetic  was  being  con- 
tinually done.  We  do  not  know  of  any 
country  in  the  world  in  which  there  are  so 
many  toy-shops,  or  so  many  fairs  for  the  sale 
of  the  things  which  delight  children.  Not 
only  are  the  streets  of  every  city  abundantly 
supplied  with  shops,  filled  as  full  as  a  Christ- 
mas stocking  with  gaudy  toys,  but  in  small 
towns  and  villages  one  or  more  children's 
bazaars  may  be  found.     The  most  gorgeous 


the 
the 


454  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

display  of  all  things  pleasing  to  the  eye  of  a  Japanese  child  is  found 
in  the  courts  or  streets  leading  to  celebrated  temples.  On  a  matsuri, 
or  festival  day,  the  toy -sellers  and  itinerant  showmen  throng  with 
their  most  attractive  wares  or  sights  in  front  of  the  shrine  or  temple. 
On  the  walls  and  in  conspicuous  places  near  the  churches  and  cathe- 
drals in  Europe  and  America,  the  visitor  is  usually  regaled  with  the 
sight  of  undertakers'  signs  and  grave-diggers'  advertisements.  How 
differently  the  Japanese  act  in  these  respects,  let  any  one  see  by  visit- 
ing Asakusa,  Kanda  Mi5jin,  or  one  of  the  numerous  Inari  shrines  in 
Tokio  on  some  great  festival  day. 

We  have  not  space  in  this  chapter  to  name  or  describe  the  numer- 
ous street -shows  and  showmen  who  are  supposed  to  be  interested 
mainly  in  entertaining  children  ;  though  in  reality  adults  form  a  part, 
often  the  major  part,  of  their  audiences.  Any  one  desirous  of  seeing 
these  in  full  glory  must  ramble  down  Yanagi  Cho  (Willow  Street), 
from  Sujikai,  in  Tokio,  on  some  fair  day,  and  especially  on  a  general 
holiday. 

Among  the  most  common  are  the  street  theatricals,  in  which  two, 
three,  or  four  trained  boys  and  girls  do  some  very  creditable  acting, 
chiefly  in  comedy.  Raree-shows,  in  which  the  looker-on  sees  the  in- 
side splendors  of  a  daimio's  yashiki,  or  the  fascinating  scenes  of  the 
Yoshiwara,  or  some  famous  natural  scenery,  are  very  common.  The 
showman,  as  he  pulls  the  wires  that  change  the  scenes,  entertains  the 
spectators  with  songs.  The  outside  of  his  box  is  usually  adorned 
with  pictures  of  famous  actors  or  courtesans,  nine-tailed  foxes,  devils 
of  all"  colors,  dropsical  badgers,  and  wrathful  husbands  butchering 
faithless  wives  and  their  paramours,  or  some  such  staple  horror  in 
which  the  normal  Japanese  so  delights.  Story-tellers,  posturers, 
dancers,  actors  of  charades,  conjurers,  flute  -  players,  song -singers  are 
found  on  these  streets ;  but  those  who  specially  delight  the  children 
are  the  men  who,  by  dint  of  breath  and  fingers,  work  a  paste  made  of 
wheat-gluten  into  all  sorts  of  curious  and  gayly  smeared  toys,  such  as 
flowers,  trees,  noblemen,  fair  ladies,  various  utensils,  the  "  hairy  for- 
eigner," the  same  with  a  cigar  in  his  mouth,  the  jin-riki-sha,  etc. 
Nearly  every  itinerant  seller  of  candy,  starch-cakes,  sugared  pease,  and 
sweetened  beans,  has  several  methods  of  lottery  by  which  he  adds  to 
the  attractions  on  his  stall.  A  disk  having  a  revolving  arrow,  whirled 
round  by  the  hand  of  a  child,  or  a  number  of  strings  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  faces  of  imps,  goddesses,  devils,  or  heroes,  lends  the 
excitement  of  chance,  and,  when  a  lucky  pull  or  whirl  occurs,  occasions 


CHILDREN'S  GAMES  AND  SPORTS.  455 

the  subsequent  addition  to  the  small  fraction  of  a  cent's  worth  to  be 
bought.  Men  or  women  itinerants  carry  a  small  charcoal  brazier  un- 
der a  copper  griddle,  with  batter,  spoons,  cups,  and  shoyu  sauce,  to 
hire  out  for  the  price  of  a  cash  each  to  the  little  urchins,  who  spend 
an  afternoon  of  bliss  making  their  own  griddle-cakes  and  eating  them, 
The  seller  of  sugar-jelly  exhibits  a  devil,  taps  a  drum,  and  dances  for 
the  benefit  of  his  baby-customers.  The  seller  of  mochi  does  the  same, 
with  the .  addition  of  gymnastics  and  skillful  tricks  with  balls  of 
dough.  The  fire-eater  rolls  balls  of  camphor  paste  glowing  with 
lambent  fire  over  his  arms,  and  then  extinguishes  them  in  his  mouth. 
The  bug-man  harnesses  paper  carts  to  the  backs  of  beetles  with  wax, 
and  a  half-dozen  in  this  gear  will  drag  a  load  of  rice  up  an  inclined 
plane.  The  man  with  the  magic  swimming  birds  tips  his  tiny  water- 
fowl with  camphor,  and  floats  them  in  a  long  narrow  dish  full  of  wa- 
ter. The  wooden  toys,  propelled  from  side  to  side  and  end  to  end 
by  the  dissolving  gum,  act  as  if  alive,  to  the  widening  eyes  of  the 
young  spectators.  In  every  Japanese  city  there  are  scores,  if  not 
hundreds,  of  men  and  women  who  obtain  a  livelihood  by  amusing  the 
children. 

Some  of  the  games  of  Japanese  children  are  of  a  national  character, 
and  are  indulged  in  by  all  classes.  Others  are  purely  local  or  exclu- 
sive. Among  the  former  are  those  which  belong  to  the  special  days, 
or  matsuri,  which  in  the  old  calendars  enjoyed  vastly  more  importance 
than  under  the  new  one.  Beginning  with  the  first  of  the  year,  there 
are  a  number  of  games  and  sports  peculiar  to  this  time.  The  girls, 
dressed  in  their  best  robes  and  girdles,  with  their  faces  powdered  and 
their  lips  painted,  until  they  resemble  the  peculiar  colors  seen  on  a 
beetle's  wings,  and  their  hair  arranged  in  the  most  attractive  coiffure, 
are  out  upon  the  street,  playing  battledore  and  shuttlecock.  They 
play,  not  only  in  twos  and  threes,  but  also  in  circles.  The  shuttlecock 
is  a  round  seed,  often  gilded,  stuck  round  with  feathers  arranged  like 
the  petals  of  a  flower.  The  battledore  is  a  wooden  bat ;  one  side  of 
which  is  of  bare  wood,  while  the  other  has  the  raised  effigy  of  some 
popular  actor,  hero  of  romance,  or  singing-girl  in  the  most  ultra-Japa- 
nese style  of  beauty.  The  girls  evidently  highly  appreciate  this  game, 
as  it  gives  abundant  opportunity  to  the  display  of  personal  beauty, 
figure,  and  dress.  Those  who  fail  in  the  game  often  have  their  faces 
marked  with  ink,  or  a  circle  drawn  round  their  eyes.  The  boys  sing 
a  song  that  the  wind  may  blow  ;  the  girls  sing  that  it  may  be  calm,  so 
that  their  shuttlecocks  may  fly  straight.     The  little  girls,  at  this  time, 


456  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

play  with  a  ball  made  of  cotton  cord,  covered  elaborately  with  many 
strands  of  bright  varicolored  silk. 

Inside  the  house,  they  have  games  suited,  not  only  for  the  day-time, 
but  for  the  evenings.  Many  foreigners  have  wondered  what  the  Jap- 
anese do  at  night,  and  how  the  long  winter  evenings  are  spent.  On 
fair  and  especially  moonlight  nights,  most  of  the  people  are  out-of- 
doors,  and  many  of  the  children  with  them.  Markets  and  fairs  are 
held  regularly  at  night  in  Tokio,  and  in  the  other  large  cities.  The 
foreigner  living  in  a  Japanese  city,  even  if  he  were  blind,  could  tell,  by 
stepping  out-of-doors,  whether  the  weather  were  clear  and  fine  or  disa- 
greeable. On  dark  and  stormy  nights,  the  stillness  of  a  great  city  like 
Tokio  is  unbroken  and  very  impressive ;  but  on  a  fair  and  moonlight 
night,  the  hum  and  bustle  tell  one  that  the  people  are  out  in  throngs, 
and  make  one  feel  that  it  is  a  city  that  he  lives  in.  In  most  of  the 
castle  towns  in  Japan,  it  was  formerly  the  custom  of  the  people,  espe- 
cially of  the  younger,  to  assemble  on  moonlight  nights  in  the  streets 
or  open  spaces  near  the  castle-gates,  and  dance  a  sort  of  subdued  dance, 
moving  round  in  circles  and  clapping  their  hands.  These  dances  oft- 
en continued  during  the  entire  night,  the  following  day  being  largely 
consumed  in  sleep.  In  the  winter  evenings,  in  Japanese  households 
the  children  amuse  themselves  with  their  sports,  or  are  amused  by 
their  elders,  who  tell  them  entertaining  stories.  The  samurai  father 
relates  to  his  son  Japanese  history  and  heroic  lore,  to  fire  him  with  en- 
thusiasm and  a  love  of  those  achievements  which  every  samurai  youth 
hopes  at  some  day  to  perform.  Then  there  are  numerous  social  en- 
tertainments, at  which  the  children  above  a  certain  age  are  allowed  to 
be  present.  But  the  games  relied  on  as  standard  means  of  amusement, 
and  seen  especially  about  New-year's,  are  those  of  cards.  In  one  of 
these,  a  large,  square  sheet  of  paper  is  laid  on  the  floor.  On  this  card 
are  the  names  and  pictures  of  the  fifty-three  post-stations  between  To- 
kio and  Kioto.  At  the  place  Kioto  are  put  a  few  coins,  or  a  pile  of 
cakes,  or  some  such  prizes,  and  the  game  is  played  with  dice.  Each 
throw  advances  the  player  toward  the  goal,  and  the  one  arriving  first 
obtains  the  prize.  At  this  time  of  the  year  also,  the  games  of  cards 
called,  respectively,  Iroha  Garuta  (Alphabet  Cards),  Hiyaku  Nin  Isshiu 
Garuta  (One-Verse-of-One-Hundred-Poets  Cards),  Kokin  Garuta,  Gen- 
ji,  and  Shi  Garuta  are  played  a  great  deal.  The  Iroha  Garuta  (Karuta 
is  the  Japanized  form  of  the  Dutch  Karte,  English  card)  are  small 
cards,  each  containing  a  proverb.  The  proverb  is  printed  on  one  card, 
and  the  picture  illustrating  it  upon  another.      Each  proverb  begins 


CHILDREN'S  GAMES  AND  SPORTS.  457 

with  a  certain  one  of  the  fifty  Japanese  letters,  i,  ro^  ha,  etc.,  and  so 
on  through  the  syllabary.  The  children  range  themselves  in  a  circle, 
and  the  cards  are  shufiled  and  dealt.  One  is  appointed  to  be  reader. 
Looking  at  his  cards,  he  reads  the  proverb.  The  player  who  has  the 
picture  corresponding  to  the  proverb  calls  out,  and  the  match  is  made. 
Those  who  are  rid  of  their  cards  first  win  the  game.  The  one  hold- 
ing the  last  card  is  the  loser.  If  he  be  a  boy,  he  has  his  face  marked 
curiously  with  ink.  If  a  girl,  she  has  a  paper  or  wisp  of  straw  stuck 
in  her  hair. 

The  Hiaku  Nin  Isshiu  Garuta  game  consists  of  two  hundred  cards, 
on  which  are  inscribed  the  one  hundred  stanzas,  or  poems,  so  cele- 
brated and  known  in  every  household.  A  stanza  of  Japanese  poetry 
usually  consists  of  two  parts,  a  first  and  second,  or  upper  and  lower 
clause.  The  manner  of  playing  the  game  is  as  follows:  The  reader 
reads  half  the  stanza  on  his  card,  and  the  player  having  the  card  on 
which  the  other  half  is  written  calls  out,  and  makes  a  match.  Some 
children  become  so  familiar  with  these  poems  that  they  do  not  need 
to  hear  the  entire  half  of  the  stanza  read,  but  frequently  only  the  first 
word. 

The  Kokin  Garuta,  or  the  game  of  Ancient  Odes,  the  Genji  Garuta, 
named  after  the  celebrated  Genji  (Minamoto)  family  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  the  Shi  Garuta  are  all  card-games  of  a  similar  nature,  but 
can  be  thoroughly  enjoyed  only  by  well-educated  Chinese  scholars,  as 
the  references  and  quotations  are  written  in  Chinese,  and  require  a 
good  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  classics  to  play  them 
well.  To  boys  who  are  eager  to  become  proficient  in  Chinese,  it  oft- 
en acts  as  an  incentive  to  be  told  that  they  will  enjoy  these  games 
after  certain  attainments  in  scholarship  have  been  made.  Having 
made  these  attainments,  they  play  the  game  frequently,  especially  dur- 
ing vacation,  to  impress  on  their  minds  what  they  have  already  learn- 
ed. The  same  benefit  to  the  memory  accrues  from  the  Iroha  and  Hi- 
akunin  Isshiu  Garuta. 

Two  other  games  are  played  which  may  be  said  to  have  an  educa- 
tional value.  They  are  the  Chiye  no  Ita  and  the  Chiye  no  Wa,  or 
the  "  Wisdom  Boards "  and  the  "  Ring  of  Wisdom."  The  former 
consists  of  a  number  of  flat,  thin  pieces  of  wood,  cut  in  many  geomet- 
rical shapes.  Certain  possible  figures  are  printed  on  paper  as  models, 
and  the  boy  tries  to  form  them  out  of  the  pieces  given  him.  In  some 
cases,  much  time  and  thinking  are  required  to  form  the  figure.  The 
Chiye  no  Wa  is  a  ring-puzzle,  made  of  rings  of  bamboo  or  iron  on  a 


458 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


bar.  Boys  having  a  talent  for  mathematics,  or  those  who  have  a  nat 
ural  capacity  to  distinguish  size  and  form,  succeed  very  well  at  these 
games,  and  enjoy  them.  The  game  of  check- 
ers is  played  on  a  raised  stand  or  table,  about 
six  inches  in  height.  The  number  of  go,  or 
checkers,  including  black  and  white,  is  three 
hundred  and  sixty.  In  the  Sho-gi,  or  game 
of  chess,  the  pieces  number  forty  in  all.  Back- 
gammon is  also  a  favorite  play,  and  there  are 
several  forms  of  it.  About  the  time  of  the 
old  New-year's,  when  the  winds  of  February 
and  March  are  favorable  to  the  sport,  kites 
are  flown ;  and  there  are  few  sports  in  which 
Japanese  boys,  from  the  infant  on  the  back  to 
the  full-grown  and  the  over-grown  boy,  take 
more  delight.  I  have  never  observed,  how- 
ever, as  foreign  books  so  often  tell  us,  old 
men  flying  kites,  and  boys  merely  looking  on. 
The  Japanese  kites  are  made  of  tough  paper 
pasted  on  a  frame  of  bamboo  sticks,  and  are 
usually  of  a  rectangular  shape.  Some  of 
them,  however,  are  made  to  represent  children 
or  men,  several  kinds  of  birds  and  animals, 
fans,  etc.  On  the  rectangular  kites  are  pict- 
ures of  ancient  heroes  or  beautiful  women, 
dragons,  horses,  monsters  of  various  kinds,  or 
huge  Chinese  characters.  Among  the  faces 
most  frequently  seen  on  these  kites  are  those 
of  Yoshitsune,  Kintaro,  Yoritomo,  Benke, 
Daruma,  Tomoye,  and  Hangaku.  Some  of 
the  kites  are  six  feet  square.  Many  of  them 
have  a  thin  tense  ribbon  of  whalebone  at  the 
top  of  the  kite,  which  vibrates  in  the  wind, 
making  a  loud,  humming  noise.  The  boys 
frequently  name  their  kites  Genji  or  Heike, 
and  each  contestant  endeavors  to  destroy  that 
of  his  rival.  For  this  purpose,  the  string,  for 
ten  or  twenty  feet  near  the  kite  end,  is  first 
covered  with  glue,  and  then  dipped  into 
pounded  glass,  by  which  the  string  becomes 


CHILDREN'S  GAMES  AND  SPORTS. 


459 


covered  with  tiny  blades,  each  able  to  cut  quietly  and  deeply, 
getting  the  kite  in  proper  position,  and  suddenly  sawing  the  str 
of  his  antagonist,  the  severed  kite  falls,  to  be 
reclaimed  by  the  victor. 

The  Japanese  tops  are  of  several  kinds; 
some  are  made  of  univalve  shells,  filled  with 
wax.  Those  intended  for  contests  are  made 
of  hard  wood,  and  are  iron-clad  by  having  a 
heavy  iron  ring  round  as  a  sort  of  tire.  The 
boys  wind  and  throw  them  in  a  manner  some- 
what different  from  ours.  The  object  of  the 
player  is  to  damage  his  adversary's  top,  or  to 
make  it  cease  spinning.  The  whipping-top  is 
also  known  and  used.  Besides  the  athletic 
sports  of  leaping,  running,  wrestling,  slinging, 
the  Japanese  boys  play  at  blind-man's-buff,  hid- 
ing-whoop, and  with  stilts,  pop-guns,  and  blow- 
guns.  On  stilts  they  play  various  games  and 
run  races. 

In  the  Northern  and  Western  coast  prov- 
inces, where  the  snow  falls  to  the  depth  of 
many  feet  and  remains  long  on  the  ground,  it 
forms  the  material  of  the  children's  playthings^ 
and  the  theatre  of  many  of  their  sports.  Be- 
sides sliding  on  the  ice,  coasting  with  sleds, 
building  snow-forts,  and  fighting  mimic  battles 
with  snow-balls,  they  make  many  kinds  of  im- 
ages and  imitations  of  what  they  see  and  know. 
In  America  the  boy's  snow-man  is  a  Paddy 
with  a  damaged  hat,  clay  pipe  in  mouth,  and 
the  shillalah  in  his  hand.  In  Japan  the  snow- 
man is  an  image  of  Daruma.  Daruma  was  one 
of  the  followers  of  Shaka  (Buddha)  who,  by 
long  meditation  in  a  squatting  position,  lost  his 
legs  from  paralysis  and  sheer  decay.  The  im- 
ages of  Daruma  are  found  by  the  hundreds  in 
toy -shops,  as  tobacconists'  signs  and  as  the 
snow-men  of  the  boys.  Occasionally  the  figure 
of  Geiho,  the  sage  with  a  forehead  and  skull  so 
high  that  a  ladder  was  required  to  reach  his 


By 

ing 


'^''\ 


460  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

pate,  or  huge  cats  and  the  pecuUar-shaped  dogs  seen  in  the  toy-shops, 
take  the  place  of  Daruma. 

Many  of  the  amusements  of  the  children  indoors  are  mere  imita- 
tions of  the  serious  affairs  of  adult  life.  Boys  who  have  been  to  the 
theatre  come  home  to  imitate  the  celebrated  actors,  and  to  extempo- 
rize mimic  theatricals  for  themselves.  Feigned  sickness  and  "  playing 
the  doctor,"  imitating  with  ludicrous  exactness  the  pomp  and  solem- 
nity of  the  real  man  of  pills  and  powders,  and  the  misery  of  the  pa- 
tient, are  the  diversions  of  very  young  children.  Dinners,  tea-parties, 
and  even  weddings  and  funerals,  are  imitated  in  Japanese  children's 
plays. 

Among  the  ghostly  games  intended  to  test  the  courage  of,  or  per- 
haps to  frighten,  children,  are  two  plays  called  respectively  "  Hiyaku 
Monogatari "  and  "  Kon-dameshi,"  or  the  "  One  Hundred  Stories  "  and 
"  Soul -examination."  In  the  former  play  a  company  of  boys  and 
girls  assemble  round  the  hibachi,  while  they,  or  an  adult,  an  aged  per- 
son or  a  servant,  usually  relate  ghost  -  stories,  or  tales  calculated  to 
straighten  the  hair  and  make  the  blood  crawl.  In  a  distant  dark 
room,  a  lamp  (the  usual  dish  of  oil),  with  a  wick  of  one  hundred 
strands  or  piths,  is  set.  At  the  conclusion  of  each  story,  the  children 
in  turn  must  go  to  the  dark  room  and  remove  a  strand  of  the  wick. 
As  the  lamp  burns  down  low,  the  room  becomes  gloomy  and  dark,  and 
the  last  boy,  it  is  said,  always  sees  a  demon,  a  huge  face,  or  something 
terrible.  In  the  "  Kon-dameshi "  or  "  Soul-examination,"  a  number  of 
boys,  during  the  day  plant  some  flags  in  different  parts  of  a  grave- 
yard, under  a  lonely  tree,  or  by  a  haunted  hill -side.  At  night,  they 
meet  together,  and  tell  stories  about  ghosts,  goblins,  devils,  etc. ;  and 
at  the  conclusion  of  each  tale,  when  the  imagination  is  wrought  up, 
the  hair  begins  to  rise  and  the  marrow  to  curdle,  the  boys,  one  at  a 
time,  must  go  out  in  the  dark  and  bring  back  the  flags,  until  all  are 
brought  in. 

On  the  third  day  of  the  third  month  is  held  the  "  Hina  matsuri." 
This  is  the  day  especially  devoted  to  the  girls,  and  to  them  it  is  the 
greatest  day  in  the  year.  It  has  been  called,  in  some  foreign  works 
on  Japan,  the  "  Feast  of  Dolls."  Several  days  before  the  matsuri,  th,e 
shops  are  gay  with  the  images  bought  for  this  occasion,  and  which 
are  on  sale  only  at  this  time  of  year.  Every  respectable  family  has 
a  number  of  these  splendidly  dressed  images,  which  are  from  four 
inches  to  a  foot  in  height,  and  which  accumulate  from  generation  to 
generation.     When  a  daughter  is  born  in  the  house  during  the  previ- 


CHILDREN'S  GAMES  AND  SPORTS.  463 

ous  year,  a  pair  of  hina,  or  images,  are  purchased  for  the  little  girl, 
which  she  plays  with  until  grown  up.  When  she  is  married,  her  hina 
are  taken  with  her  to  her  husband's  house,  and  she  gives  them  to  her 
children,  adding  to  the  stock  as  her  family  increases.  The  images 
are  made  of  wood  or  enameled  clay.  They  represent  the  mikado  and 
his  wife ;  the  Kioto  nobles,  their  wives  and  daughters,  the  court  min- 
strels,  and  various  personages  in  Japanese  mythology  and  history.  A 
great  many  other  toys,  representing  all  the  articles  in  use  in  a  Japa- 
nese lady's  chamber,  the  service  of  the  eating-table,  the  utensils  of  the 
kitchen,  traveling  apparatus,  etc.,  some  of  them  very  elaborate  and 
costly,  are  also  exhibited  and  played  with  on  this  day.  The  girls 
make  offerings  of  sake  and  dried  rice,  etc.,  to  the  effigies  of  the  em- 
peror and  empress,  and  then  spend  the  day  with  toys,  mimicking  the 
whole  round  of  Japanese  female  life,  as  that  of  child,  maiden,  wife, 
mother,  and  grandmother.  In  some  old  Japanese  families  in  which  I 
have  visited,  the  display  of  dolls  and  images  was  very  large. 

The  greatest  day  in  the  year  for  the  boys  is  on  the  Fifth  day  of 
the  Fifth  month.  On  this  day  is  celebrated  what  has  been  called  the 
"  Feast  of  Flags."  Previous  to  the  coming  of  the  day,  the  shops  dis- 
play for  sale  the  toys  and  tokens  proper  to  the  occasion.  These  are 
all  of  a  kind  suited  to  young  Japanese  masculinity.  They  consist  of 
effigies  of  heroes  and  warriors,  generals  and  commanders,  soldiers  on 
foot  and  horse,  the  genii  of  strength  and  valor,  wrestlers,  etc.  The 
toys  represent  the  equipments  and  regalia  of  a  daimio's  procession,  all 
kinds  of  things  used  in  war,  the  contents  of  an  arsenal,  flags,  stream- 
ers, banners,  etc.  A  set  of  these  toys  is  bought  for  every  son  born  in 
the  family.  Hence,  in  old  Japanese  families,  the  display  on  the  Fifth 
day  of  the  Fifth  month  is  extensive  and  brilliant.  Besides  the  display 
indoors,  on  a  bamboo  pole  erected  outside  is  hung,  by  a  string,  to  the 
top  of  the  pole,  a  representation  of  a  large  fish  in  paper.  The  paper 
being  hollow,  the  breeze  easily  fills  out  the  body  of  the  fish,  which 
flaps  its  tail  and  fins  in  a  natural  manner.  One  may  count  hundreds 
of  these  floating  in  the  air  over  the  city. 

The  nobori,  as  the  paper  fish  is  called,  is  intended  to  show  that  a 
son  has  been  born  during  the  year,  or,  at  least,  that  there  are  sons  in 
the  family.  The  fish  represented  is  the  carp,  which  is  able  to  swim 
swiftly  against  the  current  and  to  leap  over  water-falls.  This  act  of 
the  carp  is  a  favorite  subject  with  native  artists,  and  is  also  typical  of 
the  young  man,  especially  the  young  samurai,  mounting  over  all  diffi- 
culties to  success  and  quiet  prosperity. 


464 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIBE. 


One 

which 


S 


m\ 


1^ 


favorite  game,  which  has  now  gone  out  of  fashion,  was  that  in 
the  boys  formed  themselves  into  a  daimio's  procession,  having 
forerunners,  officers,  etc.,  and  imitating,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  the  old 
daimi5's  train.  Another  game  which  was  very 
popular  was  called  the  "Genji  and  Heike." 
These  are  the  names  of  the  celebrated  rival 
clans,  or  families,  Minamoto  and  Taira.  The 
boys  of  a  town,  district,  or  school  ranged  them- 
selves into  two  parties,  each  with  flags.  Those 
of  the  Heike  were  red,  those  of  the  Genji  white. 
Sometimes  every  boy  had  a  flag,  and  the  object 
of  the  contest,  which  was  begun  at  the  tap  of  a 
drum,  was  to  seize  the  flags  of  the  enemy.  The 
party  securing  the  greatest  number  of  flags  won 
the  victory.  In  other  cases,  the  flags  were  fast- 
ened on  the  back  of  each  contestant,  who  was 
armed  with  a  bamboo  for  a  sword,  and  who  had 
fastened,  on  a  pad  over  his  head,  a  flat,  round 
piece  of  earthenware,  so  that  a  party  of  them 
looked  not  unlike  the  faculty  of  a  college.  Often 
these  parties  of  boys  numbered  several  hundred, 
and  were  marshaled  in  squadrons,  as  in  a  battle. 
At  the  given  signal,  the  battle  commenced,  the 
object  being  to  break  the  earthen  disk  on  the 
head  of  the  enemy.  The  contest  was  usually 
very  exciting.  Whoever  had  his  earthen  disk 
demolished  had  to  retire  from  the  field.  The 
party  having  the  greatest  number  of  broken 
disks,  representative  of  cloven  skulls,  was  de- 
clared the  loser.  This  game  has  been  forbidden 
by  the  Government  as  being  too  severe  and 
cruel.     Boys  were  often  injured  in  it. 

There  are  many  other  games,  which  we  simply 
mention  without  describing.  There  are  three 
games  played  by  the  hands,  which  every  observ- 
ant foreigner,  long  resident  in  Japan,  must  have 
seen  played,  as  men  and  women  seem  to  enjoy 
them  as  much  as  children.  One  is  called  "  Ishi- 
ken,"  in  which  a  stone,  a  pair  of  scissors,  and  a 


i1 


tL\ 


CHILDREN'S  GAMES  AND  SPORTS.  465 

wrapping-c.oth  are  represented.  The  stone  signifies  the  clenched  fist, 
the  parted  fore  and  middle  finger  the  scissors,  and  the  curved  forefin- 
ger and  thumb  the  cloth. 

In  the  "  Kitsune-ken,"  the  fox,  man,  and  gun  are  the  figures.  The 
gun  kills  the  fox,  but  the  fox  deceives  the  man,  and  the  gun  is  useless 
without  the  man.  In  the  "  Osama-ken,"  five  or  six  boys  represent  the 
various  grades  of  rank,  from  the  peasant  up  to  the  great  daimios,  or 
shogun.  By  superior  address  and  skill  in  the  game,  the  peasant  rises 
to  the  highest  rank,  or  the  man  of  highest  rank  is  degraded. 

From  the  nature  of  the  Japanese  language,  in  which  a  single  word 
or  sound  may  have  a  great  many  significations,  riddles  and  puns  are 
of  extraordinary  frequency.  I  do  not  know  of  any  published  collec- 
tions of  riddles,  but  every  Japanese  boy  has  a  good  stock  of  them  on 
hand.  There  are  few  Japanese  works  of  light,  perhaps  of  serious,  lit- 
erature in  which  puns  do  not  continually  recur.  The  popular  songs 
and  poems  are  largely  plays  on  words.  There  are  also  several  puz- 
zles played  with  sticks,  founded  upon  the  shape  of  certain  Chinese 
characters.  As  for  the  short  and  simple  story-books,  song -books, 
nursery -rhymes,  lullabys,  and  what,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  may  be 
styled  Mother  Goose  literature,  they  are  as  plentiful  as  with  us ;  but 
they  have  a  very  strongly  characteristic  Japanese  flavor,  both  in  style 
and  matter.  In  the  games,  so  familiar  to  us,  of  "  Pussy  wants  a  Cor- 
ner "  and  "  Prisoner's  Base,"  the  oni,  or  devil,  takes  the  place  of  Puss 
or  the  oflacer. 

I  have  not  mentioned  all  the  games  and  sports  of  Japanese  chil- 
dren, but  enough  has  been  said  to  show  their  usual  character.  In 
general,  they  seem  to  be  natural,  sensible,  and  in  every  sense  benefi- 
cial. Their  immediate  or  remote  effect,  next  to  that  of  amusement, 
is  either  educational  or  hygienic.  Some  teach  history,  some  geogra- 
phy, some  excellent  sentiments  or  good  language,  or  inculcate  reverence 
and  obedience  to  the  elder  brother  or  sister,  to  parents  or  to  the  em- 
peror, or  stimulate  the  manly  virtues  of  courage  and  contempt  for 
pain.  The  study  of  the  subject  leads  one  to  respect  more  highly, 
rather  than  otherwise,  the  Japanese  people  for  being  such  affectionate 
fathers  and  mothers,  and  for  having  such  natural  and  docile  children. 
The  character  of  the  children's  plays  and  their  encouragement  by  the 
parents  have,  I  think,  much  to  do  with  that  frankness,  affection,  and 
obedience  on  the  part  of  the  children,  and  that  kindness  and  sym- 
pathy on  that  of  the  parents,  which  are  so  noticeable  in  Japan,  and 
which  form  one  of  the  good  points  of  Japanese  life  and  character. 


466  THE  MIKADO' IS  EMPIRE. 


XI. 

HOUSEHOLD  CUSTOMS  AND  SUPERSTITIONS. 

Household,  as  distinct  from  religious,  superstitions  may  be  defined 
as  beliefs  having  no  real  foundation  of  fact  and  a  narrower  range  of  in- 
fluences. They  act  as  a  sort  of  moral  police,  whose  rewards  and  pun- 
ishments are  confined  entirely  to  this  life.  Religious  superstitions  af- 
fect all  mankind  alike ;  those  of  the  household  may  be  said  to  influ- 
ence mainly  women  and  children,  and  to  have  no  connection  with  re- 
ligion or  the  priests.  Screened  from  criticism,  humble  in  their  sphere, 
they  linger  in  the  household  longer  than  religious  superstitions.  Ev- 
ery nation  has  them  ;  and  according  to  the  degree  of  intelligence  pos- 
sessed by  a  people  will  they  be  numerous  or  rare.  In  most  cases  they 
are  harmless,  while  many  have  a  real  educational  value  for  children 
and  simple-minded  people,  who  can  not,  by  their  own  intelligence, 
foresee  the  remote  good  or  bad  results  of  their  conduct.  These  per- 
sons may  be  influenced  by  the  fear  of  punishment  or  the  hopes  of  re- 
ward, embodied  in  a  warning  told  with  gravity,  and  enforced  by  the 
apparently  solemn  belief  of  him  who  tells  it.  As  children  outgrow 
them,  or  as  they  wear  out,  those  who  once  observed  will  laugh  at,  and 
yet  often  continue  them  through  the  force  of  habit.  Others  will  be 
retained  on  account  of  the  pleasure  connected  with  the  belief.  Oth- 
ers, again,  become  so  intrenched  in  household  customs  that  religion, 
reason,  argument,  fashion,  assault  them  in  vain.  Thus,  among  many  of 
us,  the  upsetting  of  a  salt-cellar,  the  dropping  of  a  needle  that  stands 
upright,  the  falling  of  a  looking-glass,  the  accidental  gathering  of  thir- 
teen people  around  the  dinner-table,  will  give  rise  to  certain  thoughts 
resulting  in  a  course  of  action  or  flutter  of  fear  that  can  not  be  ration- 
ally explained.  I  once  heard  of  a  Swedish  servant-girl  who  would  not 
brush  away  the  cobwebs  in  her  mistress's  house,  lest  she  should  sweep 
away  her  beaux  also.  As  in  our  own  language,  the  fancies,  poetry,  or 
fears  of  our  ancestors  are  embalmed  in  the  names  of  flowers,  in  words 
and  names,  so  the  student  of  the  picture-words  of  the  Japanese  Ian- 


HOUSEHOLD   CUSTOMS  AND  SUPERSTITIONS.  467 

guage  finds  in  them  fragments  of  poems,  quaint  conceits,  or  hideous 
beliefs. 

So  far  as  I  could  judge,  in  Japan,  the  majority  of  the  lower  classes 
implicitly  believe  the  household  superstitions  current  among  them ; 
and  though,  in  the  upper  strata  of  society,  there  were  many  men  who 
laughed  at  them,  the  power  of  custom  enslaved  the  women  and  chil- 
dren. The  greater  number  of  those  I  give  below  are  believed  by  the 
larger  portion  of  the  people,  particularly  in  the  country.  In  this,  as 
in  others  of  a  more  serious  nature,  the  belief  varies  with  the  mood 
and  circumstances  of  the  individual  or  people.  Many  of  them  I  have 
seen  or  heard  referred  to  in  conversation  or  in  my  reading ;  others  I 
have  had  noted  down  for  me  by  young  men  from  various  parts  of  Ja- 
pan. I  find  that  a  few  of  them  are  peculiar,  or  local,  to  one  province ; 
but  most  of  them  form  the  stock  of  beliefs  common  to  mankind  or 
the  Japanese  people.  From  hundreds,  I  give  a  few.  Some  have  an 
evident  moral  or  educational  purpose — to  inculcate  lessons  of  tidiness, 
benevolence,  and  to  form  good  habits  of  cleanliness,  nicety  in  house- 
keeping, etc.  Some  are  weather  prognostics,  or  warnings  intended  to 
guard  against  fire  or  other  calamities. 

They  never  sweep  the  rooms  of  a  house  immediately  after  one  of 
the  inmates  has  set  out  upon  a  journey,  or  to  be  absent  for  a  time. 
This  would  sweep  out  all  the  luck  with  him. 

At  a  marriage  ceremony,  neither  bride  nor  bridegroom  wears  any 
clothing  of  a  purple  color,  lest  their  marriage -tie  be  soon  loosed,  as 
purple  is  the  color  most  liable  to  fade.  It  would  be  as  if  a  couple 
from  New  Jersey  would  go  to  Indiana  to  spend  their  honey-moon. 

If,  while  a  person  is  very  sick,  the  cup  of  medicine  is  upset  by  acci- 
dent, they  say  it  is  a  sure  sign  of  his  recovery.  This  looks  as  though 
the  Japanese  had  faith  in  the  dictum,  "  Throw  physic  to  the  dogs." 

There  are  some  curious  ideas  in  regard  to  cutting  the  finger-nails. 
The  nails  must  not  be  trimmed  just  previous  to  going  on  a  journey, 
lest  disgrace  should  fall  upon  the  person  at  the  place  of  his  destina- 
.tion.  Upon  no  account  will  an  ordinary  Japanese  cut  his  nails  at 
night,  lest  cat's  nails  grow  out  from  them.  Children  who  cast  the 
clippings  of  their  nails  in  the  brazier  or  fire  are  in  danger  of  calamity. 
If,  while  any  one  is  cutting  the  nails,  a  piece  springs  into  the  fire,  he 
will  die  soon.  By  burning  some  salt  in  the  fire,  however,  the  danger 
is  avoided. 

It  seems  that  the  bore  is  not  unknown  in  Japan,  and  the  Japanese 
are  pestered  with  visitors  who  sit  their  welcome  out,  and  drive  their 


468  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

hosts  into  a  frenzy  of  eagerness  to  get  rid  of  them.  The  following  is 
said  to  be  a  sure  recipe  to  secure  good  riddance :  Go  to  the  kitchen, 
turn  the  broom  upside  down,  put  a  towel  over  it,  and  fan  it  lustily. 
The  tedious  visitor  will  soon  depart.  Or,  burn  a  moxa  (Japanese,  mo- 
gusa)  on  the  back  of  his  clogs.  A  Japanese,  in  entering  a  house,  al- 
ways leaves  his  clogs  or  sandals  outside  the  door.  The  American 
host,  bored  by  tedious  callers,  is  respectfully  invited  to  try  his  method 
of  hastening  departures. 

Japanese  papas,  who  find,  as  other  fathers  do,  how  much  it  costs  to 
raise  a  large  family,  will  not  let  an  infant,  or  even  a  young  child,  look 
in  a  mirror  (and  thus  see  a  child  exactly  like  itself,  making  apparent 
twins) ;  for  if  he  does,  the  anxious  parent  supposes  the  child,  when 
grown  up  and  married,  will  have  twins. 

When  small-pox  prevails  in  a  neighborhood,  and  parents  do  not  wish 
their  children  attacked  by  it,  they  write  a  notice  on  the  front  of  their 
houses  that  their  children  are  absent.   This  is  said  to  keep  out  the  disease. 

Many  have  reference  to  death  or  criminals.  A  Japanese  corpse 
is  always  placed  with  its  head  to  the  north  and  feet  to  the  south. 
Hence,  a  living  Japanese  will  never  sleep  in  that  position.  I  have 
often  noticed,  in  the  sleeping-rooms  of  private  houses,  where  I  was  a 
guest,  and  in  many  of  the  hotels,  a  diagram  of  the  cardinal  points  of 
the  compass  printed  on  paper,  and  pasted  on  the  ceiling  of  the  room, 
for  the  benefit  of  timid  sleepers.  Some  Japanese,  in  traveling,  carry  a 
compass,  to  avoid  this  really  natural  and  scientific  position  in  sleep. 
I  have  often  surprised  people,  especially  students,  in  Japan,  by  telling 
them  that  to  lie  with  the  head  to  the  north  was  the  true  position  in 
harmony  with  the  electric  currents  in  the  atmosphere,  and  that  a 
Frenchman,  noted  for  his  longevity,  ascribed  his  vigorous  old  age 
mainly  to  the  fact  that  he  slept  in  a  line  drawn  from  pole  to  pole. 
I  used  to  shock  them  by  invariably  sleeping  in  that  position  myself. 

The  plaintive  howling  of  a  dog  in  the  night-time  portends  a  death 
in  some  family  in  the  vicinity  of  the  animal. 

The  wooden  clogs  of  the  Japanese  are  fastened  on  the  foot  by  a 
single  thong  passing  between  the  largest  and  next  largest  toe.  The 
stocking,  or  sock,  is  a  "  foot-glove,"  with  a  separate  compartment  for 
the  "  thumb  of  the  foot,"  and  another  mitten-like  one  for  the  "  foot- 
fingers."  This  thong,  divided  into  two,  passes  over  the  foot  and  is 
fastened  at  the  sides.  If,  in  walking,  the  string  breaks  in  front,  it  is 
the  sign  of  some  misfortune  to  the  person's  enemies ;  if  on  the  back 
part,  the  wearer  himself  will  experience  some  calamity. 


HOUSEHOLD   CUSTOMS  AND  SUPERSTITIONS.  469 

When,  by  reason  of  good  fortune  or  a  lucky  course  of  events,  there 
is  great  joy  in  a  family,  it  is  customary  to  make  kowameshi.,  or  red 
rice,  and  give  an  entertainment  to  friends  and  neighbors.  The  rice  is 
colored  by  boiling  red  beans  with  it.  If,  for  any  cause,  the  color  is 
not  a  fine  red,  it  is  a  bad  omen  for  the  family,  and  their  joy  is  turned 
to  grief. 

AVhen  a  person  loses  a  tooth,  either  artificially  at  the  hands  of  the 
dentist  (Japanese,  "  tooth-carpenter  "),  or  by  forceps,  or  by  accident,  in 
order  that  another  may  grow  in  the  empty  socket,  the  tooth,  if  from 
the  upper  jaw,  is  buried  under  the  foundation  of  the  house ;  if  from 
the  lower  jaw,  it  is  thrown  up  on  the  roof  of  a  house. 

Many  are  founded  upon  puns,  or  word- resemblances,  making  the 
deepest  impression  upon  the  native  mind.  There  are  many  instances 
in  Japanese  history  in  which  discreet  servants  or  wise  men  gave  a  hap- 
py turn  to  some  word  of  sinister  omen,  and  warded  off  harm. 

At  New-year's-day,  paterfamilias  does  not  like  any  one  to  utter  the 
sound  shi  (death),  or  any  word  containing  it.  This  is  a  diflBcult  mat- 
ter in  a  household,  since  the  syllable  shi  has  over  a  dozen  different 
meanings,  and  occurs  in  several  hundred  Japanese  words,  some  of  them 
very  common.  Thus,  let  us  suppose  a  family  of  husband,  Avife,  child, 
and  servant,  numbering  four  {shi).  A  Aasitor  calls,  and  happens  to  use 
the  words  Shiba  (a  city  district  in  Tokio),  shi  (teacher,  poem,  four,  to 
do,  etc.).  The  host,  at  first  merely  angry  with  the  visitor  who  so  forci- 
bly uses  the  sinister  words,  is  incensed  when  the  latter  happens  to  re- 
mark that  his  host's  household  consists  of  four  {shi),  and  wishes  him 
gone.  Moodily  reflecting  on  his  visitor's  remark,  he  resolves  to  dis- 
miss his  servant,  and  so  make  his  household  three.  But  the  shrewd 
servant,  named  Fuku,  remonstrates  with  his  master  for  sending  away 
fuku  (blessing,  luck)  from  his  house.  The  master  is  soothed,  and 
keeps  his  "  boy." 

Many  Japanese  worship  the  god  Kampira  for  no  other  reason  than 
that  the  first  syllable  of  his  name  means  gold. 

If  a  woman  steps  over  an  egg-shell,  she  will  go  mad ;  if  over  a  ra- 
zor, it  will  become  dull ;  if  over  a  whetstone,  it  will  be  broken.  If  a 
man  should  set  his  hair  on  fire,  he  will  go  mad.  A  girl  who  bites  her 
finger-nails  will,  when  married,  bring  forth  children  with  great  diffi- 
culty. Children  are  told  that  if  they  tell  a  lie,  an  oni,  or  an  imp,  called 
the  tengu,  will  pull  out  their  tongues.  Many  a  Japanese  urchin  has 
spoken  the  truth  in  fear  of  the  oni  supposed  to  be  standing  by,  ready 
to  run  away  with  his  tongue.     No  such  watchman  seems  to  be  set  be- 


470  THE  JiUKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

fore  tte  unruly  member  of  the  scolding  wife.  Of  these  "  edge-tools 
that  grow  sharper  by  constant  use  "  there  is  a  goodly  number  in  Ja- 
pan. When  husband  and  wife  are  quarreling,  a  devil  is  believed  to 
stand  between  them,  encouraging  them  to  go  on  from  bad  to  worse. 

Salt  is  regarded  as  something  so  mysterious  in  its  preservative  pow- 
er, that  it  is  the  subject  of  several  household  superstitions.  A  house- 
wife will  not,  on  any  account,  buy  salt  at  night.  When  obtained  in 
the  day-time,  a  portion  of  it  must  first  be  thrown  in  the  fire  to  ward 
off  all  dangers,  and  especially  to  prevent  quarreling  in  the  family.  It 
is  also  used  to  scatter  around  the  threshold  and  in  the  house  after  a 
funeral,  for  purificatory  purposes. 

Many  are  the  imaginary  ways  of  getting  rich,  so  numerous  in  every 
land.  One  of  the  most  important  articles  of  Japanese  clothing,  in 
both  male  and  female,  is  the  ohi.,  or  girdle.  If,  in  dressing,  the  obi 
gets  entangled,  and  forms  a  knot  or  knob,  the  wearer  never  unties  it 
himself,  but  proposes  to  some  one  else  to  do  it  for  him,  promising 
him  a  great  sum,  as  the  wearer  is  sure  to  be  rich.  There  is  usually  a 
great  deal  of  laughing  when  this  "  superstition  "  is  observed. 

All  Japanese  seem  to  have  a  desire  to  attain  full  stature.  Stunted 
growth  is  a  great  grief  to  a  man,  and  every  thing  of  ill-omen  calculated 
to  restrain  growth  must  be  avoided.  If  a  boy  rests  a  gun  on  the  top 
of  his  head,  he  will  grow  no  taller.  Children  must  not  carry  any  kind 
of  basket  on  their  heads,  nor  must  they  ever  measure  their  own  height. 
Such  a  sight  as  men  or  women  carrying  burdens  on  their  heads,  so 
common  in  Europe,  is  rarely  seen  in  Japan. 

If  a  man,  while  going  to  fish,  meets  a  bonze  on  the  road,  he  will 
catch  no  fish,  as  the  [strict]  bonzes  eat  no  fish. 

A  person  who,  when  eating,  bites  his  tongue,  believes  that  somebody 
begrudges  him  his  food. 

It  often  happens  that  boys  and  girls  like  to  eat  the  charred  portions 
of  rice  that  sometimes  remain  in  the  pot  when  the  rice  has  been  burn- 
ed. Young  unmarried  people  who  persist  in  this  are  warned  that  they 
will  marry  persons  whose  faces  are  pock-marked. 

Many  people,  especially  epicures,  have  an  idea  that  by  eating  the 
first  fruits,  fish,  grain,  or  vegetables  of  the  season,  they  will  live  sev- 
enty-five days  longer  than  they  otherwise  would. 

It  is  an  exceedingly  evil  omen  to  break  the  chopsticks  while  eating. 
Children  are  told  that  if  they  strike  any  thing  with  their  chopsticks 
while  at  their  meals,  they  will  be  struck  dumb. 

People  who  drink  tea  or  water  out  of  the  spout  of  the  vessel,  in- 


HOUSEHOLD   CUSTOMS  AND  SUPERSTITIONS.  471 

stead  of  out  of  a  cup,  are  told  that  tliey  will  have  a  child  with  a 
mouth  shaped  like  the  spout  of  the  vessel.  This  terror  is  kept  fresh 
before  the  mind  by  masks  and  pictures  of  human  beings  with  spout- 
shaped  mouths. 

In  Japan  the  dwellings  are  universally  built  of  wood,  and  conflagra- 
tions very  frequently  destroy  whole  towns  or  villages  in  a  single  day 
or  night,  leaving  nothing  but  ashes.  Hence  it  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  provide  against  the  ever-ready  enemy,  and  every  "  sign  ''  is 
carefully  heeded.  The  following  prognostics  are  deemed  unfailing: 
^\Tien  the  cocks  crow  loudly  in  the  evening;  when  a  dog  climbs  up 
on  the  roof  of  a  house  or  building  of  any  kind.  If  a  weasel  cries  out 
once,  fire  will  break  out :  to  avert  it,  a  person  must  pour  out  three 
dipperfuls  of  water,  holding  the  dipper  in  the  left-hand.  A  peculiar 
kind  of  grass,  called  hinode  (sunrise),  grows  on  many  Japanese  houses : 
this  must  not  be  pulled  up,  otherwise  the  house  will  take  fire. 

In  regard  to  visitors,  they  believe  the  following:  In  pouring  tea 
from  the  tea-pot,  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  stem  of  a  leaf  comes 
out  with  the  tea,  and  stands  momentarily  upright.  From  whatever 
direction  the  stem  finally  falls,  they  expect  a  visitor.  If  a  bird,  in  fly- 
ing, casts  its  shadow  on  the  partition  or  window  (which  is  of  paper, 
and  translucent),  a  visitor  will  surely  call  soon.  A  person,  when  ab- 
stracted or  in  trouble,  while  eating,  will  often  pour  out  his  tea  from 
the  back  of  the  tea-pot,  instead  of  through  the  spout.  In  such  case 
it  is  a  sure  sign  of  the  near  visit  of  a  priest  to  the  house. 

Many  are  intended  to  teach  the  youth  to  imitate  great,  good,  or 
wise  men. 

If  the  rim  {fuchi,  also  meaning  "  salary  ")  of  a  cup  is  broken  {hana- 
reVw,  also  meaning  is  "  lost ")  in  presence  of  an  ofiicial  while  he  is  eat- 
ing, he  will  be  unhappy,  for  he  will  understand  it  to  mean  that  he 
will  lose  his  office  or  salary. 

Even  among  the  educated  samurai,  with  whom  the  maintaining  of 
the  family  name  and  dignity  is  all-important,  there  are  many  danger- 
ous seasons  for  travelers,  and  the  number  of  lucky  and  unlucky  days 
is  too  numerous  to  be  fully  noted  here. 

Many  people  of  the  lower  classes  would  not  wash  their  head  or  hair 
on  "the  day  of  the  horse,"  so  named  after  one  of  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac,  lest  their  hair  become  red.  Any  other  capillary  color  than  a 
deep  black  is  an  abomination  to  a  Japanese. 

During  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  or  moon,  people  carefully  cover  the 
wells,  as  they  suppose  that  poison  falls  from  the  sky  during  the  period 


4Y2  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

of  the  obscuration.  Seeds  will  not  germinate  if  planted  on  certain 
days.  Many  people  will  not  build  a  house  fronting  to  the  north-east, 
else  it  will  soon  be  destroyed :  this  is  the  quarter  in  which  especial  evil 
lurks ;  it  is  called  the  "  Devil's  Gate."  Young  men  must  not  light 
their  pipes  at  a  lamp  :  it  should  be  done  at  the  coals  in  the  brazier.  If 
they  persist  in  violating  this  precaution,  they  will  not  get  good  wives. 
Many  people  even  now,  in  the  rural  districts,  think  it  wrong  to  eat  beef, 
and  believe  that  a  butcher  will  have  a  cripple  among  his  descendants. 

When  a  maimed  or  deformed  child  is  born,  people  say  that  its  par- 
ents or  ancestors  committed  some  great  sin.  After  5  p.m.  many  peo- 
ple will  not  put  on  new  clothes  or  sandals.  There  are  several  years  of 
life  called  the  yaku-doski  (evil  years),  in  which  a  person  must  be  very 
careful  of  himself  and  all  he  does.  These  critical  years  are  the  seventh, 
twenty-fifth,  forty- second,  and  sixty-first  in  a  man's,  and  the  seventh, 
eighth,  thirty-third,  forty-second,  and  sixty -first  in  a  woman's  life. 

In  Japan,  as  with  us,  each  baby  is  the  most  remarkable  child  ever 
seen,  and  wondrous  are  the  legends  rehearsed  concerning  each  one; 
but  it  is  a  great  day  in  a  Japanese  home  when  the  baby,  of  his  own 
accord,  walks  before  his  first  birthday,  and  mochi  (rice  pastry)  must 
be  made  to  celebrate  the  auspicious  event. 

Young  girls  do  not  like  to  pour  tea  or  hot  water  into  a  cup  of 
kawameshi  (red  rice),  lest  their  wedding-night  should  be  rainy. 

The  common  belief  in  Japan  is  that  the  dream  is  the  act  of  the 
soul.  As  soon  as  a  person  falls  asleep,  the  soul,  leaving  the  body, 
goes  out  to  play.  If  we  wake  any  one  suddenly  and  violently,  he 
will  die,  because  his  soul,  bemg  at  a  distance,  can  not  return  to  the 
body  before  he  is  awakened.  The  soul  is  supposed  to  have  form  and 
color,  and  to  be  a  small,  round,  black  body ;  and  the  adventures  of 
the  disembodied  soul,  i.  e.,  the  black  ball  apart  from  its  owner,  form 
a  standard  subject  in  Japanese  novels  and  imaginative  literature. 

In  general,  dreams  go  by  contraries.  Thus,  if  one  dreams  that  he  was 
killed  or  stabbed  by  some  one  with  a  sword,  the  dream  is  considered 
3  very  lucky  one.  If  a  person  dreams  of  finding  money,  he  will  soon 
lose  some.  If  he  dreams  of  loss,  he  will  gain.  If  one  dreams  of  Fuji 
no  yama,  he  will  receive  promotion  to  high  rank,  or  will  win  great 
prosperity.  If  on  the  night  of  the  second  day  of  the  First  month  one 
dreams  of  the  takara-bune  (treasure-ship),  he  shall  become  a  rich  man. 
In  order  to  dream  this  happy  dream,  people  often  put  beneath  their 
pillows  a  picture  of  it,  which  operates  like  bridal-cake. 

All  these  beliefs  and  hundreds  of  others  that  I  noted  in  Japan  are 


HOUSEHOLD   CUSTOMS  AND  SUPERSTITIONS.  473 

comparatively  harmless.  The  Japanese  fancy  does  not  seem  to  have 
reached  that  depth  of  disease,  to  have  suffered  with  that  delirium  tre- 
mens of  superstition,  such  as  inthralls  and  paralyzes  the  Chinese,  and 
prevents  all  modern  progress,  Feng  Shuey  is  not  a  national  curse  in 
Japan,  as  it  is  in  China ;  and  whereas,  in  the  latter  country,  telegraph 
poles  and  wires  are  torn  down  because  they  cast  a  shadow  over  the 
ancestral  tombs,  and  railroads  can  not  be  built  because  they  traverse  or 
approach  grave-yards,  in  Japan  both  these  civilizers  are  popular. 

In  a  few  years  many  of  the  household  superstitions  I  have  enumer- 
ated will  be,  in  the  cities  of  Japan,  as  curious  to  the  Japanese  as  they 
are  to  us.  Among  these  are  the  following,  with  which  this  long 
chapter  may  be  closed : 

All  over  the  country,  in  town  or  city,  are  trees  specially  dedicated 
to  the  kami,  or  gods.  Those  around  shrines  also  are  deemed  sacred. 
They  are  often  marked  by  a  circlet  of  twisted  rice-straw.  Several 
times  in  the  recent  history  of  the  country  have  serious  insurrections 
broken  out  among  the  peasantry,  because  the  local  authorities  decided 
to  cut  down  certain  trees  held  in  worshipful  reverence  by  the  people, 
and  believed  to  be  the  abode  of  the  tutelary  deities.  Nature,  in  all 
her  forms,  is  as  animate  and  populous  to  the  Japanese  imagination  as 
were  the  mountain  stream  and  sea  to  the  child  and  peasant  of  an- 
cient Greece.  Many  a  tale  is  told  of  trees  shedding  blood  when  hew- 
ed down,  and  of  sacrilegious  axe-men  smitten  in  death  for  their  temer- 
ity. In  popular  fiction — the  mirror  as  well  as  nurse  of  popular  fancy 
— a  whole  grove  of  trees  sometimes  appears  to  the  belated  or  guilty 
traveler  as  a  whispering  council  of  bearded  and  long-armed  old  men. 

In  Fukui  and  Toki5,  and  in  my  numerous  journeyings,  many  trees 
were  pointed  out  to  me  as  having  good  or  evil  reputation.  Some 
were  the  abodes  of  good  spirits,  some  of  ghosts  that  troubled  travel- 
ers and  the  neighborhood ;  while  some  had  the  strange  power  of  at- 
tracting men  to  hang  themselves  on  their  branches.  This  power  of 
fascinating  men  to  suicide  is  developed  in  the  tree  after  the  first  vic- 
tim has  done  so  voluntarily.  One  of  these,  standing  in  a  lonely  part 
of  the  road  skirting  the  widest  of  the  castle  moats  in  Fukui,  was  fa- 
mous for  being  the  elect  gallows  for  all  the  suicides  by  rope  in  the 
city.  Another  tree,  near  the  Imperial  College  in  Tokio,  wdthin  half  a 
mile  of  my  house,  bore  a  similar  sinister  reputation ;  and  another,  on 
the  south  side  of  Shiba  grove,  excelled,  in  number  of  victims,  any  in 
that  great  city. 

A  singular  superstition,  founded  upon  the  belief  that  the  kami  will 


474  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

visit  vengeance  upon  those  who  desecrate  the  sacred  trees,  or  foi 
whom  they  are  desecrated,  is  called  the  "  Ushi  toki  mairi " — literally, 
"  to  go  to  the  shrine  at  the  hour  of  the  ox."  Let  us  suppose  that  a 
man  has  made  love  to  a  woman,  won  her  affections,  and  then  deserted 
her.  In  some  cases,  sorrow  culminates  in  suicide ;  usually,  it  is  en- 
dured and  finally  overborne ;  in  rare  cases,  the  injured  woman  becomes 
a  jealous  avenger,  who  invokes  the  gods  to  curse  and  annihilate  the 
destroyer  of  her  peace.  To  do  this,  she  makes  a  rude  image  of  straw, 
which  is  to  represent  her  victim.  At  the  hour  of  two  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  ushi  toki  (the  hour  of  the  ox),  she  proceeds  {main)  to  the 
shrine  of  her  patron  god,  usually  the  Uji-gami  (family  or  local  deity). 
Her  feet  are  shod  with  high  clogs,  her  limbs  are  lightly  robed  in  loose 
night-dress  of  white,  her  hair  is  disheveled,  and  her  eyes  sparkle  with 
the  passion  within  her.  Sometimes  she  wears  a  crown,  made  of  an 
iron  tripod  reversed,  on  which  burn  three  candles.  In  her  left  hand 
she  carries  the  straw  effigy ;  in  her  right  she  grasps  a  hammer.  On 
her  bosom  is  suspended  a  mirror.  She  carries  nails  in  her  girdle  or 
in  her  mouth.  Reaching  the  sacred  tree,  which  is  encircled  with  a 
garland  of  rice-straw,  before  the  shrine,  and  near  the  torii,  she  impales 
upon  the  tree  with  nails,  after  the  manner  of  a  Roman  crucifier,  the 
straw  effigy  of  her  recreant  lover.  While  so  engaged,  she  adjures  the 
gods  to  save  their  tree,  impute  the  guilt  of  desecration  to  the  traitor, 
and  visit  him  with  their  deadly  vengeance.  The  visit  is  repeated 
nightly,  several  times  in  succession,  until  the  object  of  her  incanta- 
tions sickens  and  dies.  At  Sabae,  which  I  visited,  a  town  twenty-five 
miles  from  Fukui,  before  a  shrine  of  Kampira  stood  a  pine-tree  about 
a  foot  thick,  plentifully  studded  with  nails,  the  imperishable  parts  of 
these  emblems  of  vicarious  vengeance.  Another,  and  a  smaller,  tree 
hard  by,  wounded  unto  death  by  repeated  stabs  of  the  iron  nails  driv- 
en home  by  arms  nerved  to  masculine  strength,  had  long  since  with- 
ered away.  It  stood  there,  all  scarred  and  stained  by  rust,  and  gut- 
tered into  rottenness,  a  grim  memorial  of  passions  long  since  cooled 
in  death,  perchance  of  retribution  long  since  accomplished.  What 
tales  of  love  and  desertion,  anguish,  jealousy,  and  vengeance  could 
each  rusty  cross  of  iron  points  tell,  were  each  a  tongue !  It  seemed 
but  another  of  many  proofs  that  the  passions  which  thrill  or  torment 
the  human  soul  are  as  strong  in  Japan  as  in  those  lands  whose  chil- 
dren boast  that  to  them  it  is  given  to  reach  the  heights  of  highest  hu- 
man joy,  and  to  sound  the  depths  of  deepest  human  woe.  In  Japan, 
also,  "  Love  is  as  strong  as  death ;  jealousy  is  cruel  as  the  grave." 


THE  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY  OF  JAPAN.  477 


XIL 

THE  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY  OF  JAPAN. 

As  if  to  make  amends  for  the  poverty  of  the  actual  fauna  in  Japan, 
the  number  and  variety  of  imaginary  creatures  in  animal  form  are  re- 
markably great.  Man  is  not  satisfied  with  what  the  heavens  above 
and  the  waters  under  the  earth  show  him.  Seeing  that  every  effect 
must  have  a  cause,  and  ignorant  of  the  revelations  of  modern  science, 
the  natural  man  sees  in  cloud,  tempest,  lightning,  thunder,  earthquake, 
and  biting  wind  the  moving  spirits  of  the  air.  According  to  the  pri- 
mal mold  of  the  particular  human  mind  will  the  bodying  of  these 
things  unseen  be  lovely  or  hideous,  sublime  or  trivial.  Only  one  born 
among  the  triumphs  of  modern  discovery,  who  lives  a  few  years  in  an 
Asiatic  country,  can  realize  in  its  most  perfect  vividness  the  definition 
of  science  given  by  the  master  seer — "  the  art  of  seeing  the  invisible." 

The  aspects  of  nature  in  Japan  are  such  as  to  influence  the  minds 
of  its  mainly  agricultural  inhabitants  to  an  extent  but  faintly  realised 
by  one  born  in  the  United  States.  In  the  first  place,  the  foundations 
of  the  land  are  shaky.  There  can  be  no  real  estate  in  Japan,  for  one 
knows  not  but  the  whole  country  may  be  ingulfed  in  the  waters  out 
of  which  it  once  emerged.  Earthquakes  average  over  two  a  month, 
and  a  hundred  in  one  revolution  of  the  moon  have  been  known.  The 
national  annals  tell  of  many  a  town  and  village  ingulfed,  and  of  cities 
and  proud  castles  leveled.  Floods  of  rain,  causing  dreadful  land-slides 
and  inundations,  are  by  no  means  rare.  Even  the  ocean  has,  to  the 
coast-dweller,  an  added  terror.  Not  only  do  the  wind  and  tempest 
arise  to  wreck  and  drown,  but  the  tidal  wave  is  ever  a  possible  visitor. 
Once  or  twice  a  year  the  typhoons,  sometimes  the  most  dreadful  in  the 
dreadful  catalogue  of  destructive  agencies,  must  be  looked  for.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  empire  is  covered  with  mount- 
ains— not  always  superb  models  of  form  like  Fuji,  but  often  jagged 
peaks  and  cloven  crests,  among  which  are  grim  precipices,  frightful 
gulches,  and  gloomy  defiles.  With  no  religion  but  that  of  paganism 
and  fetichisra,  armed  without  by  no  weapons  of  science,  strengthened 

31 


4V8  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

within  by  no  knowledge  of  the  Creator-father,  the  Japanese  peasant  is 
appalled  at  his  own  insignificance  in  the  midst  of  the  sublime  myste- 
ries and  immensities  of  nature.  The  creatures  of  his  own  imagination, 
by  which  he  explains  the  phenomena  of  nature  and  soothes  his  terrors, 
though  seeming  frightful  to  us,  are  necessities  to  him,  since  the  awful 
suspense  of  uncertainty  and  ignorance  is  to  him  more  terrible  than  the 
creatures  whose  existence  he  imagines.  Though  modern  science  will 
confer  an  ineffable  good  upon  Japan  by  enlightening  the  darkened  in- 
tellect of  its  inhabitants,  yet  the  continual  liability  to  the  recurrence  of 
destructive  natural  phenomena  will  long  retard  the  march  of  mind,  and 
keep  alive  superstitions  that  now  block  like  bowlders  the  path  of  civ- 
ilization. 

Chief  among  ideal  creatures  in  Japan  is  the  dragon.  The  word 
dragon  stands  for  a  genus  of  which  there  are  several  species  and  va- 
rieties. To  describe  them  in  full,  and  to  recount  minutely  the  ideas 
held  by  the  Japanese  rustics  concerning  them,  would  be  to  compile  an 
octavo  work  on  dragonology.  The  merest  tyro  in  Japanese  art — in- 
deed, any  one  who  has  seen  the  cheap  curios  of  the  country — must 
have  been  impressed  with  the  great  number  of  these  colossal  wrigglers 
on  every  thing  Japanese.  In  the  country  itself,  the  monster  is  well- 
nigh  omnipresent.  In  the  carvings  on  tombs,  temples,  dwellings,  and 
shops — on  the  Government  documents — printed  on  the  old  and  the 
new  paper  money,  and  stamped  on  the  new  coins — in  pictures  and 
books,  on  musical  instruments,  in  high-relief  on  bronzes,  and  cut  in 
stone,  metal,  and  wood — the  dragon  {tatsu)  everywhere  "  swinges  the 
scaly  horror  of  his  folded  tail,"  whisks  his  long  mustaches,  or  glares 
with  his  terrible  eyes.  The  dragon  is  the  only  animal  in  modern  Ja- 
pan that  wears  hairy  ornaments  on  the  upper  lip. 

I  shall  attempt  no  detailed  description  of  the  Japanese  dragon, 
presuming  that  most  foreign  readers  are  already  familiar  with  its  ap- 
pearance on  works  of  art.  The  creature  looks  like  a  winged  crocodile, 
except  as  to  the  snout,  which  is  tufted  with  hair,  and  the  claws,  which 
are  very  sharp.  The  celebrated  Japanese  author,  Bakin,  in  his  master- 
piece of  Hakkenden  ("  The  Eight  Dog  Children  "),  describes  the  mon- 
ster with  dogmatic  accuracy.  He  says :  "  The  dragon  is  a  creature  of 
a  very  superior  order  of  being.  It  has  a  deer's  horns,  a  horse's  head, 
eyes  like  those  of  a  devil,  a  neck  like  that  of  a  snake,  a  belly  like  that 
of  a  red  worm,  scales  like  those  of  a  fish,  claws  like  a  hawk's,  paws  like 
a  tiger's,  and  ears  like  a  cow's.  In  the  spring,  the  dragon  lives  in  heav- 
en ;  in  the  autumn,  in  the  water ;  in  the  summer,  it  travels  in  the 


THE  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY  OF  JAPAN. 


479 


clouds  and  takes  its  pleasure ;  in  winter,  it  lives  in  the  earth  dormant. 
It  always  dwells  alone,  and  never  in  herds.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
dragons,  such  as  the  violet,  the  yellow,  the  green,  the  red,  the  white,  the 
black,  and  the  flying  dragon.  Some  are  scaly,  some  horned,  some  with- 
out horns.  When  the  white  dragon  breathes,  the  breath  of  its  lungs 
goes  into  the  earth  and  turns  to  gold.  When  the  violet  dragon  spits, 
the  spittle  becomes  balls  of  pure  crystal,  of  which  gems  and  caskets 
are  made.  One  kind  of  dragon  has  nine  colors  on  its  body,  and  an- 
other can  see  every  thing  within  a  hundred  ri ;  another  has  immense 
treasures  of  every  sort;  another  delights  to  kill  human  beings.  The 
water  dragon  causes  floods  of  rain ;  when  it  is  sick,  the  rain  has  a 


The  Rain  Dragon.    (From  a  Japanese  drawing,  by  Kano.) 

fishy  smell.  The  fire  dragon  is  only  seven  feet  long,  but  its  body  is 
of  flame.  The  dragons  are  all  very  lustful,  and  approach  beasts  of  ev- 
ery sort.  The  fruit  of  a  union  of  one  of  these  monsters  with  a  cow 
is  the  kirin  ;  with  a  swine,  an  elephant ;  and  with  a  mare,  a  steed  of 
the  finest  breed.  The  female  dragon  produces  at  every  parturition 
nine  young.  The  first  young  dragon  sings,  and  likes  all  harmonious 
sounds,  hence  the  tops  of  Japanese  bells  are  cast  in  the  form  of  this 


480  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

dragon ;  the  second  delights  in  the  sounds  of  musical  instruments, 
hence  the  koto,  or  horizontal  harp,  and  suzumi,  a  girl's  drum,  struck  by 
the  fingers,  are  ornamented  with  the  figure  of  this  dragon ;  the  third 
is  fond  of  drinking,  and  likes  all  stimulating  liquors,  therefore  goblets 
and  drinking-cups  are  adorned  with  representations  of  this  creature ; 
the  fourth  likes  steep  and  dangerous  places,  hence  gables,  towers,  and 
projecting  beams  of  temples  and  pagodas  have  carved  images  of  this 
dragon  upon  them  ;  the  fifth  is  a  great  destroyer  of  living  things,  fond 
of  killing  and  bloodshed,  therefore  swords  are  decorated  with  golden 
figures  of  this  dragon ;  the  sixth  loves  learning  and  delights  in  litera- 
ture, hence  on  the  covers  and  title-pages  of  books  and  literary  works 
are  pictures  of  this  creature ;  the  seventh  is  renowned  for  its  power  of 
hearing ;  the  eighth  enjoys  sitting,  hence  the  easy-chairs  are  carved  in 
its  images ;  the  ninth  loves  to  bear  weight,  therefore  the  feet  of  tables 
and  of  hibachi  are  shaped  like  this  creature's  feet.  As  the  dragon  is 
the  most  powerful  animal  in  existence,  so  the  garments  of  the  emperor 
or  mikado  are  called  the  '  dragon  robes,'  his  face  the  '  dragon  counte- 
nance,' his  body  the  '  dragon  body,'  the  ruffling  of  the  '  dragon  scales' 
his  displeasure,  and  his  anger  the  '  dragon  wrath.'  " 

Whence  arose  the  idea  of  the  dragon  ?  Was  the  pterodactyl  known 
to  the  early  peoples  of  the  East  ?  Did  the  geologic  fish-lizard  wander 
at  night,  with  teeth  unpicked  and  uncleansed  of  phosphorescent  frag- 
ments of  his  fish-diet,  and  thus  really  breathe  out  fire,  as  the  artists 
picture  him  ? 

The  kirin,  referred  to  above,  is  an  animal  having  the  head  of  a  drag- 
on, the  body  of  a  deer,  and  the  legs  and  feet  of  a  horse,  with  tail  and 
streaming  haii  or  wings  peculiar  to  itself,  though  native  poets  never 
bestride  it,  nor  is  it  any  relative  of  Pegasus.  On  its  forehead  is  a 
single  horn.  It  is  found  carved  on  the  wood-work  of  the  tombs  of 
the  shoguns  and  other  defunct  worthies  in  Japan.  It  is  said  that  the 
Mrin  appears  on  the  earth  once  in  a  thousand  years,  or  only  when 
some  transcendently  great  man  or  sage,  like  Confucius,  is  born.  It 
never  treads  on  a  live  insect,  nor  eats  growing  grass.  The  kirin  is  of 
less  importance  in  Japan  than  in  China,  whence  its  origin,  like  that  of 
so  much  of  the  mythology  and  strange  notions  current  in  Japan. 

There  is  another  creature  whose  visits  are  rarer  than  those  of  an- 
gels, since  it  appears  on  the  earth  only  at  millennial  intervals,  or  at  the 
birth  of  some  very  great  man.  This  fabulous  bird,  also  of  Chinese  or- 
igin, is  called  the  howo,  or  phenix.  The  tombs  of  the  shoguns  at  Shi- 
ba  and  Nikko  have  most  elaborate  representations  of  the  howo,  and 


THE  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY  OF  JAPAN.  481 

tlie  new  and  old  paper  currency  of  the  country  likewise  bears  its  im- 
age. It  seems  to  be  a  combination  of  the  pheasant  and  peacock.  A 
Chinese  dictionary  thus  describes  the  fowl :  "  The  phenix  is  of  the 
essence  of  water ;  it  was  born  in  the  vermilion  cave ;  it  roosts  not 
but  upon  the  most  beautiful  tree  (Wu-tung,  Elceococcus  oleifera) ;  it 
eats  not  but  of  the  seeds  of  the  bamboo ;  it  drinks  not  but  of  the 
sweetest  spring ;  its  body  is  adorned  with  the  Five  Colors ;  its  song 
contains  the  Five  Notes ;  as  it  walks,  it  looks  around ;  as  it  flies,  the 
hosts  of  birds  follow  it."  It  has  the  head  of  a  fowl,  the  crest  of  a 
swallow,  the  neck  of  a  snake,  the  tail  of  a  fish.  Virtue,  obedience, 
justice,  fidelity,  and  benevolence  are  symbolized  in  the  decorations  on 
its  head,  wings,  body,  and  breast. 

Some  of  the  ultra-conservatives,  who  cherish  the  old  superstitions, 
and  who  look  with  distrust  and  contempt  on  the  present  regime  in 
Japan,  await  the  coming  of  the  kirin  and  the  howo  with  eagerness,  as 
the  annunciation  of  the  birth  of  the  great  leader,  who  is,  by  his  pre- 
eminent abilities,  to  dwarf  into  insignificance  all  the  pigmy  politicians 
of  the  present  day.  This  superstition  in  Japan  takes  the  place  of 
those  long  in  vogue  in  Europe,  where  it  was  supposed  that  such  lead- 
ers as  Charlemagne,  Alfred,  and  Barbarossa  were  sleeping,  but  would 
come  forth  again  at  the  propitious  moment,  to  lead,  conquer,  and 
reign. 

The  kappa  is  a  creature  with  the  body  and  head  of  a  monkey 
and  the  claws  of  a  tortoise.  There  are  various  representations  of  it, 
gravely  figured  in  native  works  on  reptilology.  In  some  of  these,  the 
monkey  type  seems  to  prevail ;  in  others,  the  tortoise.  There  is  a  pe- 
culiar species  of  tortoise  in  the  waters  of  Japan,  called  by  the  natives 
support.  Its  shell  is  cartilaginous,  its  head  triangular,  and  its  probos- 
cis elongated  and  tapering.  Imagine  this  greenish  creature  rising  up, 
shedding  its  shell,  and  evolving  into  a  monkey-like  animal,  about  the 
size  of  a  big  boy,  but  retaining  its  web-footed  claws,  and  you  have  the 
kappa.  It  is  supposed  to  live  in  the  water,  and  to  seize  people,  espe- 
cially boys,  who  invade  its  dominions.  It  delights  in  catching  well- 
favored  urchins,  and  feasting  upon  choice  tidbits  torn  out  of  certain 
parts  of  their  bodies. 

The  kappa,  fortunately,  is  very  fond  of  cucumbers,  and  parents  hav- 
ing promising  sons  throw  the  first  cucumbers  of  the  season  into  the 
water  it  is  supposed  to  haunt,  to  propitiate  it  and  save  their  chil- 
dren. In  Fukui,  I  was  warned  not  to  bathe  in  a  certain  part  of  the 
river,  as  the  kappa  would  infallibly  catch  me  by  the  feet  and  devour 


482  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

me ;  and  more  than  one  head  was  shaken  when  it  became  known  that 
I  had  defied  their  warnings. 

A  woman  was  riding  in  a  jin-riki-sha,  and  the  cooHe  was  coursing 
at  full  speed  on  the  road  at  the  side  of  the  castle-moat,  where  the 
water  is  four  feet  deep.  Suddenly,  and,  to  the  coolie,  unaccountably, 
he  and  his  vehicle  were  upset,  and  the  precious  freight  was  thrown 
into  the  moat.  She  was  fished  out  in  a  condition  that  might  have 
helped  even  a  passing  foreigner  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  the  mer- 
maid. The  coolie  was  puzzled  to  account  for  the  capsizing  of  his  ma- 
chine, and  immediately  attributed  it  to  the  agency  of  the  kappa.  By 
venturing  insultingly  near  the  domain  of  this  local  Neptune,  he  had 
been  punished  by  his  muddy  majesty.  Though  the  woman  had  no 
mark  of  claw  or  teeth,  she  doubtless  congratulated  herself  on  her  lucky 
escape  from  the  claws  of  the  monster. 

I  have  heard,  on  several  occasions,  of  people  in  Tokio  seeing  a  kap- 
pa in  the  Sumida-gawa,  the  river  that  flows  by  the  capital.  Numer- 
ous instances  of  harm  done  by  it  are  known  to  the  orthodox  believ- 
ers, to  whom  these  creations  of  diseased  imagination  are  embodied  ver- 
ities. The  native  newspapers  occasionally  announce  reported  cases  of 
kappa  mischief,  using  the  incidents  as  texts  to  ridicule  the  supersti- 
tion, hoping  to  uproot  it  from  the  minds  of  the  people. 

Among  the  many  ideal  creatures  with  which  the  native  imagina- 
tion has  populated  earth  and  air  is  the  kama-itachi,  believed  to  be  a 
kind  of  weasel,  that,  in  the  most  wanton  sport,  or  out  of  mere  delight 
in  malignity,  cuts  or  tears  the  faces  of  people  with  the  sickle  which  it 
is  supposed  to  carry.  This  creature  is  not  known  to  trouble  any  ani- 
mal except  man.  Every  one  knows  that  at  times,  in  moments  of  ex- 
citement, cuts  or  scratches  are  received  which  are  discovered  only  by 
the  appearance  of  blood.  In  Japan,  where  the  people  universally  wear 
clogs — often  high,  heavy  blocks  of  wood,  the  thong  of  which  is  lia- 
ble to  break — and  the  ground  is  covered  with  loose  pebbles  or  sharp 
stones,  falls  and  cuts  are  very  frequent.  The  one  thought,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  every  other,  in  an  instance  of  this  kind,  is  about  the  failing 
thong  or  the  outslipping  support.  The  pedestrian,  picking  himself 
up,  wuth  probably  a  malediction  on  the  thong  or  the  clog-maker,  finds, 
on  cooling  oflE,  that  his  face  is  cut.  Presto  !  '■'^ Kama-itachi  ni  kirare- 
ta  "  ("  cut  by  the  sickle-weasel ").  The  invisible  brute  has  passed  and 
cut  his  victim  on  the  cheek  with  his  blade.  I  have  myself  known 
cases  where  no  cut  appeared  and  no  blood  flowed,  yet  the  stumbler 
who  broke  his  clog-string  fell  to  cursing  the  kama-itachi  for  tripping 


THE  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY  OF  JAPAN.  483 

him.  This  creature  is  also  said  to  be  present  in  whirlwinds.  It  is  a 
most  convenient  scape-goat  for  people  who  go  out  at  night  when  they 
ought  to  stay  at  home,  and  who  get  cuts  and  scratches  which  they  do 
not  care  to  account  for  truly.  A  case  recently  occurred  in  the  port  of 
Niigata,  which  illustrates  both  the  mythical  and  scape-goat  phases  of 
this  belief.  A  European  doctor  was  called  to  see  a  native  woman, 
who  was  said  to  be  suffering  from  the  kama-itachi.  The  patient  was 
found  lying  down,  with  a  severe  clean  cut,  such  as  might  have  been 
caused  by  falling  on  some  sharp  substance ;  but  to  all  questions  as  to 
how  she  got  the  wound,  the  only  answer  was,  "  Kama-itachi."     By 


Fnten,  the  Wind-imp.    (From  a  Japanese  drawing.) 

dint  of  questioning  the  servants,  it  appeared  that  there  was  more  in 
the  facts  than  had  met  the  doctor's  ears.  It  seemed  that,  during  the 
night,  she  had  risen  and  passed  out  of  the  house,  and  had  been  absent 
for  a  considerable  time.  Whether  there  was  a  "  love-lorn  swain  in 
lady's  bower"  awaiting  her  coming  was  not  developed  during  the 
pumping  process  she  was  subjected  to  by  the  student  of  imaginary 
zoology,  who  was  the  catechist  of  the  occasion.  Japanese  gardens  are 
nearly  always  paved  with  smooth  stones,  which  often  have  sharp  edges. 
These  might  easily  have  inflicted  just  such  a  wound  in  case  of  a  fall  on 


484  THE  MIKADO'S  E3fPIRE. 

their  slippery  surfaces,  especially  if  the  fall  occurred  in  the  darkness. 
For  reasons  of  her  own,  most  probably,  the  blame  was  laid  on  the  ka- 
ma-itachi. 

The  wind  and  the  thunder,  to  a  Japanese  child  or  peasant,  are  some- 
thing more  than  moving  air  and  sound.  Before  many  of  the  temples 
are  figures,  often  colossal,  of  the  gods  of  the  wind  and  of  thunder. 
The  former  is  represented  as  a  monstrous  semi-feline  creature,  holding 
an  enormous  bag  of  compressed  air  over  his  shoulders.  When  he 
loosens  his  hold  on  one  of  the  closed  ends,  the  breezes  blow ;  when  he 
partly  opens  it,  a  gale  arises ;  when  he  removes  his  hand,  the  tornado 
devastates  the  earth.     At  times,  this  imp,  as  the  fancy  seizes  him,  sal- 


Raiden,  the  Thunder-drammer.    (From  a  native  drawing.) 

lies  forth  from  his  lair  away  in  the  mountains,  and  chases  terrified 
travelers  or  grass-cutters ;  often  scratching  their  faces  dreadfully  with 
his  claws.  Sometimes,  invisibly  passing,  he  bites  or  tears  the  counte- 
nance of  the  traveler,  who,  bearing  the  brunt  of  the  blast,  feels  the 
wound,  but  sees  not  the  assailant.  There  are  not  wanting  pictures 
and  images  representing  the  deliverance  of  pious  men,  who,  trusting  in 
the  goddess  Kuanon,  have,  by  dint  of  nimbleness  and  prayer,  escaped, 
as  by  a  hair-breadth,  the  steel-like  claws  of  Futen,  the  wind-imp. 
The  "thunder-god"  is  represented  as  a  creature  that  looks  like  a 


THE  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY  OF  JAPAN.  485 

human  dwarf  changed  into  a  species  of  erect  cat.  His  name  is  Raiden. 
He  carries  over  his  head  a  semicircle  of  five  drums  joined  together. 
By  striking  or  rattling  these  drums,  he  makes  thunder.  With  us  it  is 
not  the  thunder  that  strikes;  but  in  Japanese  popular  language,  the 
thunder  not  only  strikes,  but  kills.  According  to  Russian  supersti- 
tion, thunder  kills  with  a  stone  arrow.  Among  the  Japanese,  when 
the  lightning  strikes,  it  is  the  thunder-cat  that  leaps  upon,  or  is  hurled 
at,  the  victim.  Often  it  escapes  out  of  the  cloud  to  the  ground.  A 
young  student  from  Hiuga  told  me  that  in  his  native  district  the  paw 
of  a  thunder-imp  that  fell  out  of  the  clouds  several  centuries  ago  is 
still  kept,  and  triumphantly  exhibited,  as  a  silencing  proof  to  all  skep- 
tics of  the  actual  occurrence  of  the  event  asserted  to  have  taken  place. 
Tradition  relates  that  a  sudden  storm  once  arose  in  the  district,  and 
that,  during  a  terrific  peal  of  thunder,  this  monster  leaped,  in  a  flash  of 
lightning,  down  a  well.  Instead,  however,  of  falling  directly  into  the 
water,  its  hind  paw  happened  to  get  caught  in  a  crack  of  the  split 
timber  of  the  wooden  well-curb,  and  was  torn  off  by  the  momentum 
of  the  descent.  This  paw  was  found  after  the  storm,  fresh  and 
bloody,  and  was  immediately  taken  to  be  preserved  for  the  edification 
of  future  generations.  It  is  not  known  whether  any  of  the  neighbors 
missed  a  cat  at  that  time ;  but  any  suggestions  of  such  an  irreverent 
theory  of  explanation  would  doubtless  be  met  by  the  keepers  of  the 
relic  with  lofty  scorn  and  pitying  contempt. 

One  of  the  miracle  figures  at  Asakusa,  in  Tokio,  until  18Y4  repre- 
sents a  noble  of  the  mikado's  court,  with  his  hand  on  the  throat, 
and  his  knee  planted  on  the  back  of  the  thunder-imp  that  lies  sprawl- 
ing, and  apparently  howling,  on  the  ground,  with  his  drums  broken 
and  scattered  about  him.  One  hairy  paw  is  stretched  out  impotently 
before  him,  and  with  the  other  he  vainly  tries  to  make  his  conqueror 
release  his  hold.  The  expression  of  the  starting  eyes  of  the  beast 
shows  that  the  \'ise-like  grip  of  the  man  is  choking  him ;  his  nostrils 
gape,  and  from  his  mouth  extrude  sharp  teeth.  His  short  ears  are 
cocked,  and  his  body  is  hairy,  like  a  cat.  On  each  of  his  paws  are 
several  triangular  bayonet  -  shaped  claws.  The  human  figure  is  life- 
size;  the  thunder-cat  is  about  three  feet  from  crown  to  claws.  The 
creature  does  not  appear  to  have  any  tail.  This,  however,  is  no 
curtailment  of  his  feline  dignity,  since  most  of  the  Japanese  pussies 
have  caudal  appendages  of  but  one  or  two  inches  in  length,  and  many 
are  as  tailless  as  the  Darwinian  descendants  of  the  monkey.  This 
tableau  is  explained  as  follows  by  the  guide-book  to  the  exhibition; 


486  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

"  In  the  province  of  Yamato,  in  the  reign  of  Yuriyaku  Tenno,  when 
he  was  leaving  his  palace,  a  sudden  thunder-storm  of  terrific  violence 
arose.  The  mikado  ordered  Sugaru,  his  courtier,  to  catch  the  thun- 
der-imp. Sugaru  spurred  his  horse  forward  and  drove  the  thunder- 
god  to  the  side  of  Mount  Abe,  where  the  creature,  leaping  high  into 
the  air,  defied  the  attempts  of  his  pursuer.  Sugaru,  gazing  at  the 
sky,  cried  out  to  the  imp,  '  Obey  the  emperor !'  But  the  roll  of  the 
thunder  ceased  not  for  a  moment.  Then  Sugaru,  turning  his  face  to 
the  temple,  prayed  earnestly  to  Kuanon,  and  cried  out,  '  Dost  thou 
not  hear  and  protect  thy  faithful  ones  when  they  cry  unto  thee  V  Im- 
mediately, as  the  prayer  ended,  a  splendor  of  radiant  light  shot  out 
from  the  temple,  and  the  thunder -imp  fell  to  the  earth.  Sugaru 
seized  him  in  a  trice,  bound  him  securely,  and  took  him  to  the  em- 
peror's palace.     Then  all  men  called  him  the  '  god-catcher.'  " 

Decidedly,  the  animal  of  greatest  dimensions  in  the  mythical 
menagerie  or  aquarium  of  Japan  is  the jishin  uwo,  or  "earthquake 
fish."  Concerning  the  whereabouts  and  haunts  of  this  monster,  there 
are  two  separate  opinions  or  theories,  held  respectively  by  the  dwell- 
ers on  the  coast  and  those  inland.  The  former  believe  that  the  jishin- 
uwo  is  a  submarine  monster,  whose  body  is  from  half  a  ri  to  one 
ri  in  length.  This  fish  strikes  the  shore  or  ocean-bottom  in  its  gam- 
bols or  in  its  wrath,  and  makes  the  ground  rock  and  tremble.  In 
times  of  great  anger  it  not  only  causes  the  solid  earth  to  quiver  and 
crack,  leveling  houses  in  ruin,  and  ingulfing  mountains,  but,  arching 
its  back,  piles  the  waters  of  the  ocean  into  that  sum  of  terror  and 
calamity — a  tidal  wave.  Among  the  people  in  the  interior,  however, 
the  theory  obtains  that  there  exists  a  subterranean  fish  of  prodigious 
length.  According  to  some,  its  head  is  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
main  island,  the  place  of  fewest  and  lightest  earthquakes,  and  its  tail 
beneath  the  ground  that  lies  between  Tokio  and  Kioto.  Others  as- 
sert that  the  true  position  is  the  reverse  of  this.  The  motions  of  the 
monster  are  known  by  the  tremors  of  the  earth.  A  gentle  thrill 
means  that  it  is  merely  bristling  its  spines.  When  shocks  of  extraor- 
dinary violence  are  felt,  the  brute  is  on  a  rampage,  and  is  flapping  its 
flukes  like  a  wounded  whale. 

The  limits  of  this  chapter  forbid  any  long  description  of  the  less 
important  members  of  that  ideal  menagerie  to  which  I  have  played 
the  showman.  Not  a  few  instances  have  fallen  under  my  own  imme- 
diate notice  of  the  pranks  of  two  varieties  of  the  genus  tengu,  which 
to  the  learned  are  symbolical  of  the  male  and  female  essences  in 


THE  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY  OF  JAPAN. 


487 


Chinese  philosophy.  These  are  in  the  one  case  long-nosed,  and  in 
the  other  long-billed  goblins,  that  haunt  mountain  places  and  kidnap 
wicked  children.  Their  faces  are  found  in  street  shows,  in  picture- 
books,  on  works  of  art,  and  even  in  temples,  all  over  the  country. 
The  native  caricaturists  are  not  afraid  of  them,  and  the  funny  artist 
has  given  us  a  sketch  of  a  pair  who  are  putting  the  nasal  elongation 
to  a  novel  use,  in  carrying  the  lunches.  One  is  being  "  led  by  the 
nose,"  in  a  sense  even  stronger  than  the  English  idiom.  The  scrap 
of  text,  ^^hanamV  ("to  see  the  flowers"),  is  their  term  for  junketing  in 


Tenga  going  on  a  Picnic.    (Hokusai.) 


the  woods ;  but  the  hindmost  tengu  is  carrying  pleasure  to  the  verge 
of  pain,  since  he  has  to  hold  up  his  lunch-box  with  his  right,  while  he 
carries  his  mat  to  sit  on  and  table-cloth  in  his  left  hand.  He  of  the 
beak  evidently  best  enjoys  the  fun  of  the  matter.  I  might  tell  of 
cats  which  do  not  exist  in  the  world  of  actual  observation,  which  have 
nine  tails,  and  torment  people,  and  of  those  other  double-tailed  felines 
which  appear  in  the  form  of  old  women.  A  tortoise  with  a  wide- 
fringed  tail,  which  lives  ten  thousand  years,  is  found  portrayed  on 
miscellaneous  works  of  art,  in  bronze,  lacquer-ware,  carved  work,  and 
in  silver,  and  especially  represented  as  the  emblem  of  longevity  at 


488  THE  3IIEAD0'S  EMPIRE. 

marriage  ceremonies.  The  mermaid  is  not  only  an  article  of  manufact- 
ure by  nimble -fingered  native  taxidermists,  but  exists  in  the  belief  of 
the  Japanese  fishermen  as  certainly  as  it  does  not  exist  in  the  ocean. 

Among  the  miracle -figures  or  tableaux  at  Asaktisa,  to  which  we 
have  already  referred,  is  one  representing  a  merman  begging  the 
prayers  of  a  pious  devotee.  The  Japanese  guide-book  says:  "One 
day  when  a  certain  Jogu  Taishi  was  passing  the  village  of  Ishidera,  a 
creature  with  a  head  like  a  human  being  and  a  body  like  a  fish  ap- 
peared to  him  out  of  the  rushes,  and  told  him  that  in  his  previous 
state  of  existence  he  had  been  very  fond  of  fishing.  Now,  being  born 
into  the  world  as  a  merman,  he  eagerly  desired  Jogu  Taishi  to  erect  a 
shrine  to  the  honor  of  Kuanon,  that  by  the  great  favor  and  mercy  of 
the  goddess  he  might  be  reborn  into  a  higher  form  of  life.  Accord- 
ingly, Jogu  Taishi  erected  a  shrine,  and  carved  with  his  own  hands  a 
thousand  images  of  Kuanon.  On  the  day  on  which  he  finished  the 
carving  of  the  last  image,  a  ten-jin  (angel)  appeared  to  him  and  said, 
'  By  your  benevolence  and  piety  I  have  been  born  into  the  regions  of 
heaven.' " 

Little  boys,  tempted  to  devour  too  much  candy,  are  frightened,  not 
with  prophecies  of  pain  or  threats  of  nauseous  medicines,  but  by  the 
fear  of  a  hideous  huge  worm  that  will  surely  be  produced  by  indul- 
gence in  sweets.  The  Japanese  bacchanals  are  called  shojo.  They  are 
people  who  live  near  the  sea,  of  long  red  hair,  bleared  eyes,  and  gaunt 
faces,  who  dance  with  wild  joy  before  a  huge  jar  of  sake.  On  picnic 
boxes,  sake  cups,  vases  and  jars  of  lacquered  work,  bronze,  or  porce- 
lain, these  mythical  topers,  with  the  implements  of  their  mirth  and  ex- 
cess, are  seen  represented.  The  associations  of  a  Japanese  child  who 
first  looks  upon  a  man  of  red  beard  or  hair  may  be  imagined.  So 
goes  through  all  ages  and  ranks  of  life  a  more  or  less  deep-rooted  ter- 
ror of  non-existent  monstrosities ;  and  although  many  Japanese  people 
in  the  cities  and  towns  laugh  at  these  superstitions,  yet  among  the 
inaka,  or  country  people,  they  are  living  realities,  not  to  be  trifled 
with  or  defied.  In  company,  round  the  hearth,  one  fellow  may  be 
bold  enough  to  challenge  their  existence ;  but  at  night,  on  the  lonely 
road,  or  in  the  mountain  solitudes,  or  in  the  presence  of  nature's  more 
awful  phenomena,  the  boor,  the  child,  and  even  the  grown  men  who 
reason,  are  awed  into  belief  and  fear.  That  they  are  fading  away,  how- 
ever, year  by  year,  is  most  evident.  Science,  the  press,  education,  and 
Christianity  are  making  these  mythical  animals  extinct  species  in  the 
geology  of  belief. 


FOLK -LOBE  AND  FIRESIDE  STORIES.  491 


xm. 

POLE-LOBE  AND  FIRESIDE  STORIES. 

The  hibachi,  or  fire-brazier,  is  to  the  Japanese  housebold  what  the 
hearth  or  fire-place  is  in  an  Occidental  home.  Around  it  friends  meet, 
the  famih'  gathers,  parents  consult,  children  play,  the  cat  purrs,  and 
the  little  folks  listen  to  the  fairy  legends  or  household  lore  from  nurse 
or  grandame. 

I  have  often,  in  many  a  Japanese  home,  seen  children  thus  gathered 
round  the  hibachi,  absorbing  through  open  eyes  and  ears  and  mouth 
the  marvelous  stories  which  disguise  the  mythology,  philosophy,  and 
not  a  little  of  the  wisdom  of  the  world's  childhood.  Even  the  same 
world,  with  its  beard  grown,  finds  it  a  delight  to  listen  now  and  then 
to  the  old  wives'  fables,  and  I  propose  in  this  chapter  to  give  a  few  of 
the  many  short  stories  with  Avhich  every  Japanese  child  is  familiar, 
and  which  I  have  often  heard  myself  from  children,  or  from  the  lips 
of  older  persons,  while  sitting  round  the  hibachi,  or  which  I  have  had 
written  for  me.  The  artist  Ozawa,  at  my  request,  sketched  such  a 
scene  as  I  have  often  looked  upon.  The  grandmother  has  drawn  the 
attention  of  her  infantile  audience  to  the  highest  tension  of  interest. 
Iron-bound  top,  picture-book,  mask  of  Suzume,  jumping-jack,  devil 
in  a  band-box,  and  all  other  toys  are  forgotten,  while  eyes  open  and 
mouths  gape  as  the  story  proceeds.  Besides  the  gayly  colored  little 
books,  containing  the  most  famous  stories  for  children,  there  are  nu- 
merous published  collections  of  tales,  some  of  which  are  centuries  old. 
Among  those  current  in  Japan  are  some  of  Indian,  Chinese,  and  per- 
haps of  other  origin. 

The  wonderful  story  of  "  Raiko  and  the  Oni "  is  one  of  the  most 
famous  in  the  collection  of  Japanese  grandmothers.  Its  power  to 
open  the  mouths  and  distend  the  oblique  eyes  of  the  youngsters  long 
after  bed-time,  is  unlimited.  I  have  before  me  a  little  stitched  book  of 
seven  leaves,  which  I  bought  among  a  lot  of  two  dozen  or  more  in  one 
of  the  colored  print  and  book  shops  in  Tokio.  It  is  four  inches  long 
and  three  wide.     On  the  gaudy  cover,  which  is  printed  in  seven  col- 


492  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ors,  is  a  picture  of  Raiko,  the  hero,  in  hehnet  and  armor,  grasping  in 
both  hands  the  faithful  sword  with  which  he  slays  the  ghoul  whose 
frightful  face  glowers  above  him.  The  hiragana  text  and  wood-cuts 
within  the  covers  are  greatly  worn,  showing  that  many  thousand  cop-f 
ies  have  been  printed  from  the  original  and  oft-retouched  face  of  the 
cherry-wood  blocks.  The  story,  thus  illustrated  with  fourteen  engrav- 
ings, is  as  follows : 

A  long  while  ago,  when  the  mikado's  power  had  slipped  away  into 
the  hands  of  his  regents,  the  guard  at  Kioto  was  neglected.  There 
was  a  rumor  in  the  city  that  oni,  or  demons,  frequented  the  streets  late 
at  night,  and  carried  off  people  bodily.  The  most  dreaded  place  was 
at  the  Ra-j5  gate,  at  the  south-western  entrance  to  the  palace.  Hither 
Watanabe,  by  order  of  Raiko,  the  chief  captain  of  the  guard,  started 
one  night,  well  armed.  Wearily  waiting  for  some  hours,  he  became 
drowsy,  and  finally  fell  asleep.  Seizing  his  opportunity,  the  wary 
demon  put  out  his  arm  from  behind  the  gate-post,  caught  Watanabe 
by  the  neck,  and  began  to  drag  him  up  in  the  air.  Watanabe  awoke, 
and  in  an  instant  seized  the  imp  by  the  wrist,  and,  drawing  his  sword, 
lopped  the  oni's  arms  off,  who  then  leaped  into  the  cloud,  howling  with 
pain.  In  the  morning  Watanabe  returned,  and  laid  the  trophy  at  his 
master's  feet.  It  is  said  that  an  oni's  limb  will  not  unite  again  if  kept 
apart  from  the  stump  for  a  week.  Watanabe  put  the  hairy  arm  in  a 
strong  stone  box,  wreathed  with  twisted  rice -straw,  and  watched  it 
day  and  night,  lest  the  oni  should  recover  it.  One  night  a  feeble 
knock  was  heard  at  his  door,  and  to  his  challenge  his  old  aunt's 
voice  replied.  Of  course,  he  let  the  old  woman  in.  She  praised  her 
nephew's  exploit,  and  begged  him  to  let  her  see  it.  Being  thus 
pressed,  as  he  thought,  by  his  old  aunty,  he  slid  the  lid  aside.  "  This 
is  my  arm,"  cried  the  hag,  as  she  flew  westward  into  the  sky,  chang- 
ing her  form  into  a  tusked  and  hairy  demon.  Tracing  the  oni's 
course,  Raiko  and  four  companions,  disguised  as  komuso  (wandering 
priests),  reached  the  pathless  mountain  Oye,  in  Tango,  which  they 
climbed.  They  found  a  beautiful  young  girl  washing  a  bloody  gar- 
ment. From  her  they  learned  the  path  to  the  oni's  cave,  and  that 
the  demons  eat  the  men,  and  saved  the  pretty  damsels  alive.  Ap- 
proaching, they  saw  a  demon  cook  carving  a  human  body,  to  make 
soup  of.  Entering  the  cave,  they  saw  Shu  ten  doji,  a  hideous,  tusked 
monster,  with  long  red  hair,  sitting  on  a  pile  of  silken  cushions,  with 
about  a  hundred  retainers  around  him,  at  a  feast.  Steaming  dishes 
were  brought  in,  full  of  human  limbs,  cooked  in  avery  style.     The 


FOLK-LORE  AND  FIRESIDE  STORIES.  493 

young  damsels  had  to  serve  the  demons,  who  quaffed  sake  out  of 
human  skulls.  Raiko  and  his  band  pretended  to  join  in  the  orgies, 
and  amused  the  demons  by  a  dance,  after  which  they  presented  them 
with  a  bottle  of  sake  which  had  been  mixed  with  a  narcotic.  The 
chief  drank  a  skullful  and  gave  to  his  retainers.  Soon  all  the  demons 
were  asleep,  and  a  thunder-storm  of  snores  succeeded.  Then  Raiko 
and  his  men  threw  off  their  disguise,  drew  sword,  and  cut  off  their 
heads,  till  the  cave  flowed  blood  like  a  river.  The  neck  of  the  chief 
demon  was  wider  than  Raiko's  sword,  but  the  blade  miraculously 
lengthened,  and  Raiko  cut  the  monster's  head  off  at  one  sweep. 
They  then  destroyed  the  treasure,  released  all  the  prisoners,  and  re- 
turned to  Kioto  in  triumph,  exposing  the  huge  head  along  the  streets. 

The  red-haired,  red-faced,  or  red-bearded  aliens  in  Japan,  who  drink 
brandy  out  of  tumblers,  and  then  in  drunken  fury  roam  in  the  streets 
of  Yokohama  and  Nagasaki,  are  not  unfrequently  compared  to  the  in- 
toxicated monster  beheaded  by  Raiko.  The  Japanese  child  who  sees 
his  parents  indulge  in  sake  from  a  tiny  cup,  and  to  whom  black  eyes 
and  hair,  and  the  Japanese  form,  face,  and  dress  constitute  the  true 
standard,  is  amazed  at  the  great  size  of  the  mugs  and  drinking-glasses 
from  which  the  men  of  red  beards  and  faces  drink  a  liquid  ten  times 
stronger  than  sake.  Very  naturally,  to  the  Japanese  imagination  and 
memory  the  drunken  sailor  appears  a  veritable  shu  ten  doji.  Never- 
theless, the  Yokohama  coolie  does  not  call  him  by  so  classic  a  name. 
He  frames  a  compound  adjective  from  the  imprecation  which  most 
frequently  falls  from  the  sailor's  lips.  In  the  "  Yokohama  dialect," 
the  word  for  sailor  is  dammuraisu  hito  ("d — n-your-eyes"  man). 

The  story  of  "  The  Monkey  and  the  Crab  "  has  as  many  versions  as 
that  of  "  The  Arkansas  Traveler."  It  is  continually  re-appearing  in 
new  dress  and  with  new  variations,  according  to  the  taste  and  abili- 
ties of  the  audience.  Its  flavor,  as  told  by  the  chaste  mother  instruct- 
ing her  daughters,  or  by  the  vulgar  coolie  amusing  his  fellow-loafers 
while  waiting  for  a  job,  is  vastly  different  in  either  case.  The  most 
ordinary  form  of  the  story  is  as  follows : 

Once  upon  a  time  there  was  a  crab  who  lived  in  a  hole  on  the 
shady  side  of  a  hill.  One  day  he  found  a  bit  of  rice-cake.  A  mon- 
key who  was  just  finishing  a  persimmon  met  the  crab,  and  offered  to 
exchange  its  seed  for  the  rice  cracknel.  The  simple-minded  crab  ac- 
cepted the  proposal,  and  the  exchange  was  made.  The  monkey  eat 
up  the  rice-cake,  but  the  crab  backed  off  home,  and  planted  the  seed 
in  his  garden. 

32 


494  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

A  fine  tree  grew  up,  and  the  crab  was  deliglited  at  the  prospect  of 
soon  enjoying  the  luscious  fruit.  He  built  a  nice  new  house,  and 
used  to  sit  on  the  balcony,  watching  the  ripening  persimmons.  One 
day  the  monkey  came  along,  and,  being  hungry,  congratulated  the 
crab  on  his  fine  tree,  and  begged  for  some  of  the  fruit,  offering  to 
climb  and  gather  it  himself.  The  crab  politely  agreed,  requesting  his 
guest  to  throw  down  some  of  the  fruit  that  he  might  enjoy  it  him- 
self. The  ungrateful  rascal  of  a  monkey  clambered  up,  and,  after 
filling  his  pockets,  eat  the  ripest  fruit  as  fast  as  he  could,  pelting  the 
crab  with  the  seeds.  The  crab  now  determined  to  outwit  the  mon- 
key, and,  pretending  to  enjoy  the  insults  as  good  jokes,  he  dared  the 
monkey  to  show  his  skill,  if  he  could,  by  descending  head  foremost. 
The  monkey,  to  show  how  versatile  were  his  accomplishments,  ac- 
cepted the  friendly  challenge,  and  turning  flank — not  tail — for  Japa- 
nese monkeys  have  no  tails — he  began  to  come  down  head  foremost. 
Of  course,  all  the  persimmons  rolled  out  of  his  pockets.  The  crab, 
seizing  the  ripe  fruit,  ran  off  to  his  hole.  The  monkey,  waiting  till 
he  had  crawled  out,  gave  him  a  sound  thrashing,  and  went  home. 

Just  at  that  time  a  rice-mortar  was  traveling  by  with  his  several  ap- 
prentices, a  wasp,  an  egg,  and  a  sea -weed.  After  hearing  the  crab's 
story,  they  agreed  to  assist  him.  Marching  to  the  monkey's  house, 
and  finding  him  out,  they  arranged  their  plans  and  disposed  their 
forces  so  as  to  vanquish  their  foe  on  his  return.  The  egg  hid  in  the 
ashes  on  the  hearth,  the  wasp  in  the  closet,  the  sea -weed  near  the 
door,  and  the  mortar  over  the  lintel.  When  the  monkey  came  home 
he  lighted  a  fire  to  steep  his  tea,  when  the  egg  burst,  and  so  bespat- 
tered his  face,  that  he  ran  howling  away  to  the  well  for  water  to  cool 
the  pain.  Then  the  wasp  flew  out  and  stung  him.  In  trying  to  drive 
off  this  fresh  enemy,  he  slipped  on  the  sea-weed,  and  the  rice-mortar, 
falling  on  him,  crushed  him  to  death.  Wasn't  that  splendid?  The 
wasp  and  the  mortar  and  sea-weed  lived  happily  together  ever  after- 
ward. 

The  moral  against  greedy  and  ungrateful  people  needs  no  pointing. 
In  one  of  the  recently  published  elementary  works  on  natural  philoso- 
phy, written  in  the  vernacular  of  Tokio,  I  have  seen  the  incident  of 
the  bursting  egg  utilized  to  illustrate  the  dynamic  power  of  heat  at 
the  expense  of  the  monkey.  Another  story,  used  to  feather  the  shaft 
aimed  at  greedy  folks,  is  that  of  the  elves  and  the  envious  neighbor. 
The  story  is  long,  but,  condensed,  is  as  follows : 

A  wood -cutter,  overtaken  by  a  storm  and  darkness  among  the 


FOLK-LORE  AND  FIRESIDE  STORIES.  495 

mountains,  seeks  shelter  in  a  hollow  tree.  Soon  he  saw  little  creatures, 
some  of  a  red  color,  wearing  blue  clothes,  and  some  of  a  black  color, 
wearing  red  clothes.  Some  had  no  mouth ;  others  had  but  one  eye. 
There  were  about  one  hundred  of  them.  At  midnight  the  elves,  hav- 
ing lighted  a  fire,  began  to  dance  and  carouse,  and  the  man,  forgetting 
his  fright,  joined  them  and  began  to  dance.  Finding  him  so  jolly  a 
companion,  and  wishing  him  to  return  the  next  night,  they  took  from 
the  left  side  of  his  face  a  large  wen  that  disfigured  it,  as  pawn,  and 
disappeared.  The  next  day,  having  told  his  story  in  high  glee,  an 
envious  neighbor,  who  was  also  troubled  with  a  wen  on  the  right  side 
of  his  face,  resolved  to  possess  his  friend's  luck,  and  went  out  to  the 
same  place.  At  night  the  elves  assembled  to  drink  and  enjoy  a  jig. 
The  man  now  appeared,  and,  at  the  invitation  of  the  chief  elf,  began 
to  dance.  Being  an  awkward  fellow,  and  not  to  be  compared  with 
the  other  man,  the  elves  grew  angry,  and  said,  "  You  dance  very  bad- 
ly this  time.  Here,  you  may  have  your  pledge,  the  wen,  back  again.'' 
With  that  an  elf  threw  the  wen  at  the  man.  It  stuck  to  his  cheek, 
and  he  went  home,  crying  bitterly,  with  two  wens  instead  of  one. 

Stories  of  cats,  rabbits,  dogs,  monkeys,  and  foxes,  who  are  born, 
pass  through  babyhood,  are  nursed,  watched,  and  educated  by  anxious 
parents  with  all  due  moral  and  religious  training,  enjoy  the  sports 
proper  to  their  age,  fall  in  love,  marry,  rear  a  family,  and  live  happy 
ever  afterward  to  a  green  old  age,  form  the  staple  of  the  tiny  picture- 
books  for  tiny  people.  When  told  by  garrulous  nurses  or  old  gran- 
nies, the  story  becomes  a  volume,  varied  and  colored  from  rich  imagi- 
nation or  actual  experience. 

A  great  many  funny  stories  are  told  about  blind  men,  who  are  often 
witty  wags.  They  go  about  feeling  their  way  with  a  staff,  and  blow- 
ing a  double-barreled  whistle  which  makes  a  peculiarlj'-  ugly  noise. 
They  shave  their  heads,  and  live  by  shampooing  tired  travelers  at 
hotels,  or  people  who  like  to  be  kneaded  like  a  sponge  or  dough. 
They  also  loan  out  money  at  high  rates  of  interest,  public  sympathy 
being  their  sure  guard  against  loss.  Even  among  these  men  the  spirit 
of  caste  and  rank  prevails,  and  the  chief  blind  man  of  a  city  or  town 
usually  holds  an  official  diploma.  On  the  occasion  of  such  an  award 
the  bald-pates  enjoy  a  feast  together.  After  imbibing  freely,  they 
sing  songs,  recite  poetry,  and  crack  jokes,  like  merry  fellows  with 
eyes,  and  withal,  at  them  because  having  eyes,  some  can  not  see — to 
read.  Here  is  a  sample.  An  illiterate  country  gawk,  while  in  the 
capital,  saw  a  learned  man  reading  with  eyeglasses  on.     Thereupon, 


496  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

he  hastened  to  an  optician's,  and  bought  a  pair.  He  was  both  an- 
noyed and  surprised  to  find  he  could  not  make  out  a  word. 

A  story  is  told  of  two  men  who  were  stone-deaf,  who  met  together 
one  morning,  when  the  following  dialogue  took  place : 

First  Post.  "  Good-morning.     Are  you  going  to  buy  sake  f 

Second  Post.   "•  No.     I  am  going  to  buy  sake." 

Third  Post.  "Oh,  excuse  me,  I  thought  you  were  going  to  buy 
sake." 

I  heard  the  following  story  from  one  of  my  students  from  Fukui. 
It  is  a  favorite  with  the  professional  story-tellers  in  Tokio.  It  reminds 
one  of  the  Spaniard  who  is  said  to  have  put  on  magnifying  spectacles 
while  eating  grapes,  or  the  Yankee  who  strapped  green  eyeglasses  on 
his  horse  while  feeding  him  on  shavings  : 

A  very  economical  old  fellow,  named  Kisaburo,  once  took  lodgings 
near  a  shop  to  which  the  elite  of  the  epicures  of  Yedo  resorted  daily 
for  the  delicacy  of  eels  fried  in  soy.  The  appetizing  odor  was  wafted 
into  his  quarters,  and  Kisaburo,  being  a  man  of  strong  imagination, 
daily  enjoyed  his  frugal  meal  of  boiled  rice  by  his  palate,  and  the  sa- 
vory smoke  of  eels  through  his  olfactories,  and  thus  saved  the  usual 
expense  of  fish  and  vegetables. 

The  eel-frier,  on  discovering  this,  made  up  his  mind  to  charge  his 
stingy  neighbor  for  the  smell  of  his  eels,  and  paid  him  a  visit  with 
his  bill  made  out.  Kisaburo,  taking  it  in  good  humor,  called  his  wife, 
who  brought  out  the  cash-box.  After  jingling  the  bag  of  money,  he 
touched  it  on  the  bill,  and  replacing  it  in  the  box  under  lock,  ordered 
his  wife  to  return  it  to  its  place.  The  eel-man,  amazed  at  such  finan- 
ciering, cried  out,  "  Well,  are  you  not  going  to  pay  me  ?"  "  Oh  no !" 
said  Kisaburo,  "  you  have  charged  me  for  the  smell  of  your  eels ;  I 
have  paid  you  back  with  the  sound  of  my  money." 

A  story  very  similar  to  this,  which  I  have  transcribed  as  I  heard  it, 
is  given  by  Rabelais,  Third  Book,  thirty-seventh  chapter. 

Stories  illustrating  the  freaks  of  absent-minded  men  are  very  nu- 
merous.  Here  is  one,  told  me  by  a  village  lad  from  near  Takefu,  in 
Echizen.  A  farmer's  wife  about  to  enjoy  the  blessing  of  addition  to 
her  family  besought  her  husband  to  visit  a  famous  shrine  of  Kuan- 
on,  the  Goddess  of  Mercy,  and  make  an  offering  and  pray  for  easy 
deliverance  of  her  offspring.  The  good  wife  packed  up  a  lunch  for 
her  husband  in  a  box  of  lacquered  wood,  and  took  out  one  hundred 
cash  (about  one  and  a  half  cents)  from  their  hoard,  which  was  kept  in 
an  old  bag  made  of  rushes,  in  a  jar  under  the  floor,  as  a  gift  to  be 


FOLK -LORE  AND  FIRESIDE  STORIES.  497 

thrown  into  the  temple  coflfer  to  propitiate  the  deity.  At  early  morn 
the  man  prepared  to  start,  but  jn  a  fit  of  absent-mindedness,  instead  of 
his  lunch-box,  he  took  the  pillow  (a  Japanese  pillow  is  often  a  box  of 
drawers  holding  the  requisites  of  a  woman's  coiffure,  with  a  tiny  bol* 
ster  on  the  top),  and,  carefully  wrapping  it  up,  set  ofip,  and  in  due 
time  arrived  at  the  shrine.  Now,  the  husband  was  less  devout  than  his 
spouse,  and,  being  ten  miles  away  from  her  tongue  and  eye,  he  decided 
to  throw  but  ten  cash  into  the  sacred  coffers,  and  spend  the  remaining 
ninety  on  a  bottle  of  sake,  to  be  served  by  a  pretty  waiter-girl  at  the 
adjoining  tea-house.  So  he  divided  his  money  into  two  packages,  but 
in  his  absent-mindedness  he  unintentionally  flung  the  larger  amount 
into  the  temple  box.  Annoyed  on  discovering  his  bad  luck,  he  offered 
his  prayers  in  no  very  holy  frame  of  mind,  and  then  sat  down  to  en- 
joy his  lunch.  Not  being  able  to  eat  the  hair-pins,  pomatum,  etc.,  in 
the  pillow-box,  he  made  his  way  to  an  eating-shop  to  buy  a  bit  of 
mochi  (rice-dough)  to  satisfy  his  hunger.  Again  his  greed  and  absent- 
mindedness  led  him  to  grief,  for,  seeing  a  large  round  piece  of  what  he 
thought  was  good  dough  for  short-cake  for  only  five  cash,  he  bought 
it  and  hurried  of,  thinking  the  shop-girl  had  made  a  mistake,  which 
she  would  soon  discover  at  her  cost.  When  he  went  to  eat  it,  how- 
ever, he  found  it  was  only  a  plaster  show-piece  for  the  dough.  Chew- 
ing the  cud  of  bitter  reflections,  the  hungry  man  at  dark  reached,  as 
he  supposed,  his  home  ;  and  seeing,  as  he  thought,  his  wife  lighting  a 
lantern,  greeted  her  with  a  box  on  the  ear.  The  woman,  startled  at 
such  conduct,  screamed,  bringing  her  husband  to  her  relief,  and  the 
absent-minded  man,  now  recovering  his  senses  again,  ran  for  his  life ; 
but  when  beyond  danger  he  relapsed  into  his  old  habits,  and  reaching 
his  own  dwelling,  found  himself  begging  pardon  of  his  own  amazed 
wife  for  having  boxed  her  ears. 

One  of  the  many  tales  of  filial  revenge  (see  page  222)  told  to  chil- 
dren is  that  of  "  the  Soga  boys."  In  the  time  of  Yoritomo,  while  on 
a  hunt  in  the  mountains,  one  Kudo  shot  and  killed  Kawadzu.  Of  the 
slain  man's  two  sons,  one  was  sent  to  a  monastery  in  the  Hakone 
mountains,  to  be  educated  for  the  Buddhist  priesthood.  There,  as  he 
grew  up,  he  learned  all  about  the  death  of  his  father,  and  who  his 
murderer  was.  From  that  time,  he  thought  of  nothing  but  how  to 
compass  his  death.  Meanwhile,  the  other  son  was  adopted  by  one 
Soga,  and  became  a  skillful  fencer.  At  Oiso,  on  the  Tokaido,  the 
two  orphans  finally  meet,  lay  their  plans,  feast  together,  and  prepare 
to  join  the  great  hunt  of  Yoritomo  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Fuji.     On 


498  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  night  after,  they  attack  the  quarters  where  the  tired  Kudo  lies 
asleep.  They  beat  down  the  servants  who  try  to  defend  him,  and 
sate  their  revenge  by  cutting  off  his  head. 

Of  foxes  and  badgers  I  have  written  elsewhere.  I  have  in  this 
chapter  of  folk-lore,  given  only  a  few  specimens  from  a  great  store- 
house.    This  last  is  called  "  The  Boy  of  Urashima." 

In  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko  (a.d.  593-628)  there  lived,  on  a 
small  island  off  the  coast  of  Tango,  a  poor  fisherman  and  his  wife. 
Though  too  poor  to  provide  more  than  the  barest  necessaries  of  life, 
they  managed,  being  pious  folks,  to  keep  the  lamp  always  burning  in 
the  shrine  of  Riu  Jin,  the  sea-god,  their  patron.  Night  and  morn- 
ing they  offered  up  their  prayers,  and,  though  their  meals  might  be 
scanty,  they  never  failed  to  burn  a  stick  of  incense  at  the  shrine. 

To  this  good  couple  a  dear  son  was  born,  who  grew  up  to  be  pious 
and  dutiful,  and  to  be  the  staff  of  his  aged  parents.  When  they  were 
too  old  to  go  out  to  fish,  Taro,  the  son,  caught  enough  fish  to  sup- 
port himself  and  them.  Now,  it  happened  that  one  day  in  autumn 
Taro  was  out,  as  usual,  in  his  boat,  though  the  sea  was  rough  and  the 
waves  high.  The  increasing  storm  finally  compelled  him  to  seek  shel- 
ter in  his  hut.  He  uttered  a  prayer  to  the  sea-god,  and  turned  his 
prow  homeward.  Suddenly  there  appeared,  on  the  crest  of  the  waves, 
a  divine  being,  robed  in  white,  riding  upon  a  large  tortoise.  Approach- 
ing the  wearied  fisherman,  he  greeted  him  kindly,  and  said,  "  Follow 
me,  and  I  will  make  you  a  happy  man." 

Taro,  leaving  his  boat,  and  mounting  the  tortoise  with  his  august 
companion,  the  tortoise  sped  away  with  marvelous  celerity ;  and  on 
they  journeyed  for  three  days,  passing  some  of  the  most  wonderful 
sights  human  being  ever  beheld.  There  were  ponds  of  perfectly 
transparent  water  filled  with  the  fish  he  daily  caught,  and  others  with 
strange  species.  The  roads  were  lined  with  rare  and  fragrant  trees 
laden  with  golden  fruit,  and  flowers  more  beautiful  than  he  had  ever 
seen  or  imagined.  Finally,  they  came  to  a  great  gate  of  white  mar- 
ble, of  rare  design  and  imposing  proportion.  Richly  dressed  ladies 
and  pages  were  waiting  to  welcome  him.  He  entered  a  golden  pa- 
lanquin, and  amidst  trains  of  courtiers  was  borne  to  the  palace  of 
the  king,  and  treated  with  honor  and  courtesy.  The  splendors  of 
this  palace  it  is  not  possible  to  describe  in  the  language  of  earth. 
Taro  was  assigned  to  one  of  the  fairest  apartments,  and  beautiful  girls 
waited  upon  him,  and  a  host  of  servants  were  ready  to  do  his  bid- 
ding.   Feasts,  music,  songs,  dancing,  gay  parties,  were  given  in  his  hon- 


FOLK-LORE  AND  FIRESIDE  STORIES.  499 

or.  Many  of  the  people  around  him  seemed  very  remarkable  beings. 
Some  had  beads  made  of  shells,  some  of  coral.  All  the  lovely  colors 
of  nacre,  the  rarest  tints  which  man  can  see  beneath  the  deep-blue 
sea  when  the  ocean's  floor  is  visible,  appeared  on  their  dresses  and  or- 
naments. Their  jewels  of  pearls  and  precious  stones  and  gold  and 
silver  were  profuse,  but  wrought  in  exquisite  art.  Taro  could  scarce- 
ly tell  whether  the  fascinating  creatures  were  human  or  not;  but  he 
w  as  very  happy,  and  his  hosts  so  kind  that  he  did  not  stop  to  notice 
their  peculiarities.  That  he  was  in  fairy -land  he  knew,  for  such 
wealth  was  never  seen,  even  in  king's  palaces,  on  earth. 

After  Taro  had  spent,  as  he  supposed,  seven  days  at  the  king's  pal- 
ace, he  wished  to  go  and  see  his  parents.  He  felt  it  was  wrong  to  be 
so  happy  when  he  was  uncertain  of  their  fate  in  the  upper  world. 
The  king  allowed  his  request,  and,  on  parting  with  him,  gave  him  a 
box.  "  This,"  said  he,  "  I  give  you  on  condition  that  you  never  open 
it,  nor  show  it  to  any  one,  under  any  circumstances  whatever."  Taro, 
wondering,  received  it,  and  bid  adieu  to  the  king.  He  was  escorted 
to  the  white  marble  gate,  and,  mounting  the  same  tortoise,  reached  the 
spot  where  he  had  left  his  boat.     The  tortoise  then  left  him. 

Taro  was  all  alone.  He  looked  round,  and  saw  nothing  on  the 
strand.  The  mountains  and  rocks  were  familiar,  but  no  trace  of  his 
parents'  hut  was  seen.  He  began  to  make  inquiries,  and  finally  learn- 
ed from  an  old  gray -headed  fisherman  that,  centuries  before,  the  per- 
sons he  described  as  his  parents  had  lived  there,  but  had  been  buried 
so  long  ago  that  their  names  could  be  read  only  by  scraping  the  moss 
and  lichens  off  the  very  oldest  stones  of  the  grave-yard  in  the  valley 
yonder.  Thither  Taro  hied,  and  after  long  search  found  the  tomb  of 
his  dear  parents.  He  now,  for  the  first  time  since  he  had  left  his 
boat — as  he  thought,  a  few  days  ago — felt  the  pangs  of  sorrow.  He 
felt  an  irresistible  longing  to  open  the  box.  He  did  so.  A  purple 
vapor,  like  a  cloud,  issued  and  suffused  his  head  for  a  moment.  A 
cold  shiver  ran  through  him.  He  tried  to  rise ;  his  limbs  were  stiff 
and  bent.  His  face  was  wrinkled ;  his  teeth  dropped  out ;  his  limbs 
trembled ;  he  was  an  old  man,  with  the  weight  of  four  centuries  on 
him.  His  infirmities  were  too  great  for  flesh  to  bear ;  he  died  a  few 
days  afterward. 

I  have  given,  the  story  as  it  was  current  in  Echizen.  I  have  also 
heard  it  told  with  the  location  on  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Yedo. 
Another  version  makes  the  strand  of  a  river  in  Shinano  the  place  of 
Taro's  departure  and  return.     In  another  form  of  the  story,  Taro  re- 


500 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


turns  to  find  his  parents  dwelling  in  a  glorious  mansion.  After  greet- 
ings are  over,  tlie  old  folks  are  curious  to  know  what  the  box  con- 
tains. Taro,  persuaded,  opens  it,  to  find  himself,  alone  and  old,  on  a 
desolate  shore.  The  story  is  undoubtedly  very  old.  It  is  found  in 
several  books,  and  has  been  often  made  the  subject  of  art.  The  fish- 
ermen in  various  parts  of  Japan  worship  the  good  boy  of  Urashima, 
who,  even  in  the  palaces  of  the  sea-gods,  forgot  not  his  old  parents. 

The  four  following  stories  are  a  few  of  many  told  of  a  famous 
judge,  named  Oka,  who,  for  wisdom,  shrewdness,  and  judicial  acumen, 
may  be  called  the  Solomon  of  Japan.  I  first  heard  of  his  wondrous 
decisions  when  in  Tokid,  but  there  is  a  book  of  anecdotes  of  him,  and 
a  record  of  his  decisions,  called  the  Oka  Jinseidan.  I  suppose  they 
are  true  narrations. 

A"  certain  man  possessed  a  very  costly  pipe,  made  of  silver  inlaid 
with  gold,  of  which  he  was  very  proud.  One  day  a  thief  stole  it. 
After  some  vain  search,  Oka  heard  that  a  man  in  a  certain  street  had 
such  a  pipe,  but  it  was  not  certain  whether  it  was  his  own  or  the 
stolen  article.  He  found  out  the  truth  concerning  the  pipe  in  the 
following  ingenious  manner. 


Japanese  Pipe  of  Bamboo  and  Brass,  Pipe-case,  and  Tobacco-pouch. 

A  Japanese  pipe  is  usually  made  of  a  tiny  bowl,  or  bowl-piece,  fit- 
ted to  a  mouth-piece  with  a  bamboo  tube.  Sometimes  all  the  parts 
are  in  one,  the  material  being  metal  or  porcelain.  The  mild  tobacco, 
cut  into  finest  shreds,  like  gossamer,  is  rolled  up  in  pellets,  and  lighted 
at  a  live  coal  in  the  brazier.     After  one  or  two  whiffs,  a  fresh  ball  is 


FOLK-LORE  AND  FIRESIDE  STORIES.  501 

introduced.  A  native  will  thus  sit  by  the  hour,  mechanically  rolling 
up  these  tobacco  pills,  utterly  oblivious  of  the  details  of  the  act.  Like 
certain  absent-minded  people,  who  look  at  their  watches  a  dozen  times, 
yet  can  not  tell,  when  asked,  what  time  it  may  be,  so  a  Japanese,  while 
talking  at  ease,  will  often  be  unable  to  remember  whether  he  has 
smoked  or  not.  After  long  mechanical  practice,  his  nimble  fingers 
with  automatic  precision  roll  the  pellet  to  a  size  that  exactly  fills  the 
bowl  of  the  pipe. 

The  shrewd  judge  found  an  opportunity  to  see  the  suspected  man  a 
short  time  after  the  theft.  He  noticed  him  draw  out  the  golden  pipe, 
and  abstractedly  roll  up  a  globule  of  tobacco  from  his  pouch.  It  was 
too  small.  On  turning  to  the  brazier,  and  turning  the  mouth  of  the 
bowl  sideward  or  downward,  the  pellet  rolled  out.  Here  was  positive 
proof  to  Oka  that  the  golden  pipe  was  not  his  own.  The  thief,  on  be- 
ing charged  with  the  theft,  confessed  his  guilt,  and  was  punished. 

On  another  occasion  a  seller  of  pickled  vegetables  of  various  sorts, 
a  miserly  old  fellow,  being  rich,  and  fearing  thieves,  kept  his  gold  in 
a  deep  dish  full  of  dai-kon  (radishes),  preserved  in  a  liquid  mixture 
composed  of  their  own  fermented  juice,  salt,  and  the  skin  of  rice- 
grains.  When  long  kept,  the  mass  has  a  most  intolerable  odor,  and 
to  remove  the  smell  from  the  hands  after  working  in  it  stout  scrub- 
bing with  ashes  is  necessary.  Now,  it  so  happened  that  one  of  the 
neighbors  found  out  the  whereabouts  of  the  pickler's  savings,  and, 
when  his  back  was  turned,  stole.  The  old  pickler  kept  his  heart  at 
the  bottom  of  his  radishes,  and  on  his  return,  on  examination,  found 
his  treasure  gone.  Forthwith  informing  the  judge.  Oka  called  in  all 
the  neighbors,  and,  after  locking  the  doors,  began,  to  the  amazement  of 
all  and  the  horror  of  one,  to  smell  the  hands  of  those  present.  The 
unmistakable  odor  of  dai-kon  clung  to  one  man,  who  thereupon  con- 
fessed, disgorged,  and  received  punishment. 

Cases  which  other  judges  failed  to  decide  were  referred  to  Oka, 
Often  the  very  threat  of  bringing  a  suspected  man  before  this  Solomon 
secured  confession  after  other  means  had  failed, 

A  young  mother,  being  poor,  was  obliged  to  go  out  to  service,  and 
to  leave  her  little  daughter  at  the  house  of  another  woman  to  bring 
up  for  her.  When  the  child  grew  up  to  womanhood,  the  mother  was 
able  to  leave  service,  expecting  to  live  with  her  daughter,  and  enjoy 
her  love.  To  her  surprise,  on  going  to  the  house  of  the  woman  who 
had  charge  of  her  daughter,  the  woman  claimed  the  girl  as  her  own 
child,  and  refused  to  give  her  up. 


502  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

When  brought  before  Oka,  there  being  no  evidence  but  the  con- 
flicting testimony  of  the  women,  who  both  claimed  maternity,  the 
judge  ordered  them  each  to  take  hold  of  an  arm  of  the  young  girl 
and  pull.     Whoever  was  the  strongest  should  have  her. 

Not  daring  to  disobey,  the  true  mother  reluctantly  took  gentle 
hold,  while  the  other  claimant  seized  a  hand,  and,  bracing  herself  for 
the  struggle,  pulled  with  all  her  might.  No  sooner  did  the  girl  utter 
a  cry  of  pain  than  the  true  mother  dropped  her  hand,  refusing  to  try 
again.  Her  friends  urged  her  to  continue  the  trial,  and  her  antago- 
nist dared  her  to  go  on,  but  the  mother  was  firm.  The  judge,  silent 
and  attentive  the  while,  then  angrily  addressed  the  cruel  woman  as  a 
deceiver,  void  of  all  maternal  feeling,  who  regarded  not  the  pain  of 
her  pretended  offspring.  He  then  ordered  the  girl  to  be  restored  to 
her  true  mother.  The  false  claimant  was  dismissed  in  disgrace. 
Mother  and  child  were  overjoyed,  and  the  witnesses  astonished  at 
such  judicial  wisdom. 

In  another  case,  a  rich  merchant  of  Yedo  went  to  Kioto  on  busi- 
ness, and  was  absent  thirteen  months.  On  his  return  he  found  that 
his  wife  had  been  unfaithful  to  him.  After  fruitless  efforts  to  extort 
her  secret  and  find  her  paramour,  he  went  to  Oka.  On  a  certain  day, 
all  the  male  relations,  friends,  and  neighbors  assembled,  and,  one  by 
one,  were  called  into  the  judgment -hall,  and  questioned.  Oka  told 
the  husband  to  bring  with  him  his  cat,  which  had  for  years  been  a 
pet  in  the  house.  With  the  cat  quietly  nestled  at  his  side,  he  leisurely 
questioned  each  person.  No  clue  could  be  obtained,  until  one  young 
man  appeared  and  took  his  seat,  as  usual,  on  his  heels  and  knees,  on 
the  matting.  The  cat,  now  interested,  ran  briskly  up,  rubbed  itself 
against  his  knees,  and,  being  stroked  by  the  man,  finally  climbed  up  in 
his  lap,  and  cuddled  itself  up  as  if  perfectly  familiar  with  that  comfort- 
able place.  All  this  time  the  young  man  was  looking  in  the  judge's 
face,  and  answering  his  questions,  forgetful  of  the  cat.  The  question- 
ing being  finished,  the  judge  ordered  the  officers  to  bind  the  man  and 
conduct  him  to  prison.  The  man,  who  was  inwardly  congratulating 
himself  on  his  clever  answers,  and  his  freedom  even  from  suspicion, 
thought  Oka  was  helped  by  the  gods,  and  confessed  his  crime. 

I  have  an  ivory  and  a  wood  carving,  both  nitsuki,  representing  the 
Japanese  form  of  the  story  of  Rip  Van  Winkle,  which  is,  perhaps, 
a  universal  myth.  The  ivory  figure  is  that  of  an  old  man  leaning  on 
the  handle  of  an  axe.  His  hair  is  long  and  white,  and  his  snowy  beard 
sweeps  his  breast  and  falls  below  his  girdle.     He  is  intently  watching 


FOLK-LORE  AND  FIRESIDE  STORIES.  503 

two  female  figures  playing  a  game  of  checkers.  The  story  (of  Chinese 
origin)  is,  as  told  by  Japanese  story-tellers,  as  follows : 

Lu-wen  was  a  pious  wood-cutter,  who  dwelt  at  the  base  of  the  ma- 
jestic and  holy  mountain  Tendai,  the  most  glorious  peak  of  the  Nan- 
liu  range,  in  China,  Though  he  thought  himself  familiar  with  the 
paths,  he  for  some  reason  one  day  lost  his  way,  and  wandered  about, 
having  his  axe  with  him.  He  did  not  care,  however,  because  the 
beauty  of  the  landscapes,  the  flowers,  and  the  sky  seemed  to  possess 
his  senses,  and  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  ecstasy  of  the  hour,  enjoy- 
ing all  the  pleasant  emotions  of  holy  contemplation.  All  at  once  he 
heard  a  crackling  sound,  and  immediately  a  fox  ran  out  before  him 
and  into  the  thickets  again.  The  wood -cutter  started  to  pursue  it. 
He  ran  some  distance,  when  suddenly  he  emerged  into  a  space  where 
two  lovely  ladies,  seated  on  the  ground,  were  engaged  in  playing  a 
game  of  checkers.  The  bumpkin  stood  still  and  gazed  with  all  his 
sight  at  the  wonderful  vision  of  beauty  before  him.  The  players  ap- 
peared to  be  unaware  of  the  presence  of  an  intruder.  The  wood-cut- 
ter still  stood  looking  on,  and  soon  became  interested  in  the  game 
as  well  as  in  the  fair  players.  After  some  minutes,  as  he  supposed, 
he  bethought  himself  to  return.  On  attempting  to  move  away,  his 
limbs  felt  very  stifE,  and  his  axe-handle  fell  to  pieces.  Stooping  down 
to  pick  up  the  worm  -  eaten  fragments,  he  was  amazed  to  find,  instead 
of  his  shaven  face  of  the  morning,  a  long  white  beard  covering  his 
bosom,  while,  on  feeling  his  head,  he  discovered  on  it  a  mass  of  silken 
white  hair. 

The  wrinkled  old  man,  now  dazed  with  wonder,  hobbled  down  the 
mountain  to  his  native  village.  He  found  the  streets  the  same,  but 
the  houses  were  filled  with  new  faces;  crowds  of  children  gathered 
round  him,  teasing  and  laughing  at  him ;  the  dogs  barked  at  the 
stranger ;  and  the  parents  of  the  children  shook  their  heads  and  won- 
dered among  themselves  as  to  whence  the  apparition  had  come.  The 
old  man,  in  agony  of  despair,  asked  for  his  wife  and  children  and 
relatives.  The  incredulous  people  set  him  down  as  a  fool,  knowing 
nothing  of  whom  he  asked,  and  treating  his  talk  as  the  drivel  of  luna- 
tic senility.  Finally,  an  old  grandam  hobbled  up,  and  said  she  was 
a  descendant  of  the  seventh  generation  of  a  man  named  Lu-wen. 
The  old  man  groaned  aloud,  and,  turning  his  back  on  all,  retraced  his 
wear}'  steps  to  the  mountain  again.  He  was  never  heard  of  more,  and 
it  is  believed  he  entered  into  the  company  of  the  immortal  hermits 
and  spirits  of  the  mountain. 


604  ^^5^  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XIV. 

JAPANESE  PROVERBS. 

The  proverbs  of  a  nation  are  mirrors  of  its  character.  Not  only 
the  genius  and  wit,  but  the  prejudices,  the  loves,  the  hates,  the  stand- 
ards of  actions  and  morals,  are  all  faithfully  reflected  in  the  condensed 
wisdom  of  their  pithy  phrases.  Most  proverbs  are  of  anonymous  au- 
thorship. "  The  wisdom  of  many  and  the  wit  of  one,"  a  proverb  is 
saved  from  death  because  clothed  in  brevity,  rhythm,  or  alliteration. 
Every  man  hails  it  as  his  own,  because  he  recognizes  his  own  heart  in 
it.  Proverbs  are  often  tell-tale  truths,  for  a  nation  sometimes  out- 
grows its  prejudices  and  becomes  ashamed  of  its  own  familiar  beliefs. 
Proverbs  thus  become  the  labels  of  antiquities  in  the  museum  of 
speech.  They  are  fossils  which  show  how  opinions  which  had  life 
and  force  long  ago  are  now  defunct  and  forgotten.  Unexplainable 
to  latter  generations,  they,  as  the  fossils  of  geology  once  were,  are 
thought  to  be  lusus  naturce. 

The  delver  among  the  treasures  of  Japanese  lore  finds  proverbs  both 
new  and  old,  and  in  them  sees  ancient  landmarks  and  modern  finger- 
posts. 

The  proverbs  of  a  nation  so  long  isolated  from  the  world  must 
needs  have  peculiar  interest  to  the  rest  of  that  world.  We  shall  see 
in  most  of  them,  however,  the  clear  reflection  of  that  human  heart 
which  beats  responsive  beneath  the  toga,  the  camel's-hair  raiment,  the 
broadcloth,  and  the  silk  haori. 

It  has  often  been  a  delightful  feeling,  when  stumbling  upon  some 
untranslatable  but  tickling  morsel  of  wisdom,  to  reach  its  heart  by 
quoting  one  of  our  own  homely  and  pretty  proverbs.  Many  of  our 
old  friends  may  be  recognized  in  Japanese  costume.  Nothing  so 
touches  the  Japanese  heart  and  nature  as  the  unexpected  quotation  of 
one  of  their  old  proverbs.  Especially  in  the  lecture-room  does  it  give 
point  and  clinching  force  to  a  statement  or  explanation.  When  be- 
fore his  class,  the  teacher  sees  no  response  or  sympathy  in  the  earnest 


JAPANESE  PROVERBS.  505 

but  stolid  faces  of  his  Japanese  pupils,  and  when  every  chosen  arrow 
flies  the  mark,  let  a  shaft  feathered  with  one  of  their  own  proverbs  be 
sent :  instantly  a  gleam  of  intelligence,  like  a  sunburst,  or  an  assuring 
peal  of  merry  laughter,  proclaims  the  centre  struck  and  success  won. 

I  shall  arrange  together  a  few  of  the  most  familiar  of  Japanese 
proverbs.  Lest  some  might  think  the  Japanese  plagiarize  from  us,  or 
lest  some  "  resemblance  "-monger  should  catch  a  few  to  put  in  his  "  In- 
dex Rerum,"  or  "  familiar  quotations,"  I  would  remark  that,  apparent- 
ly, many  of  these  proverbs  were  cun'ent  in  Japan  before  Csesar  was 
born  or  America  discovered. 

The  following  are  expressions  for  w^hat  is  impossible :  To  build  a 
bridge  to  the  clouds.  To  throw  a  stone  at  the  sun.  To  scatter  a  fog 
with  a  fan.     To  dip  yp  the  ocean  with  the  hand. 

Like  our  "  No  rose  without  a  thorn,"  is  their  There's  a  thorn  on 
the  rose. 

Good  doctrine  needs  no  miracles,  is  the  Japanese  rationalist's  arrow 
against  the  Buddhist  bonzes. 

The  fly  seeks  out  the  diseased  spot,  as  people  do  in  their  neighbors' 
character. 

As  different  as  the  moon  is  from  a  tortoise.  (Cheese,  green  or  oth- 
erwise, is  not  made  or  eaten  by  the  Japanese.) 

The  natives  of  the  Islands  in  the  Four  Seas  are  better  boatmen  than 
cooks,  too  many  of  whom  spoil  the  broth,  but.  With  too  many  boat- 
men, the  boat  runs  up  a  hill. 

The  universal  reverence  of  youth  for  age  is  enjoined  in  this :  Regard 
an  old  man  as  thy  father. 

The  fortune-teller  can  not  tell  his  own  fortune. 

The  doctor  does  not  keep  himself  well. 

Some  men  can  do  more  than  Goldsmith's  school-master :  They  can 
argue  until  a  crow's  head  becomes  white. 

A  narrow-minded  man  or  bigot  looks  at  the  heavens  through  a  reed, 
or  a  needle's  eye. 

Our  "cat  in  a  strange  garret"  is  metamorphosed  into  the  more 
dignified  figure  of  A  hermit  in  the  market-place. 

The  dilatory  man  seeing  the  lion,  begins  to  whet  his  arrows.  The 
beaten  soldier  fears  even  the  tops  of  the  tall  grass.  Fighting  spar- 
rows fear  not  man. 

Only  a  tidbit  to  a  ravenous  mouth.  (Said  when  the  little  tidbit 
Denmark  flies  down  the  huge  gullet  of  Prussia;  or  when  Saghalin 
falls  into  Russia's  maw.) 


506  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

By  losing,  gain. 

Give  opportunity  to  genius. 

To  give  an  iron  club  to  a  devil  is  to  give  riclies  to  a  bad  man. 

While  the  hunter  looks  afar  after  birds,  they  fly  up  and  escape  at 
his  feet. 

The  ignorant  man  is  gentle. 

Don't  give  a  Jco-ban  to  a  cat. 

Akin  to  "  The  heart  knoweth  its  own  bitterness "  are  The  sage 
sickens ;  The  beautiful  woman  is  unhappy. 

Every  one  suffers  either  from  his  pride  or  sinfulness. 

Even  a  calamity,  left  alone  for  three  years,  may  turn  into  a  fortune. 

No  danger  of  a  stone  being  burned. 

Even  a  running  horse  needs  the  whip. 

An  old  man's  cold  water — i.e.,  out  of  place,  unreasonable.  The 
Japanese  nearly  always  wash  their  hands  and  faces  with  hot  water, 
and  old  men  invariably  do  so.  For  an  old  man,  then,  to  wash  with 
cold  water,  or  for  one  to  bring  him  cold  water,  is  decidedly  mal  a 
propos. 

Birds  flock  on  the  thick  branches. 

The  fox  borrowed  the  tiger's  power. 

Giving  wings  to  a  tiger. 

Dark  as  the  lantern's  base,  while  the  light  streams  far  abroad. 
(People  must  go  to  a  distance  to  learn  the  news  about  things  at  home. 
This  is  emphatically  true  about  residents  in  Japan  who  read  home 
newspapers.) 

Heaven  does  not  kill  a  man.  (No  one  is  utterly  crushed  by  calam- 
ity.) 

A  curse  comes  not  from  a  god  with  whom  one  has  no  concern. 
(Men  are  not  to  be  punished  by  a  god  of  whom  they  have  never  heard.) 

Like  jumping  into  the  fire  with  a  bundle  of  wood.  (Especially  used 
of  a  small  nation  going  to  war  against  a  large  one,  only  to  be  "  gob- 
bled up.") 

Having  inquired  seven  times,  believe  the  common  report. 

Even  the  worm  that  eats  smart-weed,  to  his  taste.  ("  Every  one  to 
his  liking."     "  No  accounting  for  taste.") 

Was  it  a  wife  comparing  the  attentions  of  her  husband  before  and 
after  marriage  who  coined  this  proverb,  or  heaved  it  as  a  sigh  ?  It 
tells  a  sad  tale  of  a  woman  who  has  borne  mother-pain  and  marriage 
cares  only  to  be  rewarded  by  coldness.  In  Japan,  the  unmarried  girls 
only  wear  the  red  petticoat,  which  peeps  out  so  prettily  at  times,  or 


JAPANESE  PROVERBS.  507 

glistens  through  the  summer  dress  of  silken  crape.  After  marriage, 
they  doff  this  virginal  garment ;  and  as  it  was  with  Whittier's,  so  with 
the  Japanese  Maud  Muller,  "care  and  sorrow  and  childbirth -pain" 
leave  their  trace  on  the  once  blooming  face  and  willowy  form,  in 
which  her  partner  no  longer  delights.  Alas !  what  a  tale  does  this 
proverb  tell :  Love  leaves  with  the  red  petticoat ! 

When  people  say  *'  as  ugly  as  sin,"  meaning  thereby  as  ugly  as 
Milton's  hag,  and  suppose  that  the  blind  bard's  conception  of  ugliness 
eclipses  every  other,  they  have,  most  evidently,  never  looked  upon  the 
face  of  the  Japanese  lord  of  Jigoku,  or  the  hells,  of  which  the  Bud- 
dhists count  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight.  To  say  that  his  face  is 
hideous  or  describe  it  in  adjectives,  is  to  damn  with  faint  praise  the 
native  imagination  that  could  conceive  such  a  terror.  What  I  mean 
by  reference  to  this  demon,  who  is  called  Ema,  is  to  give  point  to  the 
Japanese  version  of  our  homely  reference  to  the  man  who  will  have 
his  fun,  but  "  must  pay  the  fiddler."  The  proverb  by  which  every 
steady-going  Japanese  exults  at  the  end  of  the  fast  and,  perhaps  fine- 
looking  young  man  who  sports  on  credit,  is.  When  the  time  comes 
to  settle  up,  you'll  see  Ema's  face. 

Which  does  the  following  recall  —  the  ostrich,  which,  hiding  its 
head,  thinks  itself  safe,  or  the  youth  who  reads  ghost-stories  till  his 
blood  curdles,  but  who,  by  covering  up  in  the  bedclothes,  feels  safe  ? 
The  proverb.  The  head  is  concealed,  but  the  back  is  exposed,  is  ap- 
plied by  the  Japanese  to  all  who,  to  flee  from  spooks,  and  to  guard 
against  lightning,  hide  in  the  dark  or  under  their  coverlets. 

Here  is  an  exquisite  bit  of  philosophy,  which  shows  that  "travels 
at  one's  fireside,"  or  what  Emerson  has  taught  of  seeing  at  home  all 
that  travelers  behold  abroad,  are  not  strange  ideas  in  Japan  :  The 
poet,  though  he  does  not  go  abroad,  sees  all  the  renowned  places. 

Some  one  has  said  of  the  sage  :  "  He  keeps  his  child's  heart."  All 
know  W^ordsworth's  line,  which  is  approximated  in  this :  The  child 
of  three  years  keeps  his  heart  till  he  is  sixty. 

The  idea  contained  in  the  saying,  "  Talk  of  an  angel,  and  you  will 
hear  the  rustling  of  his  wings,"  or  "  Speak  of  the  Devil,"  etc.,  is  con- 
fined only  to  the  genus  Homo  in  the  Japanese  proverb :  Talk  of  a 
person,  and  his  shadow  appears. 

Sydney  Smith  condensed  a  volume  of  dietetic  hygiene  in  his  exact 
statement  that  "  Some  men  dig  their  graves  with  their  teeth."  The 
complement  of  that  is  found  in  this:  Disease  enters  by  the  mouth; 
or,  The  mouth  is  the  door  of  disease. 


508  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

The  following  are  all  in  the  form  of  a  simile :  Like  walking  on  thin 
ice  (like  a  politician  before  election  -  day).  To  give  a  thief  a  key. 
Like  scratching  the  foot  with  the  shoe  on  (can  not  reach  the  seat  of 
trouble).  Like  placing  a  child  near  a  well.  One  hair  of  nine  oxen 
(small  fraction).  Like  the  crow  that  imitated  the  cormorant  (he  tried 
to  dive  in  the  water,  and  was  drowned).  Like  spitting  against  the 
wind  (said  of  a  wicked  slander  against  a  good  man).  The  decree  of 
the  mikado  is  like  perspiration ;  it  can  never  go  back  ("  Firm  as  the 
laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  "). 

Proverbs,  like  certain  kinds  of  money,  vary  in  the  amount  and  ra- 
pidity of  their  circulation.  A  class  of  Japanese  proverbs,  such  as 
"  The  frog  in  the  well  knows  not  the  great  ocean,"  which  lay  almost 
forgotten  in  the  national  memory  for  centuries,  has  come  forth,  and  is 
now  the  circulating  medium  of  those  who  bandy  the  retorts  applica- 
ble to  old  fogies  and  old  fogy  ism.  Th,e  conservatives  who  impede  or 
oppose  reform  in  Japan,  claiming  that  Japan  is  all-sufficient  in  herself, 
are  usually  styled  "  frogs  "  by  the  young  blades  who  have  been  abroad 
and  seen  the  world  beyond  Japan,  who  also  refer  to  the  past  as  the 
time  when  that  country  was  "  in  a  well." 

There  are  several  other  proverbs  like  that  of  the  "  well-frog ;"  but 
they  depend  for  their  interest  upon  references  to  things  not  easily  ex- 
plained by  mere  translation.  The  "  great  ocean,"  however,  mirrors  it- 
self in  the  Japanese  mind  ever  as  the  symbol  of  immensity.  Thus  : 
A  drop  of  the  ocean  is  our  "  drop  in  the  bucket"  To  dam  up  the 
great  ocean  with  the  hand.  The  ocean  does  not  mind  the  dust  (a 
great  man  lives  down  slander).  The  ocean,  being  wide,  can  not  be 
all  seen  at  once  (a  great  subject  can  not  be  treated  fairly  by  a  bigot). 
To  dip  out  the  water  of  the  ocean  with  a  small  shell. 

The  Japanese  have  a  lively  sense  of  the  iniquity  of  ingratitude: 
Better  nourish  a  dog  than  an  unfaithful  servant.  To  have  one's  hand 
bitten  by  the  dog  it  feeds. 

That  paternal  solicitude  is  not  unknown  in  the  land  of  Great  Peace, 
is  evinced  by  these  :  Childbirth  is  less  painful  than  anxiety  about 
children.  It  is  easier  to  beget  children  than  to  care  for  them.  Catch- 
ing a  thief  to  find  him  your  own  son. 

Don't  trust  a  pigeon  to  carry  grain.  (Don't  send  one  man  to  bring 
back  another  from  a  place  of  pleasure,  lest  he  also  be  tempted.) 

If  in  a  hurry,  go  round.  ("  The  longest  way  round  is  the  shortest 
way  home."     "  The  more  hurry,  the  less  speed.") 

The  spawn  of  frogs  will  become  but  frogs. 


JAPANESE  PROVERBS.  509 

By  saving  one  cash  (one  one-hundredth  of  a  cent)  lose  a  hundred 
(one  tempo).     Cash  wise,  tempo  foolish. 

Only  a  tailor's  (dyer's)  promise. 

The  walls  have  ears.     Pitchers  have  spouts. 

Deaf  men  speak  loudly. 

There  is  no  medicine  for  a  fool. 

You  can  not  rivet  a  nail  in  potato  custard. 

He  wishes  to  do  both — to  eat  the  poisoned  delicacy  and  live. 

By  searching  the  old,  learn  the  new. 

Once  I  asked  some  of  our  students  whether  there  was  any  Japanese 
proverb  which  answered  to  the  old  English  one,  "  Happy  is  the  man 
whose  father  has  gone  to  the  devil."  Several  of  them  answered  with 
this  familiar  one:  Jigokii  no  sata  mo.,  kane  shidai  —  the  tortures  of 
hell  are  graded  according  to  the  amount  of  money  one  has ;  or,  briefly 
and  literally,  even  hell's  judgments  are  according  to  money. 

The  Buddhists,  like  the  mediaeval  priests  in  Europe,  sell  their  masses 
at  a  high  price.  Happy  the  dying  rich  man,  but  woe  betide  the  poor ! 
In  most  Japanese  Buddhist  temples,  as  in  Roman  churches  in  Europe, 
a  box  hangs  up  to  receive  cash  for  the  mutual  benefit  of  the  damned 
and  the  priests — especially  the  latter. 

The  rat-catching  cat  hides  her  claws. 

If  you  keep  a  tiger,  you  will  have  nothing  but  trouble. 

An  ugly  woman  shuns  the  looking-glass. 

Poverty  leads  to  theft. 

To  aim  a  gun  in  the  darkness.     In  vain. 

The  more  words,  the  less  sense. 

Like  the  peeping  of  a  blind  man  through  a  hedge. 

A  charred  stick  is  easily  kindled. 

Who  steals  money,  is  killed ;  who  steals  a  country,  is  a  king. 

If  you  do  not  enter  the  tiger's  den,  you  can  not  get  her  cub. 

In  mending  the  horn,  he  killed  the  ox.  ' 

The  best  thing  in  traveling  is  a  companion  ;  in  the  world,  kindness. 

To  draw  off  water  to  his  own  field.  (Most  of  the  fields  in  Japan  are 
irrigated  rice-fields.  Water  is  always  a  desideratum.  This  proverb  is 
like  our  "  Feather  his  own  nest.") 

Famous  swords  are  made  of  iron  scrapers. 

Like  learning  to  swim  in  a  field. 

Though  the  magnet  attracts  iron,  it  can  not  attract  stone. 

Here  is  something  almost  Shakspearian :  The  gods  have  their  seat 
on  the  brow  of  a  just  man. 

33 


510  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

If  you  say  to  him  "  gently,"  he  will  say  "  slam." 

A  sixth-day  camellia.  (A  great  flower  festival  comes  on  the  fifth  of 
a  certain  month.  To  bring  your  flower  on  the  sixth  day  is  to  bring  it 
a  day  after  the  fair.) 

Now  sinking,  now  floating.     ("  Such  is  life.") 

Poke  a  canebrake,  and  a  snake  will  crawl  out. 

Like  carrying  a  cup  brimful. 

To  feed  with  honey ;  i.  e.,  to  flatter. 

Proof  is  better  than  discussion. 

Use  the  cane  before  you  fall  down. 

Like  casting  a  stone  at  an  egg, 

A  roving  dog  runs  against  a  stick.  (A  man  willing  to  work  will 
surely  find  employment.) 

To  avoid  the  appearance  of  evil  three  proverbs  are  given :  Don't 
wipe  your  shoes  in  a  melon-patch.  Don't  adjust  your  cap  while  pass- 
ing under  a  pear-tree.  Don't  stay  long  when  the  husband  is  not  at 
home. 

A  bad  report  runs  one  thousand  ri  (two  thousand  three  hundred  and 
thirty-three  miles). 

Lust  has  no  bottom. 

The  world  is  just  as  a  person's  heart  makes  it. 

Send  the  child  you  love  most  on  a  journey.  (To  save  him  from  be- 
ing spoiled  by  indulgence.) 

Cast  the  lion's  cub  into  the  valley.     Let  the  pet  son  travel  abroad. 

Give  sails  to  dexterity. 

He  conceals  a  sword  under  a  laugh. 

To  make  two  enemies  injure  each  other. 

I  have  never  heard  of  any  Japanese  "  Samivel "  receiving  monitory 
advice  concerning  "  vidders ;"  but  Japanese  fathers  often  throw  out 
this  caveat  to  their  sons  when  contemplating  marriage :  Beware  of  a 
beautiful  woman ;  she  is  like  red  pepper. 

The  good  bonzes  sometimes  preach  rather  long  sermons.  Their 
shaven-pated  hearers  do  not  snap  their  hunting-case  watches  under  the 
pulpit.  Nevertheless,  this  is  what  they  say  and  think.  They  often 
test  a  speaker's  merit,  and  measure  the  soul  of  his  wit,  by  his  brevity. 
The  unskillful  speaker  is  long-winded;  or.  It  takes  a  clever  man  to 
preach  a  short  sermon. 

The  following  is  said  by  an  educated  idolater,  who  worships  the 
deity  beyond  the  image,  the  pious  sculptor,  or  the  sneerer  at  all  idola- 
try.    Making  an  idol,  does  not  give  it  a  soul. 


JAPANESE  PROVERS.  511 

If  you  hate  any  one,  let  liira  live. 

As  there  are  plenty  of  h}^ocrites  in  Japan,  but  no  crocodiles,  our 
zoological  metaphor  is  altered.  Lachrymal  shams  are  called  "  a 
devil's  tears." 

A  clumsy  fellow  commits  hara-kiri  with  a  pestle. 

Live  under  your  own  hat,  is  the  Japanese  expression  for  *'  Be  con- 
tent," or  "  Let  well-enough  alone." 

They  extinguish  meddlesome  busybodies,  or  those  who  talk  too 
much,  by  saying,  "  Make  a  lid  for  that  fool ;  cover  him  up." 

The  women  of  Japan  have  tongues.  I  knew  several  old  shrews  who 
used  their  husbands  as  grindstones  to  sharpen  a  certain  edge-tool 
which  they  kept  in  their  mouth.  Either  a  Japanese  carpenter  or  one 
having  an  eye  for  metronomics  first  noticed  this  brilliant  fact,  that 
The  tongue  three  inches  long  can  kill  a  man  six  feet  high. 

Give  victuals  to  your  enemy.  (The  word  translated  "  victuals " 
means  food  for  animals,  such  as  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  etc.,  or  hait ;  and 
some  Japanese  say  it  should  read,  "  Give  bait  to  your  enemy  " — i.  e., 
revenge  yourself  on  him  skillfully,  by  stratagem.) 

A  cur  that  bravely  barks  before  its  own  gate.  (So  that  it  may  run 
inside,  in  case  it  catches  a  Tartar.) 

Even  a  monkey  sometimes  falls  from  a  tree. 

To  rub  salt  on  a  sore.     ("Adding  insult  to  injury.") 

Excess  of  politeness  becomes  impoliteness. 

A  blind  man  does  not  fear  a  snake.  ("  Fools  rush  in  where  angels 
fear  to  tread.") 

Poverty  can  not  overtake  diligence. 

The  heron  can  rise  from  the  stream  without  stirring  up  the  mud. 
(Delicacy,  tact.) 

Adapt  the  preaching  to  the  hearer. 

K  you  call  down  a  curse  on  any  one,  look  out  for  two  graves. 
("  Curses,  like  young  chickens,  always  come  home  to  roost.") 

As  string  for  our  bouquet,  here  is  something  which,  whether  prov- 
erb or  not,  has  a  meaning :  When  life  is  ruined  for  sake  of  money's 
preciousness,  the  ruined  life  cares  naught  for  the  money. 

There  is  no  teacher  of  Japanese  poetry.  ("  The  poet  is  bom,  not 
made.") 

Hearing  is  paradise  ;  seeing  is  hell.     (Description  v.  reality.) 

When  men  become  too  old,  they  must  obey  the  young.  (Said  es' 
pecially  of  the  old  nations,  such  as  Japan  and  China ;  they  must,  and 
ought  to,  accept  the  civilization  of  the  younger  Western  nations.) 


512  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XV. 

TEE  LAST  TEAR  OF  FEUDALISM. 
(leaves  from  my  journal.) 

March  4th,  1871. — Arrived  in  Fukui. 

March  Wth. — Went  by  invitation  to  the  Han  stable,  whicli  contains 
fifty  horses.  I  selected  a  fine  coal-black  horse,  which  is  to  be  mine 
during  my  stay  in  Fukui.  His  name  is  Green  Willovi^,  from  his  sup- 
ple and  graceful  form.  He  is  gentle,  and  a  perfect  beauty.  Other 
names  of  horses  were  Black  Dragon,  Willow  Swamp,  Typhoon,  Thun- 
der-cloud, Arrow,  Devil's  Eye,  Ink-stone,  Earthquake,  Ghost,  etc.  I  took 
a  long  ride  through  the  villages  lying  to  the  eastwai'd,  along  the  Ashi- 
wa  ( Winged  -  foot)  River.  Crowds  of  people  were  waiting  in  each 
place  to  see  the  white  foreigner. 

The  dogs  especially  enjoy  the  excitement ;  my  Mercury  in  bronze 
runs  before  my  horse,  clad  in  cuticle,  socks,  and  waist-cloth,  instead  of 
winged  cap  and  anklets.  He  is  tattooed  from  neck  to  heels  with  red 
and  blue  dragons.  Of  his  comrades,  one  has  Yoshitsune's  face  and  bust 
punctured  on  his  skin.  On  the  back  of  another,  evidently  in  love, 
blushes  and  pouts  a  pretty  maiden  with  blossom-garnished  hair.  The 
bettos,  like  other  working -classes,  form  an  hereditary  guild.  They 
are  of  very  low  social  grade.  The  children  speak  of  me  as  "  to-jin  " 
(Chinaman)  ;*  the  grown-up  people,  as  "  i-jin  "  (foreign  man) ;  the  sa- 
murai, as  "  guai-koku-jin  "  (outside-country  man),  and  a  few  who  know 
exactly,  "  the  America-jin,"  or  "  Be-koku-jin." 


*  For  centuries  Chinamen  were  tlie  only  foreigners  of  whom  most  Japanese 
children  had  heard  or  seen.  So  in  Hanchow,  China,  the  city  over  which  Marco 
Polo  was  governor,  where  the  Japanese  regularly  traded  and  a  few  resided,  the 
Japanese  were  the  only  strangers  the  people  there  knew.  When  Rev.  J.  Liggins, 
an  American  missionary,  first  visited  this  citj',  the  people  called  out  after  him, 
"Japanese!  Japanese !"  varying  the  cry  from  "Foreign  devil,"  "Red-haired," 
etc.,  heard  in  other  places.  The  Japanese  lower  classes  do  not  indulge  in  the 
vile  habit  of  calling  foreigners  abusive  names,  though  baka  (fool)  is  occasionally 
made  use  of.  The  American  gentleman  here  referred  to  was  the  first  Christian 
missionary  in  Japan  in  this  century,  residing  at  Nagasaki,  where  he,  like  all  other 
foreigners,  was  called  Orawda  j'm  (Hollander). 


THE  LAST   YEAR   OF  FEUDALISM.  513 

March  I8th. — Rode  out  to  the  gunpowder  mills.  We  crossed  a 
long  bridge  of  about  forty  boats  (funa-bashi),  over  a  wide,  swift  river. 
The  mills,  in  five  buildings,  with  machinery,  wholly  of  wood,  and  made 
by  natives,  are  run  by  water-power.  The  establishment  blew  up  only 
once,  several  years  ago.  Outside  is  an  image  of  Buddha  and  a  shrine 
in  memory  of  the  five  men  killed  by  the  explosion.  What  a  combina- 
tion— gunpowder  and  Buddhism !  The  magazine  stands  among  the 
hills  near  the  city,  defended  by  a  lightning-rod.  Echizen  powder  won 
a  good  reputation  in  Japan  during  the  late  civil  war,  especially  at  Wa- 
kamatsu  and  Hakodate.  I  also  visited  a  cotton-seed  oil-press  of  sim- 
ple construction,  but  very  effective.  The  rille  factory  is  near  the  city, 
and  has  an  American  rifling  and  other  machines,  including  one  for 
weaving  cloth.     Most  of  them  are  Sasaki's  purchases  in  New  York. 

March  2lst. — A  grand  matsuri  (festival)  is  being  held  at  the  tem- 
ples, and  the  city  is  full  of  farmers  and  country  folk.  They  have 
come  to  pray  for  good  crops.  I  can  usually  distinguish  a  countryman 
from  a  citizen  by  the  superior  diameter  of  his  eyes  and  mouth  on  be- 
holding the  white  foreigner.  Some  of  the  old  ladies  look  at  me  piti- 
fully, so  sorry  that  I  am  so  bleached  and  pale,  instead  of  the  proper 
dark  color  of  skin. 

March  29th.  —  Some  of  the  Buddhist  sects  bury,  others  cremate. 
In  Fukui,  cremation  is  the  usual  rule.  The  cremarium  has  four  fur- 
naces. Saw  a  funeral  procession,  and  witnessed  the  ceremonies  at  the 
mortuary  chapel  by  the  priests  of  the  Shin  sect,  in  their  canonical 
robes  of  gold,  damask,  and  satin,  with  book,  bell,  and  scores  of  candles. 
The  corpse  and  cask,  or  coffin,  were  then  set  on  the  furnace.  The 
flames  under  the  corpse  were  lighted  by  a  relative  of  the  deceased.  A 
sheet  of  flame  instantly  enveloped  the  body,  making  a  shroud  of  fire, 
in  which  nothing  revolting  was  visible.  The  reduction  of  the  body 
of  the  deceased  to  ashes  occupied  nearly  two  hours.  I  witnessed  most 
of  it,  at  intervals.  The  soft  parts  were  consumed  and  volatilized,  and 
the  skeleton  left  a  glowing  white  mass  of  lime,  and  the  skull  a  globe 
of  live  fire.  I  strolled  off,  toward  the  end  of  the  process,  over  the 
mountain  slopes,  through  the  daimio's  cemetery,  where,  in  fine  stone 
tombs,  the  fifteen  princes  of  the  house  of  Echizen  are  buried. 

Returning  on  the  other  side  of  the  cremarium,  I  saw  a  great  heap 
of  skulls,  bones,  clothes,  bowls,  utensils,  and  other  relics  of  the  dead. 
It  was  the  monument  of  a  famine  which  ravaged  Echizen  some  forty 
years  ago,  during  which  time  the  poor  and  the  beggars  died  in  such 
numbers  that  they  could  not  be  consumed  or  inhumed  in  the  usual 


514  THU  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

manner  singly,  but  were  cremated  by  scores  on  heaps  of  brush-wood. 
Raih'oads  and  improved  means  of  intercommunication  in  the  future 
will  make  great  desolation  by  famine  impossible.  Nearer  the  house 
was  a  mound  containing  many  thousand  cubic  feet  of  ashes  and  cal- 
cined bones,  the  refuse  incineration  of  the  furnaces  during  many  gen- 
erations.    It  was  "ashes  to  ashes,"  instead  of  "  dust  to  dust." 

Passing  in  front  of  the  house,  two  relatives  were  engaged  in  picking 
out  with  a  piece  of  bamboo,  and  another  of  wood,  the  clean,  hot  white 
pieces  of  bone.  I  now  understood  the  squeamishness,  and  even  super- 
stition, of  the  people,  who  will  on  no  account  eat  with  a  pair  of  chop- 
sticks one  of  which  is  of  wood  and  the  other  of  bamboo.  Packed  in 
a  jar,  the  bones  were  then  deposited  in  the  family  vault — the  hollow 
pedestal  of  a  large  tombstone.  The  monuments  are  chiefly  upright 
square  shafts.  Some  are  egg-shaped.  Others,  with  a  top  having  wings 
or  eaves,  are  formed  like  a  castle  tower,  or  pagoda  roof.  Nearly  all 
of  them  are  inscribed  with  Buddhist  texts  and  homio,  or  posthumous 
names.  Among  many  handsome  ones  are  several  made  to  represent  a 
tub  of  sake,  evidently  those  of  tapsters  who  once  dispensed  the  popu- 
lar drink,  and  wished,  even  after  death,  to  advertise  the  business  as 
still  sold  by  the  family  at  the  old  stand.  Fresh  flo^vers  are  placed  in 
the  sockets  cut  into  the  pedestals  of  many  of  the  tombs.  Women  are 
present  here  and  there,  engaged  in  cleansing  the  monuments  of  moss, 
lichens,  or  dust,  or  inserting  camellias  in  the  bamboo  tubes  which  serve 
as  bouquet-holders.  Some  are  of  the  age  of  Old  Mortality  himself, 
but  some  of  the  young  mortality  were  in  the  shape  of  rather  pretty 
maidens. 

April  1st.  —  The  prince  gav^e  a  dinner  at  his  "summer  palace," 
which  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  serpentine  river.  A  glorious  view 
of  snowy  Hakuzan,  from  breast  to  crown,  is  afforded  on  one  side,  and 
of  the  valley  stretching  to  the  sea  on  the  other.  The  immense,  swell- 
ing white  sails  of  the  junks  appear  as  if  in  the  fields,  the  course  of  the 
river  being  hidden  by  the  vegetation.  Through  my  interpreter,  who 
was  in  his  best  mood,  we  had  a  long  talk  on  politics  native  and  for- 
eign, religion,  and  morals.  The  prince  and  his  minister  asked  a  great 
variety  of  questions  about  the  government,  people,  laws,  and  customs  of 
the  United  States,  and  invited  unlimited  expression  of  opinion.  The 
prince  informed  me  that  the  mikado  had  summoned  a  great  council 
of  the  ex-daimios  in  Tokio  to  discuss  national  affairs,  and  that  he 
would  set  out  for  the  capital  on  the  second  day  hence. 

April  I2th. — By  Dr.  Hashimoto's  invitation  I  attended  the  theatre. 


THE  LAST  YEAR  OF  FEUDALISM.  515 

The  house  was  crowded.  The  acting  was  fair.  The  phiy  was  full  of 
love  and  murder,  with  many  amusing  incidents.  A  pretty  woman  of 
o-entle  blood  loves  a  poor  itinerant  pipe  mender  and  cleaner.  Her  fa- 
ther wishes  her  to  marry  the  son  of  a  nobleman.  He  succeeds  in  his 
purpose  by  means  of  a  "  go-between,"  who  pretends  to  carry  messages 
from  the  true  lover  to  the  duped  girl.  At  the  marriage  ceremony, 
which  is  represented  in  detail  on  the  stage,  she  lifts  her  silken  hood, 
expecting  to  see  her  true  love,  but  beholds  her  father's  choice,  whom 
she  hates.  She  has  to  submit,  and  goes  to  housekeeping.  Clandes- 
tine meeting  of  wife  and  old  lover.  Jealous  husband  detects  para- 
mours. Murder  of  the  guilty  pair.  The  husband  finds  that  the  pipe- 
mender  is  his  dear  friend  in  humble  disguise.  Remorse.  Commits 
hara-kiri.     Finale. 

As  the  performances  last  all  day,  people  bring  their  tea-pots  and 
lunch-baskets.  The  interest  centres  in  the  bloody  scene,  when  heads, 
trunks,  blood,  and  limbs  lie  around  the  stage  promiscuously.  The  de- 
liberate whetting  of  the  sword  with  hone,  dipper,  bucket,  and  water 
in  sight  of  the  frantic  guilty  pair,  the  prolongation  of  the  sharpening 
and  the  bloody  scene  to  its  possible  limit  of  time — twenty  minutes  by 
the  watch — make  it  seem  very  ludicrous  to  me,  though  the  audience 
look  on  breathless.  During  this  time  all  talking,  eating,  and  attention 
to  infants  cease.  The  repeated  attempts  of  the  husband  to  screw  his 
courage  to  the  sticking-point,  and  thrust  the  dirk  in  his  abdomen,  ex- 
cite the  loud  laughter  of  the  audience.  The  theatre  is  large,  but  of  a 
rather  primitive  order  of  architecture,  yet  probably  as  good  as  some 
that  Shakspeare  played  in.  After  the  play,  I  went  behind  the  scenes, 
and  Avas  politely  shown  the  actors'  wardrobe  and  dressing-rooms,  and 
the  assortment  of  wigs,  heads,  limbs,  etc.  Rice-chaff  replaces  sawdust 
in  the  shams  used  on  the  stage. 

As  a  rule,  the  better  class  of  Japanese  people  do  not  attend  the  the- 
atres for  moral  reasons,  and  as  examples  to  their  children.  The  influ- 
ences of  the  stage  are  thought  to  be  detrimental  to  virtue.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  the  young  girls  become  too  much  interested  in  the  actors, 
and  hence  fathers  do  not  allow  their  daughters  to  see  the  plays.  The 
actors,  however,  are  the  idols  of  the  lower  classes.  Women  do  not 
play  on  the  stage,  their  parts  being  taken  by  men  or  boys. 

April  15th.  —  All  through  the  city,  the  rapid  mountain  streams, 
from  three  to  eight  feet  wide,  are  led  between  stone  banks  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  streets.  At  certain  hours  of  the  day,  the  people  wash  their 
pots,  pans,  and  dishes,  and  at  others  their  clothes.     The  rising  genera- 


516  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

tion  enjoy  the  constant  treat  of  wading,  splashing,  sailing  boats,  or 
making  dams,  water-falls,  and  miniature  mills.  The  kennel  also  af- 
fords a  theatre  for  many  a  domestic  drama,  in  which  the  chief  actors 
are  a  soused  baby  and  a  frightened  mother.  While  walking  out  to-day, 
one  of  the  little  girls  who  knew  me,  and  had  long  ceased  to  feel  afraid 
of  me,  came  running  along  the  edge  of  the  water,  crying,  "  To  jin  san! 
To  jin  san/"  (Mr.  Foreigner!  Mr.  Foreigner !)  Not  noticing  the  famil- 
iar cry,  I  suddenly  heard  a  splash  behind  me,  and,  turning  round,  the 
child  had  disappeared.  The  water  was  rather  deep  at  the  point  of 
immersion,  and  I  managed,  after  much  difRculty,  to  fish  up  the  strug- 
gling child,  and  hand  the  dripping  darling  to  her  mother,  who  imme- 
diately ejaculated  an  "^rw  beki "  (Served  you  right)  to  her  offspring, 
and,  with  a  profound  bow,  an  Arigato  (Thank  you)  to  the  rescuer. 

May  \st. — During  the  past  month  I  have  made  many  excursions 
on  horseback  through  the  country  round,  staying  overnight  at  the  vil- 
lage inns.  Sasaki  and  Iwabuchi  have  been  my  companions.  I  have 
seen  the  paper  manufactories,  oil-presses,  the  sake  breweries,  soy-vats, 
iron-foundries,  and  smelting -furnaces,  I  have  entered  the  copper 
mines  of  Ono,  and  "  prospected  "  the  coal  region,  from  which  the  coal 
I  burn  in  my  Peekskill  stove  comes. 

Willie  on  one  trip,  as  I  was  leading  my  horse.  Green  Willow,  down 
a  steep  slope,  being  close  behind  Sasaki's  horse,  well-named  Devil's 
Eye,  the  vicious  brute,  after  squinting  sideways  at  me,  and  seeing  his 
opportunity,  threw  out  his  left  hind  hoof  and  kicked  me.  The  soft 
part  between  the  fetlock  and  hoof  struck  just  above  my  knee,  giving 
me  a  shock,  but  doing  no  serious  injury.  His  hoof  would  have  broken 
my  leg.  The  incident  has  served  to  warp  and  prejudice  my  judgment 
of  Japanese  horses  in  general.  I  can  not  praise  them  highly ;  but 
Green  Willow  is  my  ideal  of  a  noble  animal. 

The  pack-horses,  which  I  see  daily,  amuse  me.  They  are  ungainly, 
unkempt  brutes,  fed  on  the  cheapest  food.  They  carry  about  eight 
hundred  pounds  at  a  load.  Of  their  moral  character  I  can  not  speak 
in  high  terms.  When  led  or  driven  tandem,  or  following  each  other 
in  Indian  file,  these  equine  cannibals  indulge  in  the  vicious  habit  of 
pasturing  on  the  haunches  of  the  animal  in  front  of  them.  This  graz- 
ing process  usually  results  in  lively  kicks,  to  the  detriment  of  the  teeth 
or  chest  of  the  offender,  and  the  demoralization  of  the  whole  line. 

May  2d. — The  farmers  are  busy  making  seed-beds  for  the  rice,  and 
in  hoeing  up  their  fields.  The  valleys  are  full  of  flowers.  The  snow 
has  melted  from  all  the  mountains  except  Hakuzan. 


THE  LAST   YEAR   OF  FEUDALISM.  517 

May  Sd. — The  presents  I  daily  receive  from  ray  students  and  the 
officials  are  very  varied.  My  table  is  not  left  unadorned  for  a  single 
day.  A  leg  of  venison  or  wild-boar  meat,  a  duck  netted,  or  a  goose 
shot  in  hunting ;  a  fine  fish,  a  box  of  eggs,  a  hamper  full  of  pears  or 
oranges,  a  bouquet  of  flowers,  a  piece  of  porcelain  or  lacquered  work, 
a  small  carved  ivory  nitsuki  or  bronze  piece,  a  book,  pictures,  speci- 
mens of  paper,  a  box  of  sponge-cake,  sugar-jelly,  or  sweet-potato  cus- 
tard, a  tray  of  persimmons,  candies,  silk  in  napkins,  rolls  of  various 
sizes,  curiosities  of  all  sorts,  come  to  me.  Every  thing  is  daintily 
wrapped  in  red  and  white  cord,  with  the  nosu,  or  ceremonial  folded 
paper,  symbolizing  friendship.  The  exquisite  jointure  and  delicate 
grain  of  the  wood  of  the  boxes  in  which  the  cake,  etc.,  are  cased  cause 
almost  a  pain  when  I  throw  them  away.  "  Chenkey  "  and  Obun  get 
the  candy  and  sweetmeats.  The  gifts  are  not  generally  of  much 
value,  but  they  show  the  sympathy  and  kindly  nature  of  the  people. 


What  follows  a  Meal  on  Horse-flesh. 

Many  of  these  offerings  of  friendship  come  from  strangers.  Many  of 
the  mothers  and  fathers  of  my  students  have  called  in  person  to  thank 
me.  After  profound  bows,  head  and  knee  on  the  floor,  they  offer  the 
present,  usually  carried  by  their  servant,  saying,  "  This  is  a  very  mean 
thing  to  offer  you,  but  I  trust  you  will  accept  it  for  friendship's  sake." 
The  ladies,  especially  the  old  ones,  are  very  talkative  and  friendly.  I 
never  fall  on  all  fours  before  a  man,  but  I  frequently  polish  my  fore- 
head on  the  floor  when  a  lady  does  the  same  for  me.  A  photograph 
album  interests  them  exceedingly,  and  gives  occasion  for  many  ques- 
tions. 


518  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

I  find  my  students  surprisingly  eager  and  earnest  in  school.  They 
learn  fast,  and  study  hard.  When  important  or  striking  chemical  ex- 
periments are  made,  the  large  lecture-room  is  crowded  by  officials  as 
well  as  students,  I  spend  six  hours  daily  in  the  school.  In  the  even- 
ing, at  my  house,  I  have  special  classes  of  young  men,  doctors,  teach- 
ers, and  a  circle  of  citizens,  who  listen  to  talks  or  lectures  on  various 
subjects.  My  plan  is  to  take  a  good  text  -  book  and  explain,  by  talk- 
ing, the  use  of  maps,  charts,  diagrams,  and  the  blackboard,  allowing  the 
auditors  to  ask  questions  freely  at  intervals.  Physical  and  descriptive 
geography,  geology,  chemistry,  physiology,  microscopy,  moral  science, 
the  science  of  government,  the  history  of  European  countries,  the 
various  arts  and  manufactures,  our  social  system,  and,  for  those  who 
wish  it,  a  minority,  the  Bible  and  religion  of  Jesus  Christ,  are  thus 
treated  of — superficially,  indeed,  but,  to  a  sufficiently  encouraging  ex- 
tent, effectively,  as  is  proved  by  the  eager  attention,  note-taking,  and 
intelligent  questionings.  I  find  many  of  them  well  versed  in  those 
questions  for  time  and  eternity  which  have  been  the  conflict  of  ages. 
Many  of  my  nocturnal  auditors  are  middle-aged,  and  a  few  old  men. 
My  interpreter  is  usually  able  to  second  me,  though  I  have  often  to 
prime  him  in  the  afternoon  for  the  discharges  of  the  evening.* 

May  Sd. — I  have  been  to  see  the  fan-makers  to-day.  Kioto,  Nagoya, 
and  Tokio  are  the  places  most  noted  for  the  quality  and  quantity 
manufactured,  but  Fukui  has  a  few  shops  where  offi  (folding  fans)  and 
uchiwa  (flat  fans)  are  made.  Again,  I  find  that  we  foreigners  do 
things  upside  down.  With  us,  the  large  flat  fans  are  for  gentlemen's 
use,  the  folding  fans  for  ladies'.  In  Japan,  the  gentleman  carries  at 
all  times,  except  in  winter,  the  ogi  in  his  girdle,  bosom,  under  his  col- 
lar, or,  in  his  merry  mood,  under  his  cue.  It  is  a  dire  breach  of  eti- 
quette to  appear  in  the  street  with  a  flat  fan,  which  is  almost  exclu- 
sively used  by  the  Japanese  women.  Millions  of  these  fans  are  being 
made  for  the  foreign  market,  and  sold  in  Europe  and  America.  They 
are  cheap  editions  of  art  in  the  land  of  the  gods,  for  all  the  world  to 
look  at.  They  will  probably  do  more  to  advertise  Japan  abroad  than 
any  other  means. 

As  the  principles  of  centralized  capital,  immense  manufactories,  and 
division  of  labor  are  as  yet  scarcely  known  in  Japan,  these  fans,  like 
other  articles  of  art  and  handiwork,  will  be  made  by  tens  of  thou- 


*  These  evening  seances,  though  intermitted  during  the  hot  weather,  were  con- 
tinued until  I  left  Fuliui. 


THE  LAST   TEAR   OF  FEUDALISM. 


519 


sands  of  independent  workers  all  over  the  country.  The  Fukuians 
make  fans  of  all  sorts,  and  for  all  purposes :  of  water-proof  paper  for 
dipping  in  water — a  sort  of  vaporizer  for  making  extra  coolness  on 
the  face  by  evaporation ;  of  stout  paper  for  grain-winnows,  charcoal 
fire-blowers,  or  for  dust-pans;  double-winged  fans,  for  the  judges  at 
wrestling  -  matches ;  gorgeous  colored  and  gilt  fans  for  the  dancing- 
girl,  who  makes  one  a  part  of  herself  in  her  graceful  motion  and 
classic  pose ;  for  the  juggler,  who  will  make  a  butterfly  of  paper  flut- 
ter up  the  edge  of  a  sword.  The  splitting  of  the  bamboo,  the  folding 
or  pasting  of  the  paper  by  the  girls,  the  artist's  work,  the  finishing  and 
packing,  are  all  done  before  my  eyes.  The  manifold  uses  and  etiquette 
of  the  fan  I  am  gradually  learning. 


Kioto  Fan-makers. 

I  find  a  rack  of  silver  hooks  or  a  tubular  fan-holder  in  every  house, 
in  which  are  several  of  these  implements  of  refreshment,  which  are  at 
once  offered  to  the  visitor  on  his  arrival.  I  have  received  a  stack  of 
fans  inscribed  with  poetry,  congratulations,  or  with  maps,  statistical 
tables,  pictures  of  famous  places,  classic  quotations,  or  useful  informa- 
tion of  varied  nature.  Many  depict  life,  manners,  architecture,  etc., 
in  Yokohama  and  in  Europe.  They  are  thus  the  educators  of  the 
public.  Many  of  the  Fukui  gentlemen  have  collections  of  fans  with 
famous  inscriptions  or  autographs,  or  pictures  from  noted  artists.  A 
scholar  or  author,  in  giving  a  party  to  his  literary  friends,  has  a  num- 


520  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ber  of  ogi  ready  for  adornment ;  and  people  often  exchange  fans  as 
we  do  photographs.  When  I  go  into  a  strange  house,  especially  in 
my  trips  to  villages  where  the  foreigner  creates  a  sensation,  I  spend 
the  whole  evening  writing  in  English  on  fans  for  my  host,  his  wife, 
daughters,  and  friends.  How  far  the  excerpts  from  Shakspeare,  Mil- 
ton, or  Longfellow  may  be  appreciated  or  understood,  I  can  not  say. 

To  make  the  pictures  for  common  flat  fans,  the  design  is  drawn  by 
the  artist  on  thin  paper.  This  is  pasted  on  a  slab  of  cherry-wood  and 
engraved.  The  pictures  are  printed  by  laying  the  fan -paper  flat  on 
the  block  and  pressing  it  smooth.  In  the  same  manner,  the  Japanese 
have  printed  books  for  centuries.  The  various  colors  are  put  on, 
with  sometimes  as  many  as  twenty  blocks.  This  art  is  chromo-xy- 
lography,  instead  of  chromo  -  lithography.  The  picture  papers,  some- 
times with  musk  or  other  perfumes  laid  between  them,  are  then  pasted 
on  the  frame.  The  costly  gold -lacquered,  ivory -handled,  and  inlaid 
fans  are  made  in  Tokio  and  Kioto. 

May  Ath. — The  national  festival  in  honor  of  the  soldiers  slain  during 
the  civil  war  of  1868-70  was  celebrated.  This  is  "Decoration  Day." 
The  whole  city  kept  holiday.  In  the  morning  a  regiment  of  soldiers 
paraded  in  nondescript  dress,  a  hybrid  of  native  costume  and  foreign 
clothes,  civil,  military,  and  neither.  Straw  sandals  and  high  boots,  tight 
trowsers  and  the  hakama  petticoats,  caps,  wide -brimmed  hats,  cha- 
peaux,  and  bare  heads,  top -knots  with  shaven  scalps,  and  hair  cut  in 
foreign  fashion,  alternated  confusedly.  The  variety  made  a  burlesque 
that  caused  the  only  American  spectator  to  almost  crush  his  teeth  in 
trying  to  choke  down  a  laugh.  FalstafE's  regiment  and  the  "  Mulligan 
Guards  "  of  popular  song  were  utterly  eclipsed. 

Tens  of  thousands  of  people  visited  the  cemetery  called  Sho  Kon 
Sha  (Soul-beckoning  Rest),  on  the  top  of  Atago  yama.  Many  brought 
flowers  to  deck  the  tombs.  In  the  afternoon,  while  I  was  there,  the 
ladies  of  the  prince's  household  were  present,  in  their  gorgeously  em- 
broidered silk  gowns  and  girdles.  Their  hair  was  dressed  in  the  fan- 
like coiffure  characteristic  of  the  maids  of  honor  in  the  households  of 
the  Kioto  court  nobles.  One  of  them  afterward  sent  me  as  presents, 
through  the  prince's  physician,  some  very  pretty  specimens  of  needle- 
work from  her  own  tapering  fingers.  They  consisted  of  a  lady's  white 
satin  letter-case,  witli  a  billet-doux  folded  up  in  it — only  it  was  blank, 
though  the  day  was  not  the  1st  of  April.  The  other  gifts  were  a 
"  currency  -  holder,"  or  small  paper- money  wallet,  in  orange -yellow 
satin,  bound  in  green  and  gold  thread  damask ;  a  green  silk  book- 


THE  LAST   YEAR   OF  FEUDALISM.  521 

mark,  with  autumn  leaves  painted  on  it ;  a  case  for  holding  chopsticks 
of  many-shaded  purple  silk  crape,  and  one  or  two  other  pretty  conceits 
in  silk,  each  a  poem  to  the  eye.  These  I  put  with  the  other  memen- 
toes of  the  handiwork  of  the  sisters  of  students,  or  the  daughters  of 
the  officials,  which  I  have  received. 

In  the  afternoon,  thousands  of  people  in  their  gala  dress,  and  with 
substantial  refreshments  and  drinkables,  gathered  to  witness  the  dis- 
play of  fire-works  sent  up  from  the  parade-ground.  The  pyrotechnic 
pieces,  in  shape  like  a  small  paint-keg,  were  put  in  an  immense  upright 
cannon  or  mortar  made  of  a  stout  wooden  tube  like  a  tree-trunk,  bound 
with  strong  bamboo  hoops.  Exploding  far  up  in  air,  the  colors  being 
white,  black,  red,  and  yellow,  the  resulting  "fire -flowers"  were  inter- 
esting or  comical.  An  old  woman  hobbled  on  a  cane ;  an  old  man 
smoked  a  pipe  whence  issued  a  fox ;  a  tea-kettle  evolved  a  badger ;  a 
cuttle  -  fish  sailed,  with  outspread  suckers,  in  mid  -  air ;  a  cat  ran  after 
mice ;  a  peach  blossomed  into  a  baby ;  Pussy,  with  a  mouse  ("  rat's 
baby ")  in  her  mouth,  seemed  to  tread  the  air ;  a  hideous  dragon 
spouted  fire ;  serpents  ran  after  each  other ;  a  monkey  blew  soap-bub- 
bles. These  and  other  mid-air  conceits  amused  both  the  little  children 
and  those  of  larger  growth.  The  exhibition  closed  at  dark.  Every  one 
was  happy.  A  few  were  tipsy ;  but  I  saw  no  disorder.  I  had  a  seat  in 
the  family  party  of  Mr.  Nagasaki,  whose  chubby  children  and  wife  were 
present,  making  a  lively  circle  around  the  picnic-box  and  tiny  dishes. 

May  \Mh. — Engaged  a  river-boat,  with  four  stout  rowers  and  pole- 
men,  and  made  a  trip  down  the  river  to  the  sea.  Spent  from  Satur- 
day till  Monday  at  Mikuni,  the  sea-port  of  Fukui,  as  the  guest  of  the 
chief  tea -merchant  of  the  place,  whose  plantations  extend  over  the 
hills  for  many  acres.  He  sends  seventy-five  thousand  dollars'  worth 
of  tea  to  Yokohama  annually.  The  ocean  scenery  here  is  magnificent 
beyond  description.  A  splendid  natural  sea-wall  of  columnar  trap  re- 
minded me  of  the  "  Giant's  Causeway."  A  lacquer-artist  in  Fukui  has 
made  sketches  of  the  rock  and  shore  scenery  here,  and  is  now  making 
me  a  handsome  stand  for  my  glass-sponges  {Hyaloneraa  mirabilis).  It 
will  have  a  scene  from  Mikuni  on  it.  Fleets  of  fishing-boats  were  out 
on  the  blue  waters.  The  diving-girls,  like  mermaids,  exhibited  their 
pluck  and  skill  by  diving  many  fathoms  down  in  the  deep  water  of 
the  rocky  recesses ;  or,  strapping  a  basket  on  their  backs,  they  swam 
far  out,  knife  in  hand,  to  reap  a  submarine  harvest  from  the  rocks. 
They  returned  in  a  half-hour,  heavily  laden  with  awabi  (sea-ears)  and 
spiral  univalves.     These  they  afterward  roasted  in  their  own  shells, 


522 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


and  offered  us.  At  the  merchant's  home,  decked  in  their  best  robes 
and  coifs,  they  danced  and  sung  their  wild  fisher's  songs  for  us.  In 
the  village  I  saw  a  famous  sculptor  in  wood,  who  was  carving  a  horse 
in  life  size  for  a  Shinto  shrine.  Though  faulty  in  some  details  of 
anatomy,  the  fire  and  grace  of  motion  were  wonderfully  life-like.  In 
Fukui,  the  week  before,  I  had  seen  an  artist  dip  his  long,  little  finger- 
nail in  ink  and  draw  figures  on  a  fan,  and  with  astonishing  rapidity 
furnished  a  very  spirited  design  of  a  horse  in  motion,  after  llokusai's 
style,  with  but  seven  strokes,  and  a  few  sweeps  of  a  wide  brush  for 
the  mane  and  tail. 


Seven-stroke  Sketch.    Wild  Horse  of  Nambn. 

May  \Qth. — By  orders  received  to-day  from  the  Central  Govern- 
ment of  Tokio,  two  students  are  to  be  chosen  from  each  han,  and  sent 
abroad  to  study.  This  will  enable  several  hundred  young  men  to  see 
and  live  in  Europe  and  America.  It  is  also  a  political  move  to  unite 
all  parts  of  the  empire  together,  and  show  even  the  people  of  the  late- 
ly rebellious  portions  that  they  are  to  partake  of  the  national  benefits. 
In  our  han,  one  is  to  be  elected  by  the  officers  and  one  by  myself. 


THE  LAST  TEAR   OF  FEUDALISM.  523 

Tlie  choice  of  the  former  is  Yamaoka  Jiro.*  I  chose  from  a  dozen 
or  more,  equally  worthy,  Kinamera  Shirato.f  Over  four  hundred  stu- 
dents will  embark  for  America  during  this  and  the  following  month. 

The  rice -fields  of  the  whole  country  are  now  lakes  of  rich  mud- 
pulp,  the  paradise  of  polliwigs.  An  expanse  of  an  exquisite  light 
green  covers  many  parts  of  the  valley.  All  the  rice  is  transplanted, 
having  been  first  sown  broadcast  in  seed-beds,  which  are  under  water. 
The  husbandman  casts  his  bread  upon  the  waters.  He  will  find  it, 
after  many  summer  days,  in  November.  Picnic  parties  make  the 
woods  on  Atago  yama  lively  with  music,  fun,  feasting,  and  merry  laugh- 
ter. The  powdered  girls  in  the  archery  galleries  and  tea-houses  are 
reaping  a  harvest  of  small  change.    Every  one  enjoys  the  fine  weather. 

May  20th. — Four  students  arrived  from  Higo  to-day,  having  come 
here  to  study,  on  the  recommendation  of  my  former  pupil  in  America, 
Numagawa,  a  young  samurai  of  Kumamoto.  One  I  call  "  Bearded 
Higo,"  for  he  wears  what  is  rare  in  Japan,  a  full  beard.  The  Higo 
family  is  connected  by  marriage  with  the  house  of  Echizen.  My 
prince's  beautiful  wife  is  a  Higo  princess.  Her  face  is  of  a  perfect 
Yamato  type. 

July  Ath. — Celebrated  the  "glorious  Fourth"  to-day  by  raising  the 
American  flag,  and  starting  a  new  class  in  the  school,  composed  of  the 
brightest  boys  of  the  Sho  Gakko,  or  secondary  school.  Mail  arrived 
from  home,  eight  weeks  from  Philadelphia. 

During  the  past  month,  a  great  many  religious  festivals  and  proces- 
sions have  been  held.  I  attended  a  Buddhist  sermon  in  the  temple  ;  a 
prayer-service  in  a  private  house  ;  a  grand  concert  of  music  by  twenty- 
four  bonzes  in  full  sacerdotal  costume,  with  wind  and  string  instru- 
ments, in  the  monastery  ;  and  several  private  entertainments. 

I  find  that  both  in  houses  and  at  picnics  screens  are  an  important 
article  of  furniture,  and  behind  these  couples  who  have  whispering  to 
do  may  enjoy  a  tete-a-tete  undisturbed.  Besides  ornament,  they  serve 
the  purpose  of  alcoves  or  bay-windows  for  temporary  privacy.  In  the 
cut,  the  words  "  sasame  goto  "  (whispering)  signify  that  something  confi- 
dential is  being  told.  Whether  the  pair  are  lovers  is  not  certain,  though 
the  expression  on  the  face  of  the  man  is  that  of  a  love-lorn  swain  ;  and 
the  young  lady,  whose  coiffure  betokens  that  she  is  in  the  matrimo- 

*  He  studied  at  Princeton,  Troy,  and  Columbia  School  of  Mines,  in  New  York, 
and  is  now  an  officer  in  the  Department  of  Education. 

+  He  studied  at  Albany  and  Hoboken,  and  is  now  in  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment's service. 


524 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


nial  market,  seems  to  be  paying  very  close  attention,  as  lier  face,  and 
hands  drawn  within  her  sleeve  and  to  her  neck,  indicate. 

July  5th. — At  a  religious  service  in  the  hall  of  the  castle,  a  band 
of  sacred  Shinto  musicians  played  the  national  hymn,  many  centuries 
old,  the  strangest  and  most  weird  system  of  sounds  I  ever  heard. 
Twelve  Shinto  priests,  in  white  robes,  offered  up  the  fruits  of  the  sea- 
son, and  solemnly  read  prayers  written  for  the  occasion.     Over  one 


Whispei-ing  behind  the  Scieeu. 

thousand  officials,  in  swords  and  ceremonial  robes  of  hempen  and  silk 
cloth  {kami-shimo),  were  present.  Their  salutations  to  each  other, 
after  the  exercises,  were  fearful  to  behold.  Much  breath  was  sucked, 
exalted  honorifics  indulged  in,  congratulations  spoken,  and  excrucia- 
ting politeness  manifested. 

To  all  these  private  or  official  entertainments  I  receive  very  polite- 
ly worded  written  invitations.  On  the  day  set  apart  in  honor  of  Jim- 
mu  Tenno,  all  the  officials,  according  to  rank,  assembled,  in  robes  of 
ceremony,  in  the  han-cho,  and  each,  as  his  name  was  called,  advanced 
to  a  stone  lavatory,  washed  his  hands,  and  offered  a  prayer  to  the  gods 
for  the  prosperity  of  the  empire.  I  was  especially  invited  to  attend, 
and  given  a  seat  of  honor.  Later,  in  answer  to  questions  about  great 
men,  I  took  occasion  to  explain  that  the  reverence  of  the  American 
people  for  Washington  was  for  his  pure  and  high  moral  character  as 
a  man,  and  not  as  a  military  hero.  He  was  not  as  Jimmu  (Spirit  of 
War).  Some  Japanese  imagine  that  the  Americans  worship  Wash- 
ington as  a  god.  This,  I  showed,  was  a  mistake.  Several  of  the  peo- 
ple here  have  his  picture  in  their  houses.* 

*  Three  separate  translations  of  Irving's"Life  of  Washington,"  one  a  scholar- 
ly production,  have  been  made  into  Japanese,  and  several  sketches  of  his  life. 


THE  LAST  TEAR  OF  FEUDALISM.  525 

Juhj  Gfh. — A  typhoon  (tai-fu)  of  frightful  violence  passed  over  the 
city  last  night.  In  the  morning,  the  destruction  of  fences,  roofs,  and 
houses  was  awful  to  behold.  My  gardens  of  American  flowers  and 
vegetables  are  ruined  by  the  sharp  shingles,  torn  and  hurled  from  the 
great  roof  by  hundreds,  as  though  by  a  tormentum  or  catapult.  I 
learn  that  hundreds  of  junks  have  been  wrecked,  and  lives  lost  along 
the  coast. 


Siuiim-ai,  iu  Kanii-shimo  Dress,  saluting. 

July  llih. — The  prince  returned  from  Tokio  to-day.  Evidently, 
something  more  is  in  the  political  wind.  The  faces  of  the  samurai 
and  officials  wjar  a  solemn  expression — "  sicklied  o'er  with  the  pale 
cast  of  thought."  What  can  it  be  ?  Some  coming  event  is  casting 
its  shadow  before. 

July  16th. — This  morning  I  met  a  Buddhist  priest  carrying  a  Yan- 
kee lamp  and  a  can  of  Pennsylvania  petroleum  to  the  monastery.  It 
seemed  a  symbol  of  more  light.  A  man  was  drowned  in  the  river 
to-day.     The  people  say  a  kappa  dragged  him  down. 

To-day  I  saw  a  snake-charmer  exhibit.  A  tortoise-tamer  made  his 
brood  perform  tricks :  stand  up  on  hind  legs,  march  in  various  direc- 
tions, advance,  retreat,  stop,  and  climb  over  each  other,  at  the  tap  of  a 
drum.  A  great  many  other  tricks,  such  as  breaking  a  cobble-stone 
with  the  fist,  walking  on  the  edge  of  a  sword  and  then  swallowing  it, 
feats  of  strength,  astonishing  poises,  jugglery,  etc.,  were  performed  at 
the  grand  fair  and  show  on  the  river  flats.  At  night,  the  gayly  illu- 
minated refreshment  booths  and  boats  made  the  strand  and  river  as 
lively  as  the  imagination  could  well  conceive.  At  the  matsuri  in  hon- 
or of  the  patron  deity  of  the  city,  the  procession  of  people  was  proba- 

34 


526  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

bly  four  or  five  miles  long.  All  the  singing-girls,  actors,  guilds,  trades, 
monasteries,  and  many  temples  were  represented.  Few  or  no  samurai 
were  in  the  procession.  Immense  images  of  idols  were  dragged  by 
the  crowds ;  and  the  historic  and  legendary  personages  and  tableaux 
were  largely  represented.  It  was  a  scene  of  wild  mirth,  drunkenness, 
and  paganism. 

July  18th. — The  thunder-bolt  has  fallen  !  The  political  earthquake 
has  shaken  Japan  to  its  centre.  Its  effects  are  very  visible  here  in 
Fukui.  Intense  excitement  reigns  in  the  homes  of  the  samurai  of  the 
city  to-day.  I  hear  that  some  of  them  are  threatening  to  kill  Mitsuo- 
ka,  who  receives  income  for  meritorious  services  in  1868,  and  who  has 
long  been  the  exponent  of  reform  and  of  national  progress  in  Fukui. 

At  ten  o'clock  this  morning,  a  messenger  from  Tokio  arrived  at  the 
han-cho.  Suddenly  there  was  a  commotion  in  the  school.  All  the 
native  teachers  and  officials  were  summoned  to  the  directors'  room. 
I  saw  them  a  few  minutes  afterward.  Pale  faces  and  excited  nerves 
were  in  the  majority.  The  manner  in  which  some  of  them  strode  to 
the  door,  thrust  their  swords  into  their  belts,  stepped  into  their  clogs, 
and  set  off  with  flowing  garments  and  silk  coat-tails  flapping  to  the 
leeward,  was  quite  theatrical,  and  just  like  the  pictures  in  Japanese 
books. 

An  imperial  proclamation  just  received  orders  that  the  hereditary 
incomes  of  the  samurai  be  reduced,  all  sinecure  offices  abolished,  and 
the  salaries  thereto  attached  turned  over  to  the  imperial  treasury. 
The  number  of  officials  is  to  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  minimum. 
The  property  of  the  han  is  to  become  that  of  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment. The  Fukui  han  is  to  be  converted  into  a  ken,  or  prefecture,  of 
the  Central  Government.  All  officials  are  to  be  appointed  direct  from 
Tokio. 

The  change  affects  me  for  the  better.  Hitherto  the  school  direct- 
orate consisted  of  fourteen  officers.  "With  too  many  sailors,  the 
boat  runs  up  a  hill."  There  are  now  only /owr.  An  official  from  the 
han-cho  waited  upon  me  to  announce  that  my  four  guards  and  eight 
gate-keepers  are  dismissed  from  office.  I  shall  henceforth  have  but 
two  gate-keepers.  The  local  officials  of  Fukui  are  to  be  reduced  from 
five  hundred  to  seventy.  The  incubus  of  yakuninerie  is  being  thrown 
off.  Japan's  greatest  curse  for  ages  has  been  an  excess  of  officials  and 
lazy  rice-eaters  who  do  not  work.  Sindbad  has  shaken  off  the  Old 
Man  of  the  Sea.     Hurra  for  the  New  Japan  ! 

July  \^th. — In  the  school  to-day,  the  absence  of  officials,  and  con- 


THE  LAST  YEAR  OF  FEUDALISM.  527 

sequently  of  fuss  and  interruption,  in  my  department  is  remarkable. 
The  directors'  room  is  vacant.  It  is  like  the  "  banquet-hall  deserted." 
In  the  ken-cho,  the  quorum  is  but  a  skeleton,  compared  with  the  fat 
body  of  the  day  before.  The  students  tell  me  that  some  of  the  old 
men  in  the  city  are  nearly  crazy  with  anxiety :  a  few  violent  fellows 
still  wish  to  assassinate  Mitsuoka  and  the  other  imperialists,  who  have 
been  working  to  bring  this  state  of  things  about.  The  respectable 
samurai,  however,  and  the  men  of  weight  and  influence,  almost  unani- 
mously approve  of  the  mikado's  order.  They  say  it  is  a  necessity, 
not  for  Fukui,  but  for  the  nation,  and  that  the  altered  national  condi- 
tion and  the  times  require  it.  Some  of  them  talk  exultingly  about  the 
future  of  Japan.  They  say,  "  Now  Japan  will  take  a  position  among 
the  nations  like  your  country  and  England." 

Juli/  25th. — This  afternoon,  one  of  the  ken  officials,  Mr.  Tsutsumi, 
w^ho  had  just  come  from  Tokio,  called  to  see  me.  He  spoke  so  clear- 
ly and  distinctly  that  I  understood  his  Japanese  without  calling  in  my 
interpreter.  He  bore  a  message  from  Mr.  Katsu  Awa.  An  American 
teacher  is  desired  for  the  school  at  Shidzuoka,  in  Suruga.  In  his  let- 
ter, Mr.  Katsu  said,  "  I  desire  a  professional  gentleman,  regularly  edu- 
cated, not  a  mechanic  or  clerk  who  has  taken  to  teaching  to  pick  up 
a  living ;  and,  if  possible,  a  graduate  of  the  same  school  as  yourself." 
Evidently,  Mr.  Katsu  understands  the  difference  between  a  teacher  and 
a  "  teacher." 

I  immediately  wrote  to  my  former  classmate  and  fellow-traveler  in 
Europe,  Edward  Warren  Clark,  A.M.,  offering  him  the  position.* 

August  10th. — The  prince  (having  returned  from  Tokio),  his  cham- 
berlain, and  one  karo  dined  with  me  to-day.  In  the  morning,  two  of 
his  pages,  accompanied  by  servants,  came  to  my  house,  bringing  pres- 
ents. They  consisted  of  the  products  of  Echizen,  rolls  of  fine  paper, 
muslin,  and  silk,  a  box  of  eggs  and  one  of  sponge-cake,  an  inlaid 
cake-box  lacquered  in  several  colors,  a  case  of  three  rare  painted  fans, 
all  tied  in  silk  napkins  with  red-and-white  cord.  The  prince  had  also 
brought  for  me  from  Iwakura  Tomomi,  now  U  Dai  Jin  (junior  prime 
minister),  an  exquisitely  beautiful  gold-lacquered  cabinet,  adorned  with 
sparrows  and  bamboo,  cherry-blossoms,  and  variegated  feathers.  In 
one  of  the  drawers  were  a  number  of  perfumed  fans  of  elegant  man- 
ufacture.    A  letter  from  Mr.  Iwakura  accompanied  the  gift,  begging 

*  Mr.  Clark  accepted,  arriving  in  Shidzuoka  in  November,  and  for  over  three 
years  was  an  earnest  and  faithful  teacher.  He  was  in  Shidzuoka  two  years,  aud 
in  Tokio,  in  the  Imperial  College,  one  year. 


528  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

my  acceptance  as  a  token  of  his  regard  for  my  care  and  instruction  of 
his  sons  while  in  the  United  States. 

The  prince  laid  aside  his  icy  dignity  as  the  dinner  proceeded,  after 
which  conversation  was  prolonged  for  an  hour  or  two,  the  guests  pro- 
ducing their  pipes,  filling  and  emptying  a  great  many  of  the  tiny  sil- 
ver bowls.  On  the  prince  rising  to  depart,  his  ministers  fell  down  on 
hands  and  knees  until  Matsudaira  had  reached  the  door,  where  his 
sandal  and  lantern  bearers  were  awaiting  his  appearance.  Then  the 
officers  rose  and  accompanied  him  to  his  noi-imono.  One  of  the  forty- 
five  million  princes  of  the  United  States,  standing  erect,  shook  hands 
with  the  nobleman,  bid  him  good-bye,  and  invited  him  to  come  again. 
In  accordance  with  native  etiquette,  the  guests  send  some  trifling 
token  of  acknowledgment  the  day  after  an  entertainment  —  eggs, 
sponge-cake,  a  fish,  or  other  gift — as  a  sort  of  "return  call."  On 
meeting,  the  favored  one  salutes  his  late  host,  saying,  '"''Sendatte  ariga- 
to  "  ("  Thank  you  for  your  kindness  received  a  few  days  ago  "). 

August  15th. — The  thermometer  has  ranged  from  95°  to  99°  at 
3  P.M.  during  several  days  of  last  week.  All  Fukui  goes  to  sleep  in 
the  middle  of  the  day.  I  occasionally  walk  out  in  the  early  after- 
noon, seeing  scores  of  houses  and  shops  open,  but  perfectly  quiet, 
their  inmates,  often  rotund  sylphs,  as  in  Hokusai's  sketch,  being  stretch- 


The  Siesta. 

ed  on  the  floor  asleep,  not  always  in  the  most  graceful  position. 
There  are  very  few  flies  to  trouble  them.  Japan  seems  to  be  singu- 
larly free  from  these  pests.  At  night,  mosquitoes  are  numerous,  hun- 
gry, and  of  good  size.  The  people  are  well  provided  with  mosquito- 
nets,  which  are  large,  like  the  room  itself,  and  made  to  fit  it.  I  find 
that  the  leap-year  hint  of  a  Japanese  widow  to  a  favored  suitor  which 
makes  him  happy  is,  that  "  her  mosquito-net  is  too  large."  The  poor 
folks  smoke  the  pests  out.  It  is  curious  that  the  Japanese  word  for 
mosquito  {ka)  and  an  interrogation-point  (ka)  is  the  same. 

At  night  the  common  people  assemble  in  rings  of  from  a  score  to 


THE  LAST   YEAR   OF  FEUDALISM.  529 

a  hundred,  and  dance  in  slow  measure,  clapping  hands  and  singing. 
The  young  folks  especially,  of  both  sexes,  like  this  fun. 

A  Japanese  city  during  hot  weather  affords  excellent  opportunities 
for  the  study  of  breathing  statuary.  The  laborers  often  strip  to  the 
loin-cloth,  the  women  to  the  waist.  Even  the  young  girls  and  maid- 
ens just  rounding  into  perfection  of  form  often  sit  half  nude ;  think- 
ing it  no  desecration  to  expose  the  body  from  the  waist  up.  They 
seem  to  be  utterly  unaware  of  any  impropriety.  Certainly  they  are 
innocent  in  their  own  eyes.  Is  the  Japanese  virgin  "  an  Eve  before 
the  fall  ?" 

Among  the  games  played  in  public  is  dakiu  (polo),  which  is  very 
ancient  in  Japan.  An  immense  crowd  of  spectators,  prince,  princess, 
lords  and  ladies,  gentlemen,  people,  priests  and  students,  gathered  in- 
side the  riding  course  to  see  the  game  of  "  dakiu  "  played.  I  had  one 
of  the  best  seats  given  me  in  the  pavilion  occupied  by  the  daimi5 
and  his  gentlemen  in  waiting.  Every  body  was  dressed  handsomely, 
the  weather  perfect,  the  scene  animating.  Judges  and  scorers  were  in 
ceremonial  dress. 

At  the  signal,  given  by  a  tap  of  a  bell,  twelve  players  mounted. 
At  the  next,  they  rode  into  the  lists,  saluted  the  prince  and  judges, 
and  proceeded  to  the  end  of  the  course,  ranging  themselves  in  Indian 
file,  with  their  horses'  heads  to  the  wickets,  which  were  two  bamboo 
holes  with  a  cord  across  them,  about  ten  feet  from  the  ground. 

The  rival  parties,  six  players  in  each,  called  themselves  the  Genji 
and  the  Heike.  The  Genji  wore  white,  the  Heike  red  hats,  accord- 
ing to  the  colors  of  the  ancient  flags.  Each  player  had  a  long  bam- 
boo stick  ("  spoon  ")  like  a  shepherd's  crook,  with  net-work  of  cord. 
On  the  ground,  in  two  rows  at  the  side,  and  extending  in  front  of  the 
riders,  were  seventy -two  red  and  white  balls.  The  whites  were  to 
throw  the  red  balls  over  and  through  the  wicket,  the  reds  to  throw  the 
whites.  Balls  going  over  the  lists  outside  the  wickets  were  tossed 
back  again.  Each  party  was  to  oppose  the  other.  The  red  flag 
waved  on  the  right  wicket-pole,  the  white  on  the  left. 

At  the  signal,  given  by  a  wave  of  the  judge's  fan,  both  parties  rode 
nimbly  up  the  lists,  picking  up  the  balls,  and  flinging  them  over  the 
wickets,  if  they  could.  The  leaders  having  reached  the  wickets,  and 
a  number  of  balls  having  been  thrown  over,  and  others  scattered  over 
the  field,  turned  back  to  oppose  each  other,  and  then  the  game  grew 
intensely  exciting.  It  was  shinny  on  horseback.  Skillful  handling  of 
the  horse,  as  well  as  of  the  crook,  was  necessary.     Three  riders  were 


530 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


dismounted.     Occasionally 
1  J^  a  man  was  hurt.     The  col- 

^  ^^^^M    '  W    lision  of   excited   animals 

m^  j^^^^^WVr  _c;-^P      against  each  other  was  fre- 

%  j^^^^^^^         ='9       quent.   The  balls  flew  back- 

ward and  forward,  up  and 
down.  Finally,  there  was 
but  one  ball  left.  Twelve 
men  and  horses  contested 
for  it.  The  Heike  won  the 
first  game,  having  thrown 
all  the  thirty-six  white  balls 
over  their  wicket,  while 
the  Genji  had  three  red 
balls  left  on  the  ground. 
Three  games  were  played, 
the  Genji  winning  two. 
The  prizes,  awarded  by  the 
prince,  were  a  roll  of  silk, 
a  helmet,  a  porcelain  vase, 
and  autograph  scrolls. 

August  28 tk. — I  have 
returned  from  a  trip  to 
Hakuzan  (Shiro  yama. 
White  Mountain)  and 
Kaga.  Emori  and  Iwa- 
buchi  accompanied  me.  I 
spent  eight  days  among 
the  mountains,  being  the 
first  foreigner  who  has  ever 
ascended  Hakuzan.  It  is 
nine  thousand  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty  feet  high 
by  imperfect  method  of 
measurement,  with  only  a 
thermometer.  At  any  rate, 
the  surmise  of  Humboldt, 
and  even  the  Japanese  of 
this  coast,  that  Hakuzan  is  higher  than  Fuji,  is  disposed  of.  At  the 
top  was  a  Buddhist  shrine,  strongly  built  and  handsomely  furnished. 


THE  LAST  YEAR   OF  FEUDALISM. 


531 


I  spent  the  night  in  a  hut  near  the  summit,  in  which  some  forty 
pilgrims  slept  besides  my  two  servants.  The  scenery  from  the  edge 
of  the  extinct  crater,  which  was  full  of  snow  and  water,  was  grand ; 
but  the  mountain  torrents,  water -falls,  and  vistas  lower  down  afford- 
ed the  greatest  pleasure.  I  passed  villages  full  of  girls  reeling  silk. 
The  crops  of  tobacco,  indigo,  hemp,  rice,  etc.,  promise  to  be  lux- 
uriant. In  the  towns  dense  crowds  lined  the  streets  to  see  the 
foreigner.  At  the  hotels  the  dainty  Eniori,  in  settling  bills,  never 
handles  money,  but  folds  the  sum  neatly  in  white  paper,  and  ties 
it  with  the  ceremonial  red-and-white  cord,  and  lays  it  on  a  tray,  de- 
parting with  many  bows.     I  noticed  many  ja-kago  ("  snake-baskets  "), 


Rope-dikes,  or  "  Suake-baskets." 

or  ropes  of  stones,  used  as  piers  and  jetties  to  preserve  river -banks 
from  being  washed  away  by  flood  or  current.  They  are  of  split  bam- 
boo, plaited  in  cylindrical  nets,  from  ten  to  one  hundred  feet  long,  the 
meshes  being  just  the  size  to  retain  large  pebbles.  They  are  cheap, 
durable,  and  efficient.  In  some  parts  of  Japan,  notably  along  the  To- 
kaido,  there  are  miles  of  embankments  formed  by  them. 

At  Daishoji  a  number  of  exiled  "  Christians  "  from  Urakami,  near 
Nagasaki,  are  confined.  I  was  not  allowed  to  see  them.  At  the  sul- 
phur baths  of  Yamanaka,  a  noted  watering-place,  were  a  number  of  no- 
blemen with  their  families.  I  also  visited  Sabae,  Katsuyama,  Ono,  Ma- 
ruoka,  all  large  towns,  in  Echizen.  At  Sabae  we  were  entertained  in 
splendid  style  at  the  temple  hostelry.  The  entire  country  is  very  rich 
in  historical,  legendary,  mythic,  and  holy  associations,  and  my  enjoy- 


532 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


ment  was  intense  throughout.  The  Daimio  of  Maruoka  is  a  descend 
ant  of  the  Daimio  of  Hizen,  friend  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  sixteenth  cent- 
ury. 

September  dOth. — My  new  "foreign"  house  was  finished  some  days 
ago.  It  was  first  visited  by  the  prince  and  his  officers,  who  enjoyed  a 
hmcheon,  a  social  smoke,  and  a  view  of  the  mountains  from  the  veran- 
da.    They  wished  to  study  a  foreign  house  at  leisure.     The  scenery 


My  House  iu  Fukui. 

of  the  river,  up  the  valley — the  mountains  to  the  west  and  south,  snow- 
clad  Hakuzan  to  the  north,  the  city  and  castle,  towers,  moats,  and  walls 
— is  very  fine.  Then,  for  three  days,  by  official  permission,  the  house 
was  thrown  open  to  public  inspection.  People  from  the  city  and 
country  folks  from  afar  flocked  in  crowds  to  see  how  mankind  in 


THE  LAST   YEAR  OF  FEUDALISM.  533 

"civilized  countries"  live.  The  refreshment -venders,  the  men  who 
checked  clogs,  sandals,  and  umbrellas,  did  a  thriving  business.  Proba- 
bly twenty  thousand  people  have  inspected  my  new  house. 

After  the  last  naruhodo  (Well,  I  never !  Is  it  possible  !)  was  ejacu- 
lated, I  took  possession.  The  materials  of  seasoned  wood,  stone  chim- 
neys, tiled  roof,  wall-paper,  etc.,  are  of  the  best.  American  hardware, 
grates,  mantel-pieces,  glass  windows,  wardrobes,  etc.,  make  a  cozy  and 
comfortable  dwelling  for  the  inmate,  as  well  as  a  standing  educator  of 
the  native  public*  Extension  -  table,  chairs,  book  -  cases,  and  other 
furniture  were  constructed  by  cabinet-makers  in  Fukui,  of  sound  old 
w^ood,  chiefly  keyaki.  An  exact  reproduction  of  the  writing-desk  of 
Charles  Dickens  left  with  "  the  empty  chair  "  at  Gadshill,  made  after  a 
picture  in  The  London  Illustrated  JVeivs,  came  from  the  same  skillful 
hands,  and  now  adorns  my  study. 

To-morrow  Fukui  bids  farewell  to  feudalism.  On  the  next  day  we 
shall  be  in  a  province  without  a  prince.  The  era  of  loyalty  is  passed. 
The  era  of  patriotism  has  come.  To-day  the  prince  sent  me  a  note 
of  farewell,  accompanied  by  a  present  of  choice  viands  in  a  picnic  box, 
gold-lacquered  in  shell-fish  designs,  which  he  begged  me  to  accept  as  a 
parting  token  of  regard.  He  also  requested  my  presence  in  the  main 
hall  of  the  castle,  at  the  valedictory  ceremonies  prior  to  his  departure 
to  Tokio,  where  he  is  to  retire  to  private  life.  This  evening  his  six 
ministers  dined  with  me,  the  prince  being  absent  on  account  of  a 
death  in  his  household. 

October  1st. — From  an  early  hour  this  morning,  the  samurai  in  kami- 


*  It  was  originally  intended  to  build  four  houses — one  for  the  physician,  one 
for  the  English  teacher,  one  for  the  military  instructor,  and  one  for  myself.  The 
abolition  of  feudalism  and  the  centralization  of  the  government  changed  the  en- 
tire scheme.  Mr.  Alfred  Lucy,  an  English  gentleman,  who  had  been  my  co-labor- 
er for  about  two  months,  left  Fukui  in  June,  and  went  to  Awomori,  in  Kikuoku, 
to  introduce  English  methods  of  agriculture  and  stock-raising.  The  physician 
never  reached  our  feudal  capital.  Lieutenant  Brinckley,  of  the  Tenth  English 
Kegiment,  was  retained  in  Tokio  by  the  Imperial  Government.  What  was  loss  to 
Fukui  became  immense  gain  to  all  Japanese  and  English-speaking  people  who 
wish  to  study  the  language  of  the  other.  The  Go-Gaku  HitoH  Antiai,  three  vol- 
umes, one  thousand  pages,  or  "Guide  to  Self-instruction  in  the  Language,"  by 
Mr.  Brinckley,  English  officer  of  artillery,  printed  by  the  Insho  Kiyoku,  1875,  is, 
I  believe,  the  first  original  work  written  in  the  Japanese  language  by  a  foreigner. 
It  is  a  masterpiece  of  scholarship.  There  are  many  idioms  in  its  copious  lists  of 
which  Mr.  Brinckley  may  be  called  the  discovei'cr.  Its  issue  marks  a  new  era  of 
the  knowledge  of  English  in  Japan,  and  of  Japanese  by  foreigners.  After  I  left 
Fukui,  Mr.  E.  Mudgett,  of  Napa,  California,  and  Mr.  M.  N.  Wyckoff,  A.M.,  a  grad- 
uate of  Rutgers  College,  continued  the  instruction  in  English  and  the  sciences. 


534  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

shimo  (ceremonial  dress)  have  been  preparing  for  the  farewell,  and 
have  been  assembling  in  the  castle.  I,  went  over  to  the  main  hall  at 
nine  o'clock.  I  shall  never  forget  the  impressive  scene.  All  the  slid- 
ing paper  partitions  separating  the  rooms  were  removed,  making  one 
vast  area  of  matting.  Arranged  in  the  order  of  their  rank,  each  in 
his  starched  robes  of  ceremony,  with  shaven-crown,  and  gun-hammer 
top-knot,  with  hands  clasped  on  the  hilt  of  his  sword  resting  upright 
before  him  as  he  sat  on  his  knees,  were  the  three  thousand  samurai 
of  the  Fukui  clan.  Those  bowed  heads  were  busy  with  the  thought 
born  of  the  significance  of  the  scene.  It  was  more  than  a  farewell  to 
their  feudal  lord.  It  was  the  solemn  burial  of  the  institutions  under 
which  their  fathers  had  lived  for  seven  hundred  years.  Each  face 
seemed  to  wear  a  far-away  expression,  as  if  their  eyes  were  looking 
into  the  past,  or  striving  to  probe  an  uncertain  future. 

I  fancied  I  read  their  thoughts.  The  sword  is  the  soul  of  the  samu- 
rai, the  samurai  the  soul  of  Japan.  Is  the  one  to  be  ungirt  from  its 
place  of  honor,  to  be  thrown  aside  as  a  useless  tool,  to  make  way  for 
the  ink-pot  and  the  ledger  of  the  merchant?  Is  the  samurai  to  be- 
oome  less  than  the  trader  ?  Is  honor  to  be  reckoned  less  than  money  ? 
Is  the  spirit  of  Japan  to  be  abased  to  the  level  of  the  sordid  foreign- 
ers who  are  draining  the  wealth  of  Japan  ?  Our  children,  too,  what  is 
to  become  of  them  ?  Must  they  labor  and  toil,  and  earn  their  own 
bread?  What  are  we  to  do  when  our  hereditary  pensions  are  stop- 
ped, or  cut  down  to  a  beggar's  pittance?  Must  we,  whose  fathers 
were  glorious  knights  and  warriors,  and  whose  blood  and  spirit  we 
inherit,  be  mingled  hopelessly  in  the  common  herd?  Must  we,  who 
would  starve  in  honorable  poverty  rather  than  marry  one  of  our 
daughters  to  a  trader,  now  defile  our  family  line  to  save  our  lives  and 
fill  our  stomachs  ?     What  is  the  future  to  bring  us  ? 

These  seemed  to  be  the  thoughts  that  shadowed  that  sea  of  dark 
faces  of  waiting  vassals.  One  could  have  heard  a  pin  drop  after  the 
hush  that  announced  the  coming  of  the  daimio. 

Matsudaira  Mochiake,  late  Lord  of  Echizen,  and  feudal  head  of  the 
Fukui  clan,  who  was  to-morrow  to  be  a  private  nobleman,  now  ad- 
vanced down  the  wide  corridor  to  the  main  hall.  He  was  a  stern- 
visaged  man  of  perhaps  thirty-five  years  of  age.  He  was  dressed  in 
purple  satin  hakaraa,  with  inner  robe  of  white  satin,  and  outer  coat  of 
silk  crape  of  a  dark  slate  hue,  embroidered  on  sleeve,  back,  and  breast 
with  the  Tokugawa  crest.  In  his  girdle  was  thrust  the  usual  side- 
arm,  a  wakizashi,  or  dirk,  the  hilt  of  which  was  a  carved  and  frosted 


THE  LAST   YEAR   OF  FEUDALISM.  535 

mass  of  solid  gold.  His  feet,  cased  in  white  socks,  moved  noiselessly 
over  the  matting.  As  he  passed,  every  head  was  bowed,  every  sword 
laid  prone  to  the  right,  and  Matsiidaira,  with  deep  but  unexpressed 
emotion,  advanced  amidst  the  ranks  of  his  followers  to  the  centre  of 
the  main  hall.  There,  in  a  brief  and  noble  address,  read  by  his  chief 
minister,  the  history  of  the  clan  and  of  their  relations  as  lord  and  vas- 
sals, the  causes  which  had  led  to  the  revolution  of  1868,  the  results  of 
which  had  restored  the  imperial  house  to  power,  and  the  mikado's  rea- 
sons for  ordering  the  territorial  princes  to  restore  their  fiefs,  were 
tersely  and  eloquently  recounted.  In  conclusion,  he  adjured  all  his 
followers  to  transfer  their  allegiance  wholly  to  the  mikado  and  the 
imperial  house.  Then,  wishing  them  all  success  and  prosperity  in 
their  new  relations,  and  in  their  persons,  their  families,  and  their  es- 
tates, in  chaste  and  fitting  language  he  bid  his  followers  solemn  fare- 
well. 

On  behalf  of  the  samurai,  one  of  their  number  then  read  an  ad- 
dress, expressive  of  their  feelings,  containing  kindly  references  to  the 
prince  as  their  former  lord,  and  declaring  their  purpose  henceforth  to 
be  faithful  subjects  of  the  mikado  and  the  imperial  house. 

This  terminated  the  ceremony.  The  ex-daimio  and  his  ministers 
then  left  the  castle  hall,  and  he  proceeded  to  the  residence  of  the 
American  instructor.  I  met  and  welcomed  him,  and  he  sat  down  for 
a  few  minutes.  He  thanked  me  cordially  for  my  efforts  to  instruct 
the  young  men  of  Fukui,  and  invited  me  to  visit  him  in  Tokio.  In  re- 
turn, I  expressed  my  indebtedness  for  his  many  kindnesses  to  me,  and 
then,  after  the  manner  of  American  politeness  and  Japanese  courtesy, 
we  exchanged  farewells. 

October  2d. — The  whole  city  seems  to  be  astir  to-day.  The  streets 
are  crow^ded  with  citizens  in  their  best  clothes,  and  thousands  are  in 
from  the  country.  They  have  come  to  see  their  prince  for  the  last 
time.  It  is  a  farewell  gathering.  Many  hundreds  of  old  men,  wom- 
en, and  children  are  weeping.  A  regiment  of  one  thousand  men  es- 
cort him  to  Takefu,  twelve  miles  off.  A  few  faithful  retainers,  his 
physician  Hashimoto,  and  his  body-servants  accompany  him  to  To- 
kio. A  similar  scene  to  that  of  to-day  has  probably  been  witnessed 
in  many  castled  cities  in  Japan  during  this  month.* 


*  In  a  few  bans  the  people  rebelled  against  the  orders  of  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment, refusing  to  let  their  prince  depart;  but  in  general  every  farewell  and  de- 
parture was  sad,  quiet,  and  decorous. 


636  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

December  Ist. — Great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  city  since 
the  departure  of  the  prince,  and  the  change  of  the  ha7i  (feudal  tenure) 
into  ken  (prefecture  of  the  Imperial  Government).  Most  of  the  high 
officers  have  been  called  by  the  Imperial  Government  to  Tokio.  Mit 
suoka  is  now  mayor  of  Tokio.  Ogasawara,  Tsutsumi,  and  several  oth- 
ers have  been  made  officials  of  other  ken.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment to  send  the  men  of  one  ken  to  act  as  officers  in  another,  and 
thus  break  up  local  prejudices.  It  is  a  grand  idea.  Sasaki  Gonroku 
has  been  called  to  a  position  in  the  Department  of  Public  Works. 
Many  of  the  best  teachers  in  the  school  have  been  given  official  places 
in  the  capital.  My  best  friends  and  helpers  have  left  Fukui ;  and  now 
my  advanced  students,  their  support  at  home  being  no  longer  suffi- 
cient, are  leaving  to  seek  their  fortune  in  Yokohama  or  Tokio.  My 
classes  are  being  depleted.  Fukui  is  no  longer  the  capital  of  a  prince. 
It  is  simply  an  inland  city.  I  can  not  blame  the  young  men  for  wish- 
ing to  see  the  new  life  and  civilization  of  the  nation  at  the  ports  and 
capital,  but  my  loneliness  and  sense  of  exile  increase  daily.  Since  the 
summer — so  I  am  told — over  seven  hundred  families  have  left  Fukui. 
Tokio  is  making  up  in  population  the  loss  of  Yedo  in  1862,  when  the 
daimios  withdrew.  I  have  not  over  half  of  my  best  students  left. 
The  military  school  has  been  disbanded,  and  the  gunpowder  works 
and  the  rifle  factory  removed.  Three  companies  of  imperial  troops, 
in  uniform  of  French  style,  with  the  mikado's  crest  on  their  caps,  and 
the  national  flag  (a  red  sun  in  a  white  field)  as  their  standard,  now 
occupy  the  city  barracks.  The  old  local  and  feudal  privileges  are  be- 
ing abolished.  Taxes  are  being  made  uniform  all  over  the  country. 
The  Buddhist  theological  school  has  been  broken  up  by  orders  from 
Tokio.  Shinto  lecturers  are  endeavoring  to  convert  the  people  to  the 
old  faith.  All  the  Shinto  temples  which  have  been  in  any  way  influ- 
enced by  Buddhism  are  being  more  vigorously  purged  and  restored  in 
pure  Shinto  style.  The  outer  wall  of  the  castle  has  been  leveled,  and 
the  moat  filled  up.  The  gates  have  been  sold  for  their  stone,  wood, 
and  copper.  Many  old  yashikis  of  ancient  and  once  wealthy  families 
have  been  torn  down  and  converted  into  shops.  The  towns-people  and 
shop-keepers  are  jubilant  at  getting  a  foot-hold  on  the  sites  hitherto 
reserved  to  samurai.  Old  armor,  arrows,  spears,  flags,  saddlery,  dresses, 
norimonos,  and  all  the  paraphernalia  of  the  old  feudal  days  can  now 
be  bought  dirt  cheap.  The  prince's  mansion  has  been  demolished, 
and  every  thing  left  in  it  sold.  I  got  from  it  a  pair  of  bronze  stir- 
rups and  a  marble  model  of  Fuji.     All  the  horses  in  the  stables  of  the 


THE  LAST   YEAR   OF  FEUDALISM. 


537 


clan  have  been  disposed  of  at  auction.  Every  tiling  pertaining  to  feu- 
dal Fukui  is  passing  away.  Japan  is  becoming  unified.  Nevertheless, 
it  causes  some  local  suffering,  and  the  poverty  of  many  families,  once 
in  comfort,  is  increasing. 

December  loth. — The  wild  ducks  and  geese  have  come  back  from 
Yezo,  and  are  thick  in  the  fields.  Great  numbers  of  them  are  capt- 
ured by  the  samurai,  who  go  out 
at  early  morning  and  at  sunset,  on 
the  hills  around  the  city,  armed 
with  a  huge  triangular  net,  set  in 
a  bamboo  frame  and  pole.  A 
dexterous  hunter  can  throw  this 
up  twenty  feet  in  the  air.  Thus 
outspread,  the  fiying  birds  are  en- 
tangled. This  is  called  sakadori 
(hunting  on  the  heights).  Some 
men  can  take  two  ducks  at  once, 
or  snare  a  fat  goose  at  a  throw,  but  many  fail  or  wait  in  vain.  The 
eligible  places  of  vantage  are  bought  for  a  trifling  tax  from  the  ken. 
To  w-ard  off  the  damp,  the  fowlers  dress  in  grass  coat  and  wide  rush 
hat.  Every  morning  I  see  them  coming  over  the  bridge.  With  pole, 
tunic,  and  hat  slung  on  back  like  shields,  they  appear  as  old  warriors 
in  battle  array.  It  is  said  that  on  certain  nights  the  headless  ghosts 
of  Shibata  and  his  warriors  ride  on  horseback  over  this  bridge  into  his 
old  castle  grounds.  The  country  people  imagine  they  can  hear  the  clat- 
ter of  hoofs,  and  see  this  troop  of  headless  horsemen,  on  certain  still 
nights ;  but,  although  I  have  lived  seven  months  on  the  site  of  his  old 
castle  in  which  he  died,  I  never  beheld  the  old  hero's  shade ;  nor  have 
I  been  tempted  to  scare  any  native  Ichabod  Crane  by  playing  Brom 
Bones,  though  pumpkins  are  plentiful  here. 

December  2oth. —  Yesterday  a  party  of  students  cut  down  young 
pines,  hemlock  boughs,  cryptomeria,  arbor -vitae,  and  other  greenery, 
and  decked  my  house,  in  and  out,  in  Christmas  garb.  The  large  steel 
plate  of  "  American  Authors  "  received  especial  honor.  My  cook  and 
his  family  and  the  students  last  night  hung  up  their  tabi  (mitten- 
socks,  or  "  foot  -  gloves  "),  in  lieu  of  stockings.  This  morning  they 
found  them  overflowing  with  American  good  things,  both  sweet  to 
the  palate  and  useful  to  the  hand.  Santa  Claus  did  not  even  forget 
the  tiny  white  socks  of  little  Chenkey,  who  is  alternately  dumfounded 
and  uproariously  merry. 


538  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Officers,  citizens,  and  students  visited  me  during  the  day,  in  accord- 
ance with  my  invitation.  I  kept  open  house  for  all,  and  told  them  of 
Christ's  birth,  life,  work,  and  death.  Many  had  never  heard  of  Christ 
except  as  part  of  the  Jashumon  (corrupt  sect),  on  the  kosatsu,  which 
hang  near  the  main  gate  of  the  city.  One  bright  boy,  after  peering 
around  the  house,  vainly  seeking  something,  finally  whispered  in  my 
ear,  "  Where  is  your  god-house  ?" 

January  Ith,  1872. — The  city  to-day  swarms  with  country  people. 
An  immense  festival  in  honor  of  Shinran  is  being  held.  The  streets 
are  crowded,  and  the  shops  in  full  blast.  The  Shin  temples  are  pack- 
ed with  people.  Even  the  porch  and  steps  and  temple  yards  are  full 
of  pious  folk.  In  the  large  kitchens  attached  to  the  temple  are  a 
number  of  iron  boilers,  each  containing  several  bushels  of  rice.  Vege- 
tables are  being  cooked  in  other  pots,  and  many  hundreds  of  hungry 
folks  are  eating  in  the  refectory,  some  bringing  their  own  food.  The 
priests  very  politely  took  me  through  the  rear  part  of  the  temple,  be- 
yond the  splendid  altar,  where  I  could  see  the  vast  crowd,  and  through 
the  quarters  occupied  by  the  resident  bonzes.  The  sight  of  so  many 
thousand  faces  of  people  with  hands  clasped  in  prayer,  with  their 
rosaries,  murmuring  their  petitions  ("  Namu  Amida  Butsu ")  in  the 
great  hall ;  then  of  the  hundreds  of  hungry  people  feeding ;  children 
and  families  resting — many  of  them  had  walked  from  ten  to  twenty 
miles ;  the  cooks  in  the  fire-light,  begrimed  with  the  smoke  and  sweat 
of  the  kitchen ;  the  waiters  hurrying  to  and  fro ;  the  receiving  and 
counting  of  money,  made  a  picture  of  Buddhism  in  its  popular  phases 
I  can  never  forget. 

January  10th. — Some  months  ago  I  addressed  a  communication  to 
the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  Tokio,  urging  the  establishment 
of  a  polytechnic  school,  giving  plans  and  a  few  details.  Evidently 
such  an  enterprise  has  already  been  determined  upon.  To-day  I  re- 
ceived a  letter  from  the  Mayor  of  Tokio,  intimating  that  I  was  to  be 
invited  to  the  capital  to  fill  a  position  in  such  a  school.  Another  let- 
ter, by  the  same  mail,  from  the  Minister  of  Education,  through  the 
foreign  superintendent  of  the  Imperial  College,  invited  me  to  fill  one 
of  the  professorships  in  the  poilytechnic  school  (Shem  Mon  Gakko) 
about  to  be  formed.     An  immediate  answer  is  expected. 

January  11th. — I  was  called  to  the  ken-cho  to-day,  the  sanji  ex- 
pressing their  urgent  wish  that  I  should  remain  in  Fukui,  stating  also 
that  the  citizens  of  Fukui,  anticipating  the  invitation  from  Tokio,  had 
petitioned  the  ken-cho  oflacials  to  keep  the  American  teacher  in  Fukui, 


THE  LAST  YEAR  OF  FEUDALISM.  539 

if  possible.  Having,  liowever,  lost  most  of  my  best  friends  and  ad- 
vanced students  from  the  city,  and  the  loneliness  having  become  al- 
most intolerable,  I  have  resolved  to  go  to  Tokio.  For  over  six  months 
I  have  not  seen  one  of  my  own  race.  The  tax  on  the  nervous  system 
of  being  isolated,  looked  at  as  a  stranger  and  a  curiosity,  made  the 
target  of  so  many  eyes,  and  the  constant  friction  and  chafing  of  one 
Caucasian  against  a  multitude  of  sharp  angles  of  an  Asiatic  civilization, 
as  represented  by  servants,  petty  officials,  and  ignorant  people;  and 
the  more  delicate  work  of  polite  fencing  with  intellectual  rapiers 
against  cultured  men  educated  under  other  systems  of  morals  and 
ideas ;  the  ruin  of  temper  and  principle  which  such  a  lonely  life 
threatens,  are  more  than  I  wish  to  attempt  to  bear,  when  duty  as  well 
as  pleasure  seems  to  invite  me  to  the  capital. 

From  the  people,  officers,  and  students  I  have  received  kindness 
and  attentions  both  unexpected  and  undeserved.  I  find  in  them  most 
of  the  tenderest  feelings  that  soften  and  adorn  human  nature.  Con- 
fidence, sympathy,  respect,  even  affection  from  my  students,  have  been 
lavishly  bestowed.  I  have  never  had  a  quarrel  with  any  one,  nor  have 
I  been  injured  or  insulted  in  any  way. 

January  2\st. — From  morning  till  night  my  house  was  thronged 
with  people  in  the  city — students,  oflScials,  mothers,  fathers,  and  chil- 
dren, relatives  of  the  students — who  came  to  bid  me  good-bye.  Ev- 
ery one  of  them,  according  to  custom,  brought  a  present,  sometimes 
handsome  and  costly.  In  return,  each  received  a  trifle  or  refreshments, 
of  which  the  solid  remnants  were  wrapped  in  white  paper,  put  into 
the  sleeve,  and  carried  away,  as  is  the  habit.  "  Leavings  are  lucky," 
saith  the  Japanese  proverb. 

During  my  life  in  a  feudal  city  in  Japan  far  away  from  foreigners,  - 
I  have  seen  the  Japanese  at  home.  It  has  sometimes  seemed  to  me, 
in  my  walks  through  the  old  castle,  or  along  the  moats,  or  upon  the 
ramparts,  in  the  cemeteries,  in  the  houses  of  the  people,  on  the  mount- 
ains, in  my  rides  through  the  villages,  that  I  was  in  fairy-land  or  in  a 
dream.  Yet  these  people  are  just  like  ourselves,  their  hearts  the  same 
as  ours.  Their  emotions  and  traits,  both  noble  and  despicable,  are  twin 
to  those  which  belong  to  mankind  between  the  Alleghanies  and  the 
Atlantic.  This  is  a  trite  truism.  Yet  in  its  truth  consists  its  novelty. 
When  men  of  differing  climes  and  nations  see  behind  each  other's 
mail  of  codes,  manners,  education,  and  systems  their  common  human- 
ity, the  hope  of  their  dwelling  in  peace  as  children  of  one  Father  is 
no  longer  a  chimera. 


540  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRK 

Fukui  and  Echizen  must  decrease  that  Dai  Nippon  may  increase. 
People  complain  that  the  empire  is  becoming  too  much  centralized. 
The  capital  and  ports  are  absorbing  the  strength  of  the  whole  coun- 
try. It  is  best.  Only  by  centralization  at  this  time  can  true  nation- 
ality be  attained.  Make  the  heart  strong,  and  the  blood  will  flow  to 
all  the  extremities. 

Japan's  record  of  progress  for  1871  is  noble.  The  mikado's  gov- 
ernment is  no  longer  an  uncertainty.  A  national  army  has  been 
formed ;  plots  and  insurrections  have  been  crushed  ;  the  press  has  be- 
come one  of  the  motors  of  civilization ;  already  several  newspapers 
are  established  in  the  capital.  The  old  local  forms  of  authority  are 
merged  into  the  national,  and  taxes  and  government  are  equalized 
throughout  the  country.  Feudalism  is  dead.  An  embassy  has  been 
sent  to  Europe,  not  composed  of  catspaw  officials  of  low  rank  to  rep- 
resent the  "  tycoon,"  but  nobles  and  cabinet  ministers  of  the  mikado's 
empire,  to  plead  for  Japan  and  the  true  sovereign.  The  mikado,  cast- 
ing away  old  traditions,  now  appears  among  his  people,  requiring  no 
humiliating  obeisance.  Marriage  among  all  classes  is  now  permitted, 
and  caste  is  to  disappear.  The  eta  and  Mnin  are  now  citizens,  pro- 
tected by  law.  The  swords  of  the  samurai  are  laid  aside.  The  peace 
and  order  throughout  the  country  appear  wonderful.  Progress  is  ev- 
erywhere the  watchword.     Is  not  this  the  finger  of  God  ? 

Midnight. — It  has  been  snowing  steadily  for  seven  days.  All  the 
objects  five  or  six  feet  high  are  covered  up.  The  landscape  is  a  sea 
of  white.  A  great  many  students  wish  to  go  with  me  to  Tokio,  but 
the  sanji  have  laid  an  interdict  on  all  for  one  month.  The  three  stu- 
dents from  Higo  will,  however,  accompany  me.  I  rely  much  on  the 
fertile  mind,  calm  skill,  and  enthusiastic  regard  of  "  Bearded  Higo." 
Sahei,  my  servant,  will  attend  me,  and  Inouye  will  be  my  escort.  All 
my  baggage  is  now  packed  up.  It  will  be  carried  on  men's  shoulders 
over  mountain  and  valley  for  three  hundred  and  thirty  miles  to  Tdkio. 

In  vain  croakers  and  sincere  friends  have  endeavored  to  dissuade 
me  from  this  severe  winter  journey,  or  frighten  me  with  stories  of 
wolves,  robbers,  or  the  dangers  of  mountain  passes,  avalanches,  or  of 
being  lost  in  the  snow.  I  wish  to  see  a  Japanese  winter  in  the  high- 
lands, and  to  tramp  over  the  Tokaido,  and  visit  Shidzuoka.  God 
willing,  I  shall  be  in  Tokio  by  February  4th.  Farewell,  Fukui,  thou 
hast  been  a  well  of  blessing ;  for  in  thee  I  have  found  some  truth. 


A  TRAMP  THEOUOH  JAFAN.  541 


XVI. 

A   TRAMP  THROUGH  JAPAK 

January  22c?,  1872. — A  pitiless  blast.  Snow  drifting  in  heaps,  and 
wliiriing  fine  dust.  Baggage  -  carriers  have  gone  ahead.  Forty  stu- 
dents wait  to  escort  me  to  Morinoshita  (Beneath  the  Grove),  three 
miles  distant.  On  Daimi5  Avenue  a  crowd  of  officials,  citizens,  and 
lads  wait  to  say  farewell. 

Sayonaras  and  good  wishes  are  exchanged  with  mutual  regret.  The 
line  of  march  is  over  New  Bridge.  In  Boat-landing  Street  snow  lies 
eight  feet  deep,  with  constant  additions  from  the  house-tops.  Out  on 
the  plain,  past  the  city,  the  blast  is  horizontal,  its  force  overpowering, 
its  sting  terrible.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  the  path.  The  cold  is  in- 
tense. Yet  the  students  jest,  laugh,  and  sing  lively  songs,  as  though 
on  a  summer's  day. 

At  Morinoshita  we  halt.  The  younger  students  return  to  Fukui. 
Our  party  and  six  others  push  on  to  Takefu.  Here  a  farewell  ban- 
quet is  given  me.  Fourteen  tables  are  set.  Two  hours  of  fun  and 
cozy  comfort  pass.  The  hotel  is  warm.  It  seems  madness  to  go  out 
in  the  storm.     Yet  I  will  go. 

We  send  out  for  kagos  or  horses.  We  can  get  neither.  Not  a 
man  will  venture,  even  a  ri,  for  triple  the  price.  We  lose  two  hours 
in  waiting,  and  at  four  o'clock  set  out  on  foot.  One  mile  of  flounder- 
ing, and  our  strength  is  strained.  It  is  getting  dark.  The  landscape 
is  level  white.  Even  the  stone  idols  are  snowed  up.  No  field,  water- 
course, house,  bush,  or  shrine  is  in  sight.  We  can  not  see  a  hundred 
feet  before  us,  even  where  the  furious  wind  allows  us  to  look  ahead. 
We  have  lost  the  path.  Our  case  is  desperate.  To  advance  or  return 
is  alike  impossible.  Total  darkness  is  imminent.  To  spend  the  night 
here  is  to  freeze.  But  look !  a  lantern  glimmers  in  the  distance.  We 
shout.  The  sounds  are  twisted  out  of  our  mouths,  and  swept  into  the 
snow-drift.  Slowly  the  lantern  vanishes,  and  with  it  our  hopes  disap- 
pear. 

Night  swoops  on  us.     For  another  hour  we  flounder,  vainly  seeking 

35 


542  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRK 

the  path.  We  are  on  the  edge  of  despair.  "  Bearded  Higo,"  calm 
and  brave,  is  vigorously  punching  the  snow  to  find  bottom.  Eureka ! 
He  has  struck  the  path.  No  pick  of  miner  or  drill  of  engineer  ever 
struck  gold  or  oil  with  intenser  joy.  We  mount  the  crest  of  safety 
from  our  white  abyss.  Our  leader  keeps  the  ridge  :  we  follow.  We 
are  often  blown  off  or  fall  out,  but  his  cane  is  surer  than  witch-hazel 
or  divining-rod.  We  wade  a  mile  farther.  A  shout  from  "  Bearded 
Higo  "  announces  a  village.  We  peer  through  the  blast.  A  house- 
gable  looms  up.  Well  named  is  Imadzuku  (Now  we  rest).  We 
crouch  under  the  porch  while  one  hies  in  quest  of  an  inn.  We  enter 
not  a  palace;  but  cheery  welcome  glorifies  host  and  house.  We 
shake  off,  doff,  and  sit  at  the  hearth,  watching  the  cookery.  Rice, 
bean-cheese,  daikon,  mushroom,  fish,  are  served.  Then  we  take  up  our 
beds  and  walk.  With  feet  under  kotatsu,  come  rosy  slumbers  and 
dreams  of  home. 

January  23c?. — Snow,  snow,  snow.  Inouye  has  hired  for  me  eight 
stalwart  men,  grasping  staves,  and  shod  with  snow-shoes  of  birch 
boughs,  two  feet  long,  one  foot  wide,  and  well  wattled,  who  wait  at 
the  door.  Their  leader  punches  the  drifts  for  a  footing,  which  on  the 
mountains  is  tolerable,  on  the  plains  fearfully  bad,  often  through  slush 
and  icy  water.  I  wear  straw  boots :  though  wet,  they  keep  the  feet 
warm.  After  some  miles,  we  tug  up  a  steep  pass  with  a  warm  name, 
Yunoo  (Hot-water  Tail).  Chattering  girls,  in  rival  inns,  give  us  noisy 
welcome.  We  sit  down,  drink  tea,  and  gossip.  A  priest  on  his  way  to 
Takefu  last  night  lost  his  path,  and  froze  to  death.  A  postman  was 
struck  by  an  avalanche,  knocked  down,  hurt,  and  nearly  smothered. 

We  resume  our  march.  Many  tracks  of  avalanches,  twenty  feet 
wide,  are  seen.  One  crashes  and  tumbles  just  in  front  of  us.  I  notice 
that  the  clapboard  roofs  of  houses  are  weighted  down  by  stones,  like 
those  on  Swiss  chalets.  The  tracks  of  boar,  bear,  foxes,  and  monkeys 
are  numerous.  It  is  the  hunter's  harvest-time.  Dressed  carcasses  are 
on  sale  in  every  village.  I  wonder  how  a  Darwinian  steak  would  taste. 
"  No,  thank  you ;  no  monkey  for  me  !"  is  my  response  to  an  invitation 
to  taste  my  ancestors.  Good  people,  you  need  "  science "  to  teach 
you  what  cannibals  you  are. 

At  1.30  P.M.  we  reach  Imajo.  At  the  huge  fire-place,  I  warm  and 
smoke  myself  till  I  learn  how  it  feels  to  be  a  dried  herring.  Our 
food  is  sauced  with  hunger  and  hospitality.  Verily,  it  is  delightful 
to  meet  unspoiled  Japanese,  who  have  never  encountered  civilization 
or  drunken  sailors. 


A   TRAMP  THROUGH  JAPANS.  543 

At  3.30  I  mount  a  horse  who  has  two  legs  and  no  tail.  The  sad- 
dle— a  bundle  of  straw — rests  on  the  man's  loins.  I  bestride  him, 
my  legs  on  his  hips,  and  arms  round  his  neck.  I  can  choke  him  if  I 
like.  I  grip  him  tightly  at  dangerous  places.  These  mountaineers 
think  nothing  of  this  work  of  carrying  a  man  of  sixteen-stone  weight. 
Each  man  has  a  stafE  to  prop  me  up  when  he  stops  to  blow  and  rest. 
Riding  man-back  is  pleasant,  unless  the  animal  (ippiki)  is  extravagant 
with  pomatum,  or  his  head-kerchief  and  the  wash-tub  are  strangers. 
The  horse-men  carry  us  one  ri.  Snow  is  too  deep :  I  dismount  and 
plod  on.  Among  solemn  groves  of  pine,  walls  of  rocks  and  hills, 
darkness  falls ;  but  the  moon  silvers  the  forest,  burnishes  the  snow, 
reveals  mystic  shadows.  Our  six  bearers  light  four  huge  torches  of 
rice-straw  leaves  and  twigs,  ten  feet  long  and  six  inches  thick.  The 
lurid  glare  lights  up  the  gorges.  Prismatic  splendors  dance  in  the 
red  fire-light.  Snow  crystals  and  pendant  icicles  become  chandeliers. 
Intense  fatigue  can  not  blind  me  to  the  glories  of  this  night-march. 

At  nine  o'clock  the  path  is  but  a  few  inches  wide.  To  miss  a  step 
is  a  serious  matter.  It  plunges  me  to  my  waist  in  soft  snow.  The 
bearers  pull  or  pry  me  out.  Every  step  is  misery.  Another  seems 
an  impossibility.  Yet  none  else  of  the  party  says  a  word.  Admira- 
ble is  the  spirit  of  the  Japanese  in  hardship.  The  last  ri  is  torture  to 
me.  At  last  a  light  gleams  above  us.  We  file  through  the  village 
street.  Kindly  welcome  and  tender  care  are  mine  from  all.  Sahei 
undresses  me  like  a  child.  My  limbs  no  sooner  free,  I  sink,  exhaust- 
ed, asleep. 

January/  24 tk. — I  am  too  stiff  to  stand.  I  feel  like  singing  the  col- 
lege-song, "  Saw  my  leg  off,"  and  with  emphasis  on  the  word  "  short." 
I  hobble  about  for  a  few  minutes.  My  joints  relax.  Our  path  lies 
through  glorious  valleys  charged  with  vitalizing  air.  Amidst  such 
scenery  I  forget  my  limbs.  We  hear  the  shouts  of  hunters.  At  ten 
o'clock  we  leave  Echizen  and  enter  Omi.  In  the  village,  at  which  we 
dine  on  wild-pork  steaks,  omelet,  rice,  and  turnips,  snow  lies  level  with 
the  eaves,  shields  of  bamboo  making  a  corridor  between  snow  and 
houses.  Our  host,  Nakano  Kawachi,  has  speared  eight  hogs  since 
snow  fell.  Strings  of  dried  persimmons  hang  from  his  rafters  like 
dried  apples  in  an  old-time  New  England  kitchen.  They  look  and 
taste  like  figs.  The  small  boys  are  crazy  with  delight  at  the  strange 
sight  of  a  foreigner.  A  feint  to  scare  them  scatters  the  crowd  and 
leaves  a  dozen  sprawling  in  the  snow.  At  Tsubae  we  spend  the 
night.     The  inns  are  full.     Our  rooms  are  poor.     The  nomi  {Fulex 


544 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


irritans)  bite  unusually  hard.  This  is  a  rare  behavior  for  them  in 
winter. 

January  25  th. — Breakfast  is  flavored  with  fun  and  bright  eyes. 
An  extremely  pretty,  pearly -teethed,  sweet -voiced,  and  bright -eyed 
girl  waits  on  us.  Her  merry  laugh  and  chatter  make  amends  for 
shabby  quarters.  An  unusually  generous  fee  from  the  foreigner  is  on 
account  of  her  reminding  him  of  bright  eyes  in  the  home  land.  Faces 
here  in  Japan  recall  familiar  faces  long  known,  and  every  phase  o£ 
character  in  New  York  is  duplicated  here. 

We  are  descending  the  highlands  of  Echizen  and  Omi  to  the  plains 
of  Mino  and  Owari.  "Weather  grows  warmer,  villages  more  numer- 
ous, road  more  regular.  We  are  in  a  silk  region.  Plantations  of 
mulberry  -  trees,  cut  to  grow  only  six  feet  high,  abound.  Lake  Biwa 
lies  in  the  distance,  a  picture  of  blue  massively  framed  in  mountains. 
Dining  at  Kinomoto  (Foot  of  the  Tree),  we  embark  in  kagos.    In  these 


How  we  rode  to  Odaui. 

vehicles  I  always  fall  asleep  at  the  wrong  end ;  my  head  remaining 
wide  awake,  while  my  feet  are  incorrigibly  somnolent.  I  lie  in  all 
shapes,  from  a  coil  of  rope  to  a  pair  of  inverted  dividers,  with  head 
wrapped  from  the  cold  and  hardly  enough  face  visible  to  make  a  mon- 
key. In  the  fine  hotel  at  Odani,  the  old  lady  hostess  is  very  mother- 
ly to  her  first  foreign  guest,  until  I  settle  in  kotatsu  in  the  "  daimio's 
chamber,"  with  maps  and  books  on  the  floor,  when  she  resumes  her 
spectacles  and  sewing.  Round  the  room  hang  gilt  and  lacquered  tab- 
lets of  the  lords  and  nobles  who  have  lodged  at  this  house.  My 
prince's  card  is  among  them.  The  old  lady  brings  me  sheets  of  paper 
to  write  my  name,  poetry,  wise  saws,  etc.,  upon,  as  mementoes.  After 
supper,  Inouye  "fights  his  battles  o'er."     A  bullet  grazed  his  fore- 


A   TRAAfP  THROUOH  JAPAN.  545 

head  in  the  campaign  of  1868-70.  The  students  recount  the  lore  of 
the  places  passed,  and  the  Guai  Shi  narratives.  "  To-morrow,"  says 
Inouye,  "  we  shall  cross  the  battle-field  of  Sekigahara." 

January  26th. — We  have  left  the  snow  behind  us.  Through  mul- 
berry plantations,  over  dark  and  loamy  soil,  we  pass  under  the  shad- 
ow of  Ibuki  yama,  his  glorious  form  now  infolded  with  clouds,  now  re- 
vealed in  sunshine.  We  pass  the  tomb  of  beautiful  Tokiwa,  mother 
of  Yoritomo.  Every  step  is  historic  ground.  The  study  of  topog- 
raphy is  a  wonderful  help  to  the  imagination.  We  are  now  on  Ja- 
pan's greatest  battle-field.  The  war  panorama  of  October,  1600,  ap- 
pears before  me.  Here  stood  the  head  -  quarters  of  lyeyasu ;  there 
were  the  lines  of  battle  ;  over  that  road  the  army  of  the  league  march- 
ed to  take  up  their  position ;  and  beyond  stood  'the  Jesuit  monas- 
tery where,  botanists  say,  Portuguese  plants  grow,  and  flowers  bloom. 
Here  sat  the  victor  who  knotted  the  cords  of  his  helmet. 

We  are  now  on  the  Tokaido.  This  I  see  at  once,  from  its  width, 
bustling  air,  and  number  of  tea-houses.  Over  this  road  tramped  the 
armies  of  lyeyasu,  plodded  the  missionaries  of  the  Cross  and  Keys, 
moved  the  processions  of  the  daimios,  advanced  the  loyal  legions  from 
Fushimi  to  Hakodate.  To-day  a  different  sight  makes  my  heart  beat 
and  my  eyes  kindle.  Emerging  from  a  year's  exile,  here,  in  the  heart 
of  Japan,  I  see  before  me  telegraph-poles ;  their  bare,  grim,  silent  maj- 
esty is  as  eloquent  as  pulses  of  light.  The  electric  wires  will  soon  con- 
nect the  sacred  city  of  the  Sun  Land  with  the  girdle  that  clasps  the 
globe.  Verily,  Puck,  thou  hast  kept  thy  word  even  in  Japan.  Morse, 
thou  hast  another  monument. 

A  glorious  sunset  writes  in  prophecies  of  purple  and  gold  the 
weather  "  probabilities  "  for  the  remainder  of  my  journey.  At  Ogaki 
— the  persimmon  of  lyeyasu — "  the  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls,"  and 
evening  glow  gilds  the  old  towers  as  we  enter  the  historic  gate-ways. 
We  spend  the  night  here. 

January  27th. — I  meet  many  of  the  jin-riki-shas  of  modern,  and 
pass  a  grassy  mound  of  skulls  and  skeletons,  the  memorial  of  some 
battle  in  ancient,  Japan.  The  road,  lined  with  pine-trees,  which  over- 
arch and  interlace,  seems  like  a  great  cathedral  aisle.  We  pass  over 
long  embankments,  eighteen  feet  high  and  forty  feet  wide,  made  to 
keep  off  the  tidal  waves  which  sometimes  arise.  At  Okoshi,  we  leave 
Mino,  and  enter  Owari,  with  its  many  large  towns  and  cities.  At 
Kujosu  we  visit  Nobunaga's  old  castle.  At  4  p.m.  we  enter  Nagoya, 
the  fourth  largest  city  in  Japan,  with  the  finest  castle  outside  of  Tokio. 


546  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Two  of  its  towers  were  formerly  surmounted  with  huge  fish  made  of 
copper,  covered  with  plates  of  gold.  A  robber,  who  mounted  on  an 
immense  kite  in  a  gale  at  night  and  tried  to  steal  the  gold  scales,  was 
detected,  boiled  to  death  in  oil,  and  the  raising  of  large  kites  ever 
afterward  prohibited  in  Owari.  Nagoya  is  noted  for  fans,  porcelain, 
and  cloisonne  enamel-ware.     Miya  is  its  sea-port. 

January  2%th. — Leave  Chirio  at  bright  starlight,  witnessing  a  glori- 
ous sunrise.  At  9  a.m.  I  met  an  American  gentleman,  with  five  bette, 
on  a  walk  from  Tokio  to  Kobe.  Our  meeting  is  mutually  pleasant. 
His  is  the  first  white  face  I  have  seen  for  some  months.  Night  spent 
at  Shirasuka,  in  Totomi. 

January  2^th.  —  White  Fuji,  sixty  miles  distant,  rises  before  me 
like  a  revelation.  Almost  simultaneously  on  my  right  I  behold  the 
sea,  broad,  blue,  myriad-smiling.  Thalatte  !  Thalatte  !  I  have  not  seen 
the  Pacific,  nor  Fuji,  for  very  nearly  a  year.  At  Araii,  we  take  boat 
and  cross  an  arm  of  the  sea,  to  a  town  famous  for  its  shell-fish.  I  send 
a  letter  to  Clark  at  Shidzuoka.  We  are  now  in  the  coldest  part  of 
the  year,  called  kan,  but  when  near  Hamamatsu  (Strand -pine)  two 
runners,  naked  to  the  breech-cloth,  whizz  past  me.  On  the  shoulders 
of  each  is  a  live  fish  wrapped  in  straw.  Epicures  in  Hamamatsu  like 
to  eat  fish  fresh  from  the  net,  within  an  hour  of  capture,  and  human 
legs  take  the  place  of  the  lightning  express.  The  fleet  postman  is 
also  clothed  only  in  a  suit  of  cuticle  with  loin-strap.  A  bundle  of  let- 
ters is  slung  on  a  pole  over  his  shoulder.  In  the  city  we  meet  many 
natives  between  boots  and  hats,  in  the  toggery,  or  a  travesty  of  the 
tight  clothes,  of  civilization.  I  see  condensed  milk,  beer,  Yankee 
clocks,  buttons,  petroleum ;  pictures  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  Bismarck, 
George  Washington,  Gladstone ;  English  cutlery  and  umbrellas ;  and 
French  soap,  brandy,  and  wine. 

Fishermen  seem  to  comprise  the  bulk  of  population  in  Totomi. 
Millions  of  small  fish  lie  drying  along  shore,  to  be  used  as  manure. 
The  women  are  busy  weaving  cotton  cloth  in  narrow  breadths  on  rude 
looms.  The  salt-makers  go  to  the  surf  with  buckets,  saturate  patches 
of  sand  repeatedly  with  sea -water,  which,  evaporated  by  solar  heat 
and  wind,  leaves  a  highly  impregnated  sand,  which  is  leached,  and  the 
strong  brine  boiled  down  or  sun-evaporated.  In  the  morning,  fisher- 
men keep  watch  on  the  hills  till  they  descry  the  incoming  shoals,  when 
they  descend  and  catch  them.  Sweet-potatoes  are  plentiful  here,  and 
the  orange-trees  glitter  with  their  golden  fruitage.  We  are  within  a 
few  days  of  New-year's.     All  womankind  in  Japan  is  busy  at  house- 


A   TRAMP  THROUOU  JAP.Uf.  547 

cleaning.  To  us  travelers,  who  are  usually  at  windward  of  the  mat- 
beaters  and  sweepers,  it  occasions  much  dust,  and  more  disgust.  In  a 
village  noted  for  silk,  crapes,  and  embroidery,  I  make  purchases,  as 
souvenirs  of  my  journey,  as  the  Japanese  invariably  do.  I  also  meet 
two  signs  of  the  new  national  life  ;  they  are  postage-stamps  and  silver 
yen,  or  dollars. 

January  SOth. — Start  from  Matsuyama.  Clark  will  be  coming  from 
Shidzuoka  to-day  to  meet  me.  Who  shall  catch  first  sight  of  the  oth- 
er? At  3.30  P.M.,  while  passing  over  a  long  mountain  pass,  I  roll  out 
of  my  kago,  to  relieve  the  bearers  and  enjoy  the  exercise.  I  walk  far 
ahead  of  my  party.  As  I  turn  a  rocky  angle,  I  see  him  far  ahead, 
leading  bis  horse  down  a  slippery  path.  A  shout  is  answered  by  a 
halloo.  In  a  moment  more  two  old  college  chums,  fellow-travelers  in 
Europe,  and  co-workers  in  Japan,  are  in  each  other's  arms.  Our  par- 
ties soon  meet,  and  Shimojo,  Clark's  interpreter,  exchanges  his  horse 
for  my  kago.  Two  "  to-jins,"  instead  of  one,  astonish  the  natives  as 
we  gallop  over  the  Tokaido  into  Shidzuoka,*  the  exile  city  of  the 
Tokugawa.  (Poor  Shimojo,  "  one  of  the  sweetest  and  gentlest  spirits 
that  ever  quitted  or  tenanted  a  human  form,"  now  sleeps  in  one  of  the 
grave-yards  in  Tokio.)  Old  memories  and  new  experiences  make  busy 
tongues.  Our  chat  is  prolonged  far  into  the  night.  My  sleep  is  un- 
troubled with  dreams  or  earthquakes. 

January  31  si. — To-day  is  for  sight-seeing.  I  visit  lyeyasu's  old 
castle,  the  school,  the  temples.  I  see  the  presents  brought  by  Com- 
modore Perry.  Here  is  a  sewing-machine  with  tarnished  plates  and 
rusty  shuttles.  There  are  maps,  one  of  my  native  Pennsylvania  and 
of  Philadelphia,  as  they  were  in  1851.  Here  is  a  spectroscope,  given 
before  Bunsen  and  Kirchoff  added  to  the  alphabet  of  elements  or  an- 
alyzed the  sun.  There  is  also  a  miscellaneous  array  of  English  and 
other  presents,  including  a  gilt  model  of  Victoria's  crown.  It  awakes 
a  curious  medley  of  feelings  to  see  this  "  old  curiosity  shop  "  in  this 
"  St.  Helena  of  Tokugawaism." 

"  Oh,  what  a  tangled  web  we  weave, 
When  first  we  practice  to  deceive." 

The  labels  seem  the  gibes  of  fate.  I  meet  many  once  prominent  re- 
tainers of  Tokugawa,  men  who  have  led  fleets  and  armies,  or  headed 

*  Formerly  called  Sumpu,  from  mn  in  Sunshiu,  the  Chinese  form  of  Sumga, 
and/M,  capital.  Siui-fu  becomes  by  euphony  Sumpu,  the  capital  of  Suruga.  On 
old  maps  it  is  marked  as  Fuchiu. 


648  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

embassies.  Others  live  in  poverty  and  obscurity.  Some  bear  sabre- 
scars  and  bullet-marks  as  proof  of  their  loyalty.  Clark  is  extremely 
fortunate  in  having  so  many  cultivated  gentlemen,  famous  characters, 
and  educated,  intelligent  helpers.  The  school  was  founded  by  Fuku- 
zawa.  Nakanmra  Masanawo,  professor  of  Chinese,  and  also  educated 
in  London,  his  right-hand  man,  is  printing  his  translation  of  "  Mill  on 
Liberty."  He  has  shown  me  some  of  the  cut  wooden  blocks ;  for  the 
author  is  very  often  his  own  publisher  in  Japan.  Li  his  memorial  on 
Christianity,  some  months  ago,  in  which  he  urged  toleration,  he  argued 
that  without  the  religion  of  Christ  the  Japanese  are  plucking  only  the 
showy  leaves,  while  they  neglect  the  root  of  the  civilization  of  Chris- 
tendom. 

My  host  spreads  a  gorgeous  American  dinner  in  honor  of  his  guest. 
Hattori,  the  governor  of  the  ken,  Nakamura,  Yatabori,  the  school-offi- 
cer, two  Tokugawa  ex-magnates,  and  two  interpreters  are  present,  the 
party  numbering  twelve  in  all.  Mr.  Katsii  is  unfortunately  absent  in 
Tokio,  and  Mr.  Okubo  Ichio  unwell.  The  latter  sends  me  a  fan  in- 
scribed with  his  congratulations,  poetically  expressed.  A  great  many 
gifts,  rather  compliments,  are  showered  upon  me  by  officials  and  citi- 
zens, who  seem  endlessly  grateful  for  securing  them  so  good  a  teacher. 
Unable  to  carry  away  the  load  of  sponge-cake,  confectionery,  fowls, 
eggs,  etc.,  I  leave  them  to  Sam  Patch,*  the  veritable  Sam,  whom  Com- 
modore Perry  brought  back  as  a  waif  to  Japan  in  1853.  He  is  now 
officiating  as  cook  to  Mr.  Clark.  Sammy's  notoriety  has  somewhat 
spoiled  his  pristine  modesty,  and  his  head,  having  never  been  ballasted 
with  over  two-thirds  the  average  quantum  of  wit,  is  occasionally  turned, 
to  the  annoyance  of  his  master. 

February  1st. — From  Shidzuoka  the  journey  is  rapid,  jin-riki-shas 
being  numerous.  Mishima  and  the  castled  town  of  Numadzu  are 
passed.  The  Hakone  Mountains  are  ascended  and  enjoyed.  The 
path  is  one  long  aisle  under  mossy  monarch  pines,  through  superb 
scenery.  At  dark,  Sahei  lights  the  tai-matsu  (great  torch),  and  the 
village  people  kindle  fire-brands  in  the  streets  to  guide  the  travelers — 

*  His  real  name  was  Sentaro.  He  was  a  native  of  lyo.  On  a  return  voyage 
from  Yedo  to  Ozaka,  tlie  junk  lost  its  rudder  and  mast,  drifted  fifty  days  at  sea, 
and  was  picked  up  by  the  American  brig  Auckland.  The  crew  consisted  of  sev- 
enteen men ;  among  them  were  Heko  and  Denkichi  (see  Dankirche,  Alcock's 
"Three  Years  in  Japan;"  see,  also,  "Perry  Expedition").  What  is  mortal  of 
Sammy  now  rests  in  a  temple  cemetery  at  Oji,  near  Tokio.  He  fell  a  victim  to 
that  scourge  called  kakk^,  in  1874.  A  plain  stone  cross,  with  the  words  "Sam 
Patch,"  marks  his  tomb. 


A   TRAMP  THROUGH  JAPAN.  549 

a  most  hospitable  custom.  In  these  Swiss-like  highlands  I  stop  to 
buy  specimens  of  the  carved  and  mosaic  wood-work  of  exquisite  neat- 
ness and  delicate  finish.     We  sleep  in  castled  Odawara, 

February  2d. — Arrive  in  Yokohama  at  2.30  p.m.  My  year's  resi- 
dence has  given  me  the  ken  of  a  native.  My  eyes  have  not  altered  their 
angle,  yet  I  see  as  the  Japanese  see.  The  "  hairy  "  foreigners  are  ugly. 
Those  proud  fellows,  with  red  beards  and  hair,  look  hideous.  What 
outrageous  colors,  so  different  from  uniform  black !  How  ugly  those 
blue  eyes  !  How  deathly  pale  many  of  them  look  !  How  proud,  how 
overbearing  and  swaggering,  many  of  them  appear,  acting  as  if  Japan 
were  their  own !  The  white  people  are  as  curious,  as  strange,  as  odd 
ss  the  Japanese  themselves. 

Yokohama  has  greatly  increased  in  size  since  I  last  saw  it.  I  spend 
the  night  in  a  Christian  home.  After  supper,  at  which  sit  father, 
mother,  and  children,  some  of  the  old  sweet  music,  played  for  me  on 
the  piano,  recalls  all  the  dear  memories  of  home  and  the  home-land. 
The  evening  is  closed  with  worship,  in  which  the  burden  of  prayer  is 
for  the  rulers  and  people  of  Japan.  A  sense  of  gratitude  in  place  of 
loneliness  is  uppermost  in  my  mind  as  I  lie  down  to  rest.  I  have  es- 
caped many  dangers  since  I  first  left  home,  more  than  a  year  ago.  A 
summary  of  these,  as  they  flit  across  my  drowsy  consciousness,  com- 
prises great  variety.  No  steamer  on  the  Pacific  or  Lake  Biwa  has 
burned  (as  the  America  afterward),  foundered,  wrecked,  broken  ma- 
chinery, or  blown  up  (as  one  afterward  did  on  Lake  Biwa),  with  me 
on  board.  No  stray  gun-shot  from  bird-shooters  in  the  rice-fields  of 
Echizen  has  hit  me.  No  r5nin's  sword  has  slit  my  back,  or  cloven 
my  head,  as  I  was  told  it  would.  No  red -capped,  small -pox  baby 
has  accidentally  rubbed  its  pustules  or  shed  its  floating  scales  on  me. 
A  horse  has  kicked,  but  not  killed  me.  No  fever  has  burned  my 
veins,  or  ague,  like  an  earthquake,  shaken  me  back  to  dust  again.  No 
kago  has  capsized  over  a  precipice,  or  come  to  pieces  while  crossing  a 
log-bridge  over  a  torrent.  No  seismic  throes  have  ingulfed  me,  or 
squashed  my  house  upon  me,  nor  flood  overwhelmed  me,  nor  typhoon 
whirled  or  banged  me  to  pieces,  nor  fires  burned  me.  No  kappa  or 
any  other  mythic  reptile  has  grabbed  me.  No  jin-riki-sha  has  smashed 
me.  I  have  not  been  poisoned  to  death  by  fresh  lacquer.  My  still 
suflSciently  sensitive  nose  has  not,  for  agricultural  necessities,  been  par- 
alyzed by  intolerable  odors  or  unmentionable  buckets.  No  charcoal 
fumes  have  asphyxiated  me  (alas  !  my  poor,  gentle  friend  Bates  !).  I 
have  not  been  seethed  to  death  in  hot  water  by  jumping  unwittingly 


550  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

into  the  boiling  baths  so  often  prepared  for  me.  My  temper,  though 
badly  damaged,  has  not,  I  hope,  been  utterly  spoiled  by  Asiaticisms. 
No  centipedes  or  scorpions  have  bitten  me  within  a  thread's-width 
of  my  life ;  neither  have  the  fleas  in  mountain  inns,  though  they  have 
taken  more  than  Shylock's  portion,  utterly  devoured  me.  No  drunk- 
en soldier  has  quarreled  with  me,  nor  skewered  me  with  his  sabre. 
Neither  did  I  use  chemicals  till  I  had  proved  them,  testing  before 
tasting.  No  carbonate  of  soda  has  entered  my  mouth  till  I  happily 
showed  the  label  a  libel  by  a  drop  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  water, 
and  found  it  to  be  arsenide  of  sodium  (NajAs.).  I  have  proved  many, 
and  discovered  a  few,  things.  The  best  trovers  of  all  are  the  human 
hearts  and  kindly  nature  of  the  Japanese.  God  bless  the  people  of 
Japan ! 

February  2d. — At  P  30  I  take  the  steamer  to  Tokio.  A  white  and 
driveling  drunkard,  his  native  mistress,  and  a  Briton  indulging  in  bran- 
dy and  tobacco,  occupy  the  cabin.  I  go  on  deck.  Landing  at  Tsii- 
kiji,  I  finish  my  winter  journey  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  miles.  At 
the  French  hotel,  a  good  square  meal  seems  such  a  triumph  of  civili- 
zation that  I  wonder  how  any  one  could  ever  commit  hara-kiri. 
Tokio  is  so  modernized  that  I  scarcely  recognize  it.  No  beggars,  no 
guard-houses,  no  sentinels  at  Tsukiji,  or  the  castle-gates;  city  ward- 
barriers  gone ;  no  swords  worn ;  hundreds  of  yashikis  disappeared ; 
new  decencies  and  proprieties  observed ;  less  cuticle  visible ;  more 
clothes.  The  age  of  pantaloons  has  come.  Thousands  wearing  hat, 
boots,  coats ;  carriages  numerous ;  jin-riki-shas  countless.  Shops  full 
of  foreign  wares  and  notions.  Soldiers  all  uniformed,  armed  with 
Chassepot  rifles.  New  bridges  span  the  canals.  Police  in  uniform. 
Hospitals,  schools,  and  colleges ;  girls'  seminaries  numerous.  Kailway 
nearly  finished.  Embassy  rode  in  steam-cars  to  Yokohama.  Gold 
and  silver  coin  in  circulation.  Almshouses  established.  A  corps  of 
medical  German  professors  occupy  the  old  monasteries  of  Uyeno. 
General  Capron  and  his  staff  of  scientific  American  gentlemen  are 
housed  in  the  shogun's  Hall  of  Rest  at  Shiba.  A  commission  of 
French  military  officers  live  in  the  yashiki  of  li  Kamon  no  kami, 
whose  son  is  studying  in  Brooklyn.  Three  hundred  foreigners  reside 
in  Tokio.  An  air  of  bustle,  activity,  and  energy  prevails.  The  camp 
of  the  chief  daimio  of  a  hermit  nation  is  no  more.  Old  Yedo  has 
passed  away  forever.     Tokio,  the  national  capital,  is  a  cosraopolis. 

Now  begins  a  three  years'  residence  in  the  great  city. 


THE  POSITION  OF  WOMAK  551 


XVIL 

THE  POSITION  OF  WOMAK 

No  one  who  is  interested  in  the  welfare  and  progress  of  the  Asiatic 
nations  can  approach  the  question  of  female  education  without  feel- 
ings of  sadness  as  profound  as  the  need  of  effort  is  felt  to  be  great. 
The  American  who  leaves  his  own  country,  in  which  the  high  honor 
paid  to  woman  is  one  of  the  chief  glories  of  the  race  to  which  he  be- 
longs, is  shocked  and  deeply  grieved  at  beholding  her  low  estate  in 
pagan  lands.  He  is  scarcely  surprised  at  the  wide  difference  between 
the  Eastern  and  the  Western  man ;  for  this  he  has  expected.  He  can 
not,  however,  explain  the  low  condition  of  woman  by  the  correspond- 
ing state  of  civilization.  He  sees  that  the  one  is  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  the  other.  An  inferior  grade  of  civilization  does  not  necessi- 
tate the  extreme  subjection  of  woman.  If  Tacitus  records  rightly, 
the  ancient  barbarians,  whose  descendants  are  the  Germanic  races,  sur- 
passed even  the  civilized  Romans  in  the  respect  paid  to  their  women. 
The  Western  man  in  Asia  sees  that  abject  obedience  as  daughter, 
wife,  and  widowed  mother  is  the  lot  of  woman,  as  ordained  by  the 
wisdom  of  the  ancients  and  fixed  by  the  custom  of  ages.  He  sees 
the  might  of  physical  force,  and  the  power  of  government  and  socie- 
ty, in  league  to  keep  her  crushed  as  near  to  the  level  of  the  unreply- 
ing  brute  as  possible.  He  finds  that  the  religious  systems  agree  in 
denying  her  a  soul ;  the  popular  superstitions  choose  her  as  the  scape- 
goat for  all  tempted  and  sinning  men ;  and  that  spirit  of  monastic  as- 
ceticism whose  home  is  in  the  East  selects  her  as  the  symbol  of  all 
that  is  opposed  to  the  peace  and  purity  of  the  aspiring  saint. 

The  student  of  Asiatic  life,  on  coming  to  Japan,  however,  is  cheered 
and  pleased  on  contrasting  the  position  of  women  in  Japan  with  that 
in  other  countries.  He  sees  them  treated  with  respect  and  considera- 
tion far  above  that  observed  in  other  quarters  of  the  Orient.  They 
are  allowed  greater  freedom,  and  hence  have  more  dignity  and  self- 
confidence.  The  daughters  are  better  educated,  and  the  national  an- 
nals will  show  probably  as  large  a  number  of  illustrious  women  as 


552  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

those  of  any  other  country  in  Asia.  In  the  time  of  their  opportunity 
— these  last  days  of  enlightenment — public  and  private  schools  for 
girls  are  being  opened  and  attended.  Furthermore,  some  of  the  lead- 
ers of  New  Japan,  braving  public  scandal,  and  emancipating  them- 
selves from  the  bondage  of  an  etiquette  empty  of  morals,  are  learning 
to  bestow  that  measure  of  honor  upon  their  wives  which  they  see  is 
enthusiastically  awarded  by  foreigners  to  theirs,  and  are  not  ashamed 
to  be  seen  in  public  with  their  companions.  A  few  have  married 
wives  on  the  basis  of  a  civil  contract,  endowing  them  with  an  equal 
share  and  redress  before  the  law.  Still  better,  Christian  Japanese  lead 
their  brides  to  Christian  altars,  to  have  the  sanctions  of  religion, 
though  not  the  despotism  of  a  hierarchy,  to  cement  their  marital 
union.  In  Christian  churches,  Japanese  father,  mother,  and  children 
sit  together — a  strange  sight  in  Asia.  The  mikado's  Government  has 
made  direct  efforts  to  improve  the  condition  of  his  female  subjects. 
The  eta  women,  with  the  men,  have  been  lifted  to  the  level  of  citizen- 
ship. The  marriage  laws  have  been  so  reformed  as  to  allow  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  society  to  intermarry. 

The  abolition  of  beggary,  though  a  general  public  benefit,  deserves 
to  be  spoken  of  in  this  place.  The  introduction  of  improved  silk-reel- 
ing machinery  and  the  increasing  area  of  tea-producing  territory,  by 
widening  the  field  of  female  employments,  have  tended  to  swell  the 
number  of  virtuous  women,  and  diminish  the  ranks  of  the  courtesans. 
Above  all,  the  grand  scheme  of  educating  the  girls  as  well  as  the  boys 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  establishment  of  schools  of  a  high 
grade  for  young  women,  are  triumphant  evidences  of  a  real  desire  to 
elevate  the  position  of  women  in  Japan,  and  to  develop  the  capabili- 
ties of  the  sex. 

But  what  has  thus  far  been  done  can  not  be  looked  upon  as  any 
thing  more  than  mere  indications  of  the  better  time  to  come — the 
gray  light  before  the  far-ofif  full  day.  As  yet,  the  country  at  large 
has  felt  only  the  faint  pulses  of  the  new  ideas.  The  bondage  of  en- 
slaving theological  tenets  is  to  be  cast  off,  popular  superstitions  are  to 
be  swept  away,  and  the  despotism  of  the  Chinese  classics  —  if  Japan 
wishes  to  rise  higher  in  the  scale  of  civilization  than  China — is  to  be 
relaxed,  before  the  Japanese  woman  becomes  that  factor  of  invincible 
potency  in  the  progress  and  regeneration  of  Japan  which  it  is  possi- 
ble for  her  to  be. 

That  the  progress  of  the  nation  depends  as  much  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  woman  as  upon  that  of  man,  is  a  principle  not  yet  current  in 


THE  POSITION  OF  WOMAN.  553 

Asia.  The  idea  that  still  remains  as  a  lingering  superstition,  and  the 
grossest  relic  of  barbarism  among  Western  nations,  that  might  makes 
right,  makes  religion,  makes  every  thing,  is  the  corner  and  cap  stone 
of  Asiatic  civilization.  The  gentle  doctrines  of  the  Indian  sage  have 
mollified  the  idea  somewhat ;  but  in  China  and  Japan,  the  hand  that 
holds  the  sword  is  the  sole  arbiter  of  the  destinies  of  woman.  The 
greatest  dread  which  the  extreme  conservatives  of  the  Yamato  dama- 
shi  feel  is  that  Western  notions  of  the  equality  of  man  and  woman 
should  prevail.  Such  ideas,  they  imagine,  will  subvert  all  domestic 
peace,  and  will  be  the  ruin  of  society  and  the  nation.  For  the  state 
of  things  to  be  "  as  if  a  hen  were  to  crow  in  the  morning,"  seems  that 
point  in  the  sea  of  troubles  beyond  which  the  imagination  of  man  (in 
Japan)  utterly  fails  to  go. 

The  whole  question  of  the  position  of  Japanese  women — in  history, 
social  life,  education,  employments,  authorship,  art,  marriage,  concu- 
binage, prostitution,  religion,  benevolent  labor,  the  ideals  of  literature, 
popular  superstitions,  etc. — discloses  such  a  wide  and  fascinating  field 
of  inquiry,  that  I  wonder  no  one  has  yet  entered  it.  I  resist  the 
temptation  to  more  than  glance  at  these  questions,  and  shall  content 
myself  with  a  mere  sketch  of  the  position  and  education  of  woman  in 
Japan.  The  roots  of  this  subject  are  not  reached  by  a  peep  into  a 
public  bath-house.  We  must  consult  history,  literature,  art,  and  ideals. 
Our  ideas  and  prejudices  must  not  be  the  standard.  Japanese  see, 
with  true  vision,  much  to  condemn  among  us  that  passes  for  purity 
and  religion.     Let  us  judge  them  fairly. 

Of  one  hundred  and  twenty -three  Japanese  sovereigns,  nine  have 
been  women.  The  custodian  of  the  divine  regalia  is  a  virgin  priest- 
ess. The  chief  deity  in  their  mythology  is  a  woman.  Japanese  wom- 
en, by  their  wit  and  genius,  made  their  native  tongue  a  literary  lan- 
guage. In  literature,  art,  poetry,  song,  the  names  of  women  are  among 
the  most  brilliant  of  those  on  the  long  roll  of  fame  and  honor  on 
whose  brows  the  Japanese,  at  least,  have  placed  the  fadeless  chaplet  of 
renown.  Their  memory  is  still  kept  green  by  recitation,  quotation, 
reading,  and  inscription  on  screen,  roll,  memorial-stone,  wall,  fan,  cup, 
and  those  exquisite  works  of  art  that  delight  even  alien  admirers  east 
and  west  of  the  Pacific. 

In  the  records  of  the  Japanese  glory,  valor,  fortitude  in  afiliction, 
greatness  in  the  hour  of  death,  filial  devotion,  wifely  affection,  in  all 
the  straits  of  life  when  codes  of  honor,  morals,  and  religion  are  tested 
in  the  person  of  their  professors,  the  literature  of  history  and  romance, 


554  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  every -day  routine  of  fact,  teem  with  instances  of  the  Japanese 
woman's  power  and  willingness  to  share  whatever  of  pain  or  sorrow  is 
appointed  to  man.  In  the  annals  of  persecution,  in  the  red  roll  of 
martyrs,  no  names  are  brighter,  no  faces  gleam  more  peacefully  amidst 
the  flames,  or  on  the  cross  of  transfixing  spears,  or  on  the  pyre  of  rice- 
straw,  or  on  the  precipice  edge,  or  in  the  open  grave  about  to  be  filled 
up,  than  the  faces  of  the  Christian  Japanese  women  in  the  seventeenth 
century.     Such  is  the  position  of  woman  in  Japan  in  the  past. 

So  far  of  herself.  The  foreign  reader  must  remember  that  I  have 
not  formed  these  opinions  by  a  hasty  glimpse  of  life  at  the  sea-ports 
of  Japan,  where  the  scum  of  the  world  meets  the  dregs  of  that  coun- 
try, but  after  several  years  of  residence  in  an  interior  city  and  in  the 
capital.  Further,  I  am  placing  the  average  woman  in  Japan  against 
the  average  woman  in  other  lands.  I  am  stating  the  position  of 
woman  in  her  relation  to  man  and  society  in  Shin  Koku.  In  com- 
paring all  other  Asiatic  nations,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  Japan, 
in  respect  and  honor  to  women,  is  the  leader  of  them  all. 

The  foreign  resident  of  India,  Burmah,  or  China,  coming  to  Japan, 
is  surprised  and  pleased  to  find  the  Japanese  accord  to  their  women 
so  large  a  measure  of  respect  and  considerate  care.  No  woman's  feet 
are  ever  bound,  and  among  the  middle  and  lower  classes  she  is  almost 
as  much  at  liberty  to  walk  and  visit  as  in  our  own  land.  An  amount 
of  social  freedom  prevails  among  womankind  in  Japan  that  could 
hardly  be  expected  in  a  country  at  once  Asiatic,  idolatrous,  and  des- 
potic. No  foreign  reader  can  accuse  me  of  undue  eulogy  of  the  Jap- 
anese after  including  them  within  the  pale  inclosed  by  the  three  ad- 
jectives just  penned,  "Asiatic,  idolatrous,  and  despotic  " — the  educated, 
the  enlightened,  the  rising  men  of  Japan  loathe  the  words.  The  writ- 
er who  applies  these  stinging  epithets  to  them  will  receive  any  thing 
but  thanks.  They  do  not  like  to  be  called  Asiatics ;  they  despise  idol- 
atry (Buddhism) ;  and  they  are  even  now  emerging  from  despotism  to 
constitutional  monarchy  and  representative  government.  Nevertheless 
I  have  written  it,  and  it  explains  woman's  position  and  character  in 
Japan,  and  brings  us  to  the  standing-point  where  we  may  note  the 
shadows  in  the  picture. 

I  shall  not  dwell  upon  the  prevalent  belief  of  foreigners  that  licen- 
tiousness is  the  first  and  characteristic  trait  in  her  character,  nor  upon 
the  idea  that  ordinary  chastity  is  next  to  unknown  in  Japan,  for  I  do 
not  believe  that  such  is  the  case.  That  the  idea  of  spiritual  purity  as 
taught  by  Christ — of  the  sin  of  defilement  without  reference  to  any 


THE  POSITION  OF  WOMAN.  555 

thing  physical  or  external,  the  commission  of  sin  by  the  mere  thought 
of,  or  looking  upon,  lust — is  generally  unknown,  I  believe  fully.  That 
the  loftiest  teachings  of  Buddhism  or  Shinto  have  failed  utterly  to 
purify  them  of  this  phase  of  their  low  moral  status,  I  also  believe. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  stated  that  the  chief  patrons  of  human 
flesh  let  out  on  hire  in  Japan  are  from  Christendom. 

It  is  the  heathen  religion  itself  that  we  are  to  arraign  for  the  low 
state  of  woman  in  Japan  as  compared  with  that  in  Christian  lands. 
The  only  religion  in  Japan  worthy  of  a  name,  in  the  sense  of  a  bind- 
ing system  of  dogmatics,  or  a  purifying  and  elevating  moral  power,  is 
Buddhism.  Yet  even  in  this  there  is  no  hope  of  immortality  for  a 
woman  unless  she  is  reborn  as  a  man,  which  means  that  there  is  no 
salvation  for  a  woman.  In  the  eye  of  Buddhist  dogma,  ecclesiastical 
law,  and  monkish  asceticism,  woman  is  but  a  temptation,  a  snare,  an 
unclean  thing,  a  scape-goat,  an  obstacle  to  peace  and  holiness.  Shin- 
to, a  religion  so  called,  seems  to  accord  her  a  higher  place ;  but  Shinto 
can  never  sway  the  heart  and  mind  of  modern  Japanese  people. 

A  great  principle  and  an  Asiatic  institution  are  the  causes  of  the 
degradation  of  the  Japanese  women.  The  one  is  filial  obedience,  the 
other  polygamy.  The  idea  that  filial  obedience  should  be  the  cause 
of  woman's  degradation  may  strike  the  American  reader  as  passing 
strange.  In  this  land  of  irreverent  children  the  assertion  may  be 
doubted,  yet  it  is  true.  The  exaggeration  of  this  principle  in  China 
has  kept  that  great  nation  stagnant  for  tens  of  centuries,  and  to-day 
blocks  the  advance  of  ChT-istianity  and  of  civilization.  Duty  to  par- 
ents overshadows  all  other  duties. 

The  Japanese  maiden,  as  pure  as  the  purest  Christian  virgin,  will  at 
the  command  of  her  father  enter  the  brothel  to-morrow,  and  prostitute 
herself  for  life.  Not  a  murmur  escapes  her  lips  as  she  thus  filially 
obeys.  To  a  life  she  loathes,  and  to  disease,  premature  old  age,  and  an 
early  grave,  she  goes  joyfully.  The  staple  of  a  thousand  novels,  plays, 
and  pictures  in  Japan  is  written  in  the  life  of  a  girl  of  gentle  manners 
and  tender  heart,  who  hates  her  life  and  would  gladly  destroy  it,  but 
refrains  because  her  purchase  -  money  has  enabled  her  father  to  pay 
his  debts,  and  she  is  bound  not  to  injure  herself.  In  the  stews  of  the 
great  cities  of  Japan  are  to-day,  I  doubt  not,  hundreds  of  girls  who 
loathe  their  existence,  but  must  live  on  in  gilded  misery  because  they 
are  fulfilling  all  righteousness  as  summed  up  in  filial  piety.* 

*  More  than  one  European  writer  has  attempted  to  shed  a  poetical  halo  around 


656  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

So  long  as  the  institution  of  concubinage  exists  in  Japan,  home-life 
can  never  approach  in  purity  and  dignity  to  that  in  Christian  coun- 
tries. It  is  often  asked,  "Are  the  Japanese  polygamous  ?"  The  ques- 
tion has  two  answers.  A  Japanese  has  but  one  legal  wife,  but  he  may 
have  two  or  three  more  women  if  he  chooses,  or  can  support  them. 

the  Yoshiwara  system  of  Japan,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  well-meaning  people 
have  extensively  circulated  the  absurd  statements  that  the  Japanese  do  not  re- 
gard the  business  of  these  places  as  immoral;  that  it  is  quite  common  for  Japa- 
nese gentlemen  to  make  wives  of  the  inmates ;  that  they  exist  in  every  city ;  and 
more  and  worse.  Not  a  few  foreigners  believe  that  "there  is  not  a  virtuous 
woman  in  Japan" — a  slander  that  well  befits  the  mouths  of  the  ignorant  bigots 
and  seared  libertines  who  alike  utter  it.  It  is  true  that  in  Japan  there  is  not  that 
sensitiveness  on  this  subject  that  exists  among  English-speaking  people,  and 
that  an  ambitious  young  man  in  the  lower  social  ranks,  who  aspires  to  wed  an 
intellectual  wife,  will  occasionally  marry  one  of  the  bright,  witty,  educated  girls 
who  may  have  fascinated  him  in  the  Yoshiwara.  This  is  rather  her  conquest  than 
his.  It  is  true  that  the  yearning  of  these  poor  prisoners  who  have  women's 
hearts  is  to  win  the  love  of  a  good  man,  to  be  a  virtuous  wife,  to  keep  house,  to 
be  the  joyful  mother  of  children,  and  enter  the  path  of  purity ;  and  that  Japanese 
society  applauds  the  aspiration,  forgives  the  past,  and  welcomes  the  person. 
Many  a  book  of  poems  written  by  inmates  of  the  Yoshiwara  will  show  this,  even 
if  there  was  no  other  proof  On  the  other  hand,  the  social  evil  in  Japan  is  shorn 
of  some  features  so  detestably  conspicuous  in  other  countries.  The  street-walk- 
er is  unknown.  The  place  set  apart  for  the  vile  business  is  rarely  inside  the  city, 
but  in  its  suburbs.  A  man  may  live  for  years  in  a  Japanese  city,  and  see  none  of 
the  moral  leprosy,  such  as  nightly  floods  Broadway,  the  Haymarket,  and  Boule- 
vard des  Italiens.  I  have  known  American  gentlemen,  thoroughly  at  home  in 
the  language,  who  in  years  of  intercourse  with  the  people  have  never  received  an 
improper  proposal.  It  is  also  true  that  the  Yoshiwara,  so  far  from  being  what 
some  European  writers  make  it,  is  only  another  name  for  misery,  degradation, 
and  vice,  in  which  suicide,  disease,  premature  old  age,  abandonment,  or  blight 
wastes  the  lives  of  thousands  of  victims.  The  real  opinion  of  Japanese  people  is 
expressed  by  their  proverbs:  "There  is  no  truth  in  a  courtesan;"  "When  you 
find  a  truthful  prostitute  and  a  four-cornered  egg,  the  moon  will  appear  before 
her  time."  There  are  tens  of  thousands  of  young  men  in  Japan  who  have  never 
entered  the  Yoshiwara.  The  common  word  among  the  students  for  what  per- 
tains to  them  is  dokiu  (poison).  The  unlicensed  are  called  jigoku  onna  (hell-wom- 
en). The  opinion  of  the  Government  of  these  places  is  shown  in  the  fact,  that 
after  a  defalcation,  murder,  or  gross  crime,  detectives  are  sent  first  to  them. 
The  Yoshiwara  is  a  fenced  plague  spot,  a  moral  quarantine,  found  only  in  the 
very  large  cities  and  sea-ports,  not  in  the  old  daimio's  capitals.  The  truth  is, 
that  the  Japanese  have  the  same  problems  of  social  evil  to  deal  with  as  other  na- 
tions. They  have  tried  to  solve  them  in  the  best  way  they  know.  It  must  be 
confessed  that,  in  some  respects,  they  have  succeeded  better  than  we  have.  The 
moral  status  of  the  Japanese  is  low  enough,  and  every  friend  of  Japan  knows  it; 
but  let  us  tell  the  truth,  even  about  the  heathen.  So  far  as  they  try  to  bridle 
crime,  or  solve  mighty  problems,  they  are  deserving  of  sympathy,  not  censure. 
How  far  the  placing  of  the  Yoshiwara  under  rigid  medical  inspection  will  improve 
or  degrade  the  moral  status  of  the  community,  is  yet  to  be  proved. 


THE  POSITION  OF  WOMAN.  557 

One  wife,  if  fruitful,  is  the  rule.  In  case  of  failure  of  an  heir,  the  hus- 
band is  fully  justified,  often  strongly  advised  even  by  his  wife,  to  take 
a  handmaid  to  raise  up  seed  to  preserve  the  ancestral  line.  To  judge 
of  the  prevalence  of  concubinage  in  Japan,  we  must  not  select  either 
Tokio  or  the  sea-ports.  The  one  is  the  capital,  as  full  of  political  and 
social  corruption  as  our  own ;  the  others  are  abnormally  luxurious 
places.  After  careful  examination  of  the  facts,  I  believe  the  actual 
proportion  of  men  who  have  concubines  in  addition  to  their  true  wives 
is  not  over  five  per  cent,  of  the  v»'hole  population.  Of  those  financial- 
ly able  to  maintain  the  indulgence,  the  percentage  is  probably  twenty. 
The  husband  holds  the  power  of  the  sword.  The  divorced  wife  has 
little  or  no  redress.  Yet  the  facility  of  divorce  is  not  availed  of  as 
much  as  if  there  were  no  father-in-law,  brothers,  male  friends,  or  fe- 
male neighbor's  tongues  in  the  question.  Seven  causes  for  justifiable 
divorce  are  laid  down  in  the  classics  of  Confucius,  which  are  the  basis 
of  legal  morals  in  Japan  as  in  China,  or  as  those  of  Justinian  are  with 
us.     The  wife  may  be  divorced — 

1.  If  she  be  disobedient  to  her  parents-in-law.  (After  marriage,  in 
her  husband's  home,  his  parents  become  hers  in  a  far  more  significant 
sense  than  among  us.) 

2.  If  she  be  barren.  (If  the  husband  loves  his  childless  wife,  he 
keeps  and  supports  her.) 

3.  If  she  be  lewd  or  licentious.  (She  must  not  be  given  to  loose 
talk  or  wine.  It  is  not  proper  for  her  even  to  write  a  letter  to  any 
other  man.) 

4.  If  she  be  jealous  (of  other  women's  clothes,  or  children,  or  espe- 
cially of  her  husband). 

5.  If  she  have  a  loathsome  or  contagious  disease.  (If  dearly  be- 
loved,  she  may  be  kept  in  a  separate  room  and  cared  for.) 

6.  If  she  steal. 

7.  K  she  talk  too  much. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  seventh  and  last  reason  is  the  one  fre- 
quently availed  of,  or  pretended.  The  Japanese  think  it  is  a  good  rule 
that  works  but  one  way.  The  husband  is  not  divorced  from  the  wife 
for  these  equal  reasons.  Of  course,  woman  in  Japan,  by  her  tact, 
tongue,  graces,  and  charms,  is  able  to  rule  her  husband  generally  by 
means  invisible  to  the  outer  world,  but  none  the  less  potent.  Though 
man  holds  the  sword,  the  pen,  and  divorce,  and  glories  in  his  power, 
yet  woman,  by  her  finer  strength,  in  hut  as  in  palace  hall,  rules  her  lord. 

In  the  Japanese  home,  in  which  there  is  more  that  is  good  and  mor- 

86 


558  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ally  wholesome  than  most  foreigners  who  live  only  in  the  open  ports 
are  willing  to  acknowledge,  may  be  found  the  place,  by  excellence,  of 
the  training  of  the  female  children.  The  rudimentary  literary  train- 
ing of  girls  in  the  higher  classes  was  exclusively  there,  at  the  hands  of 
private  tutors  or  governesses.  The  female  children  of  the  lower  classes 
received  tuition  in  the  private  schools  so  generally  established  through- 
out the  country  during  the  last  two  centuries.  After  the  elementary 
training  came  the  study  of  those  books  for  the  special  use  of  the  Jap- 
anese women,  which  are  to  be  found  in  every  Japanese  household  pre- 
tending to  respectability.  These  books  collectively  are  called  Onna 
Yushoku  Mibae  Bunko.  They  constitute  a  library  of  works  on  the 
duties  of  women,  but  are  often  bound  up  in  one  volume.  If  the  read- 
er will  imagine  a  volume  composed  of  the  Bible,  "  Ladies'  Letter-writ- 
er," "  Guide  to  Etiquette,"  "  The  Young  Ladies'  Own  Book,"  Hannah 
More's  works.  Miss  Strickland's  "  Queens  of  England,"  a  work  on 
household  economy,  and  an  almanac,  he  will  obtain  some  idea  of  the 
contents  of  the  Bunko,  or  "  Japanese  Lady's  Library."  With  text  and 
illustrations,  the  volume  is  very  large ;  but  if  translated  and  printed  in 
brevier  with  the  cuts,  it  would  not  probably  occupy  more  space  than 
one  of  our  largest  monthly  magazines.  The  books  composing  it,  in 
their  order  of  importance,  are  the  Onna  Dai  Gaku  ("  Women's  Great 
Learning  " — the  moral  duties  of  woman,  founded  on  the  Chinese  clas- 
sics) ;  Onna  Sho  Gaku  ("  Woman's  Small  Learning  " — introduction 
to  the  above) ;  Onna  Niwa  no  Oshiye  ("  Woman's  Household  In- 
struction " — duties  relating  to  furniture,  dress,  reception  of  guests,  and 
all  the  minutiae  of  indoor  life,  both  daily  and  ceremonial) ;  Onna  Ima- 
gawa  ("  Moral  Lessons "  in  paragraphs) ;  Onna  Yobunsho  ("  Lady's 
Letter-writer") ;  Nijiu-shi  Ko  ("Twenty-four  Children " — stories  about 
model  children  in  China).  Besides  these  works  of  importance,  there  are 
Hiyaku  Nin  Isshiu — a  collection  of  one  hundred  poems  from  as  many 
poets,  written  in  the  old  Yamato  dialect,  and  learned  in  every  house- 
hold, and  perpetually  repeated  with  passionate  fondness  by  old  and 
young ;  a  collection  of  lives  of  model  women ;  household  lore ;  alma- 
nac learning ;  rules  and  examples  to  secure  perfect  agreement  between 
man  and  wife ;  and  a  vast  and  detailed  array  of  other  knowledge  of 
various  sorts,  both  useful  and  ornamental  to  a  Japanese  maiden,  wife, 
widow,  or  mother.  This  book  is  studied,  not  only  by  the  higher 
classes,  but  by  the  daughters  in  almost  every  respectable  family 
throughout  the  country.  It  is  read  and  reread,  and  committed  to 
memory,  until  it  becomes  to  the  Japanese  woman  what  the  Bible  is  to 


THE  POSITION  OF  WOMAN.  559 

the  inmate  of  those  homes  in  the  West  in  which  the  Bible  is  the  first, 
and  last,  and  often  the  only  book. 

Only  a  small  proportion  of  Japanese  girls  attain  an  advanced  knowl- 
edge of  Chinese  characters,  though  many  of  the  samurai  daughters 
have  read  the  standard  Japanese  histories ;  and  in  the  best  native 
schools  at  present  a  certain  amount  of  the  reading  and  writing  of  Chi- 
nese characters  is  taught,  and  one  or  two  good  histories  of  Japan  are 
read.  In  the  national,  traditionary,  heroic,  and  historic  lore  of  theii 
own  country,  I  doubt  very  much  whether  the  children  of  any  country 
in  the  world  are  better  instructed  or  informed  than  the  Japanese  chil- 
dren. 

The  fruits  of  this  education,  as  modified  or  strengthened  by  social 
circumstances  and  religion,  are  seen  in  the  present  type  of  the  Japa- 
nese woman.  As  compared  with  her  sister  in  Western  lands,  and  as 
judged  by  her  own  standards,  she  is  fully  the  peer  in  that  exquisite 
taste  for  the  beautiful  and  becoming  as  displayed  in  dress  and  person- 
al adornment ;  nor  is  she  inferior  in  the  graces  of  etiquette  and  female 
proprieties. 

No  ladies  excel  the  Japanese  in  that  innate  love  of  beauty,  order, 
neatness,  household  adornment  and  management,  and  the  amenities  of 
dress  and  etiquette  as  prescribed  by  their  own  standard.  In  maternal 
affection,  tenderness,  anxiety,  patience,  and  long-suffering,  the  Japanese 
mothers  need  fear  no  comparison  with  those  who  know  the  sorrows 
and  rapture  of  maternity  in  other  climes.  As  educators  of  their  chil- 
dren, the  Japanese  women  are  peers  to  the  mothers  of  any  civilization 
in  the  care  and  minuteness  of  their  training  of,  and  affectionate  ten- 
derness and  self-sacrificing  devotion  to,  offspring,  within  the  limits  of 
their  light  and  knowledge.  Though  the  virago  and  the  shrew  are  not 
unknown  characters  in  this  Land  of  Great  Peace,  yet  the  three  funda- 
mental duties  of  woman,  which  include  all  others,  and  as  laid  down  in 
the  Chinese  classics,  are  almost  universally  fulfilled  without  murmurings 
or  hesitation.  These  duties  are,  first,  obedience  to  her  parents  (the 
father)  when  a  child ;  second,  obedience  to  her  husband  when  a  wife ; 
third  (at  least  formal),  obedience  to  her  eldest  son  when  a  widow.  In- 
deed, the  whole  sum  of  excellencies  and  defects  of  the  Japanese  female 
character  arise  from  one  all-including  virtue,  and  the  biography  of  a 
good  woman  is  written  in  one  word — obedience.  Japanese  biogra- 
phies, let  me  add,  contain  quite  as  much  truth  as  the  average  lives  of 
dead  people  written  in  English.  If  unvarying  obedience,  acquiescence, 
submission,  the  utter  absorption  of  her  personality  into  that  of  her 


560  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

husband,  constitute  the  ideal  of  the  perfect  woman,  then  the  Japanese 
married  women  approach  so  near  that  ideal  as  to  be  practically  per- 
fect, and  in  this  respect  are,  as  foreign  women  will  cheerfully  grant  to 
them,  unquestionably  superior. 

The  Japanese  maiden  is  bright,  intelligent,  interesting,  modest,  lady- 
like, self-reliant ;  neither  a  slave  nor  a  wanton.  What  the  American 
girl  is  in  Europe,  the  Japanese  maiden  is  among  Asiatics.  Both  are 
misunderstood.  A  Japanese  virgin  may  act  in  a  way  not  reconcilable 
with  our  standards.  She  may  expose  her  charms  so  as  to  shock  our 
exalted  and  chaste  masculinity.  Lighter-skinned  womankind  may  see 
moral  obliquity  in  an  eye  not  perfectly  horizontal,  when  there  is  nonSa 
The  Japanese  virgin  knows  nothing  of  the  white  lady's  calculated  lim- 
its of  exposure,  or  of  scientific  dress-making,  which  by  an  inch  of  af- 
fluent economy  exerts  a  more  wicked  influence  than  a  nude  bust  emp- 
ty of  intent  to  charm. 

The  importance  of  the  new  education  of  Japanese  girls  to  their 
country  can  not  be  overestimated.  The  revolution  through  which 
the  nation  is  passing  requires  completion.  The  new  reforms,  of  the 
necessity  of  which  the  leaders  of  Japan  are  convinced,  and  to  which 
they  are  pledged,  require  to  be  certified,  and  to  become  part  of  the 
home -life  of  the  people.  The  work  of  the  Government  must  be 
done  in  the  homes.  The  foundations  of  society  are  there ;  and  as 
the  home  is,  so  will  the  State  be  in  every  land.  All  governments, 
in  their  various  forms,  are  but  households  of  a  larger  growth. 
Given  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  average  household  in  any  land, 
and  the  real  government  is  easily  known  and  understood. 

Looking  at  the  question  of  female  education  even  from  the  vulgar 
concrete  standing -point  —  that  woman  is  merely  the  supplement  of 
man,  and  that  the  end  and  aim  and  Almighty  purpose  of  a  woman's 
creation  is  that  she  shall  become  some  man's  wife  —  the  question  is 
all-important.  The  rising  generation,  who  are  to  take  the  places  of 
the  present  leaders  of  Japan,  are  being  educated  in  Western  ideas,  and 
are  passing  through  a  developing  process  which  will  tend  to  exalt  the 
mental  powers  at  the  expense  of  the  animal  instincts.  The  decay  of 
the  old  feudal  frame-work  of  society,  and  the  suppression  of  govern- 
ment pensions  and  hereditary  revenues,  by  removing  all  actual  neces- 
sity for  marriage,  will  create  in  the  minds  of  the  increasing  numbers  of 
those  who  marry  from  the  higher  motives  a  desire  for  a  congenial  life- 
companion  and  helpmate,  and  not  for  a  mere  female  of  the  human 
species.     Though  some  of  the  present  generation  of  students  may 


THE  POSITION  OF  WOMAN.  561 

marry  ordinary  native  women,  those  wlio  wish  for  happiness  in  their 
home-life,  who  aspire  to  rise  out  of  the  old  plane  of  existence  and 
dwell  permanently  on  the  higher  levels  of  intellectual  life,  will  seek 
for  educated  women  as  wives.  The  new  civilization  will  never  take 
root  in  Japan  until  planted  and  cultivated  in  the  homes,  and,  to  secure 
that  end,  the  thorough  education  of  woman  is  an  absolute  necessity. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  add  my  testimony  and  offer  my  plaudit  to  the 
earnest  diligence  and  rapid  progress  of  the  girls  in  the  national  schools, 
of  whose  efforts  and  successes  I  have  been  witness,  and  which  must  be 
extremely  gratifying  to  those  who  organized  or  who  are  interested  in 
them.  Of  the  signal  success,  far-reaching  influence,  and  exalted  teach- 
ings of  the  Christian  missionary  schools  for  girls,  I  can  not  speak  in 
too  high  terms.  In  this  good  work,  American  ladies  have  led  the 
way.  By  them  the  Japanese  maiden  is  taught  the  ideals,  associations, 
and  ordering  of  a  Christian  home,  a  purer  code  of  morals,  a  regenera- 
ting spiritual  power,  of  which  Buddhism  knows  nothing,  and  to  which 
the  highest  aspirations  of  Shinto  are  strangers.  Above  all,  an  ideal 
of  womanhood,  which  is  the  creation  and  gift  of  Christianity  alone, 
eclipsing  the  loftiest  conceptions  of  classic  paganism,  is  held  up  for 
imitation.  The  precept  and  example  of  Christian  women  in  these 
labors  are  mightily  working  the  renovation  of  the  social  fabric  in 
Japan. 

I  think  none  will  accuse  me  of  failure  to  see  the  best  side  of  the 
Japanese  character,  or  of  an  honest  endeavor  to  estimate  fairly  the 
force  and  capability  of  the  religions  of  Japan.  Fully  conscious  of  my 
liability  to  error  in  all  that  I  have  written  in  this  book,  I  yet  utter  my 
conviction  that  nothing  can  ever  renovate  the  individual  heart,  nothing 
purify  society,  and  give  pure  blood-growth  to  the  body  politic  in  Ja- 
pan, but  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ.  Only  the  spiritual  morality, 
and,  above  all,  the  chastity,  taught  by  Him  can  ever  give  the  Japanese 
a  home-life  equal  to  ours.  With  all  our  faults  and  sins,  and  with  all 
the  impurities  and  failures  of  our  society,  I  believe  our  family  and  so- 
cial life  to  be  immeasurably  higher  and  purer  than  that  of  Japan. 

The  religion  of  the  Home-maker,  and  the  Children -lover,  and  the 
Woman-exalter,  is  mighty  to  save  the  Japanese  mother,  and  must  be 
most  potent  to  purify  and  exalt  the  Japanese  home.  Of  all  the 
branches  of  missionary  labor  in  Japan,  none,  it  seems  to  me,  is  of  great- 
er importance,  or  more  hopeful  of  sure  results,  permanent  and  far-reach- 
ing in  its  influence,  than  the  work  of  Christian  women  for  women  in 
Japan. 


562  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


XVIII. 

NEW    JAPAN. 

The  history  of  Japan  from  1872  to  1876  is  intimately  connected 
with  that  of  the  mikado.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1872,  he  visited 
the  imperial  navy,  dock  -  yards,  and  machine  -  shops  at  Yokosuka,  dis- 
playing the  liveliest  interest  in  all  he  saw.  By  his  conduct  through- 
out the  entire  day,  and  coolness  and  self-possession  during  a  critical 
moment,  when  a  damp  mold,  full  of  molten  iron,  exploded  and  be- 
spattered the  imperial  person,  he  proved  himself  more  than  a  petty 
pseudo  -  divinity.  He  showed  himself  a  man.  The  last  act  of  the 
mystery-play  was  over.  As  a  god,  the  mikado  is  a  failure  ;  as  a  man, 
he  is  a  splendid  success.  If  he  has  any  divinity,  it  is  the  divinity  of 
common  sense.  From  dwelling  in  mediaeval  seclusion  in  the  palace, 
steeped  in  sensual  delights,  degraded  in  body  and  mind  to  the  intel- 
lectual level  of  a  girl,  the  sovereign  of  Japan  has  taken  his  place 
among  men  of  thought  and  action,  a  student,  a  thinker,  an  earnest 
and  enlightened  ruler.  In  April,  Mutsuhito  visited  the  Imperial  Col- 
lege ;  and,  being  in  his  presence  several  hours,  and  immediately  before 
him  during  the  performance  of  experiments  and  recitations  by  the 
students,  I  was  enabled  to  study  his  countenance  as  he  sat  surround- 
ed by  princes  of  the  blood,  court  nobles,  and  ministers  of  the  cabinet, 
all  robed  in  variegated  brocade.  He  was  then  dressed  in  flowing 
robes  of  crimson  and  white  satin,  with  black  cap  or  crown,  bound 
by  a  fillet  of  fluted  gold,  with  a  tall,  upright  plume,  or  stiff  rib- 
bon of  gold.  He  appeared  as  the  picture  on  page  102  represents 
some  one  of  his  ancestors.  I  afterward  (January  1st,  1873)  had  the 
pleasure  of  an  audience  in  the  imperial  palace,  seeing  him  sitting  on 
a  chair,  or  throne,  richly  ornamented  with  golden  dragons  and  lions, 
flanked  by  his  sword-bearer  and  train  of  courtiers,  in  all  the  gorgeous- 
ness  and  variety  of  silk  robes  and  ceremonial  caps,  so  characteristic  of 
rank  in  Dai  Nippon.     At  the  opening  of  the  new  buildings*  of  the 

*  These  are  built  in  modern  style,  in  three  wings,  each  192  feet  long,  joined  to 


NEW  JAPAN.  563 

Imperial  College — thenceforth  called  the  Imperial  University  of  Ja- 
pan— I  saw  him  dressed  in  the  costume  shown  in  the  portrait  on  page 
37,  thoroughly  Europeanized  in  dress  and  person.  I  consider  the  like- 
ness in  photograph  and  wood-cut  to  be  a  capital  one. 

On  the  3d  of  April,  1872,  at  3  p.m.,  during  the  prevalence  of  a  high 
wind,  a  fire,  breaking  out  inside  the  castle  circuit,  leaped  wall  and  moat, 
and  in  five  hours  swept  Tokio  to  the  bay.  Five  thousand  houses  and 
hundreds  of  yashikis  and  temples — among  them  the  great  Monzeki, 
in  Tsukuji — were  destroyed.  The  foreign  hotels  were  left  in  ashes, 
which  covered  many  square  miles.  Out  of  this  calamity  rose  the 
phenix  of  a  new  plan  with  a  new  order  of  architecture.  The  main 
avenues  were  widened  to  ninety  feet,  the  smaller  ones  to  sixty  feet. 
Rows  of  fine  houses  in  brick  and  stone,  and  new  bridges,  in  many 
cases  of  stone  or  iron,  were  built.  Tokio  is  now  thoroughly  modern- 
ized in  large  portions.  The  foreign  residents  joined  in  the  work  of 
alleviating  the  distress.  As  bearer  of  their  silver  contributions  to  the 
mayor  of  the  city,  I  found  my  old  friend,  Mitsuoka  (Yuri),  of  Fukui, 
sitting  amidst  the  ashes  of  his  dwelling,  but  happy  in  the  possession 
of  an  imperial  order  to  visit  America  and  Europe,  to  study  municipal 
government  and  improvements. 

the  main  building,  3'^  feet  long.  They  contain  79  rooms.  The  students,  who 
wear  uniform  as  in  American  schools,  number  350,  taught  by  30  foreign  profess- 
ors. The  Foreign  -  language  School,  in  which  students  learn  the  English  or 
other  language  preparatory  to  entering  the  college,  is  on  Hitotsubashi  Avenue, 
opposite.  It  has  600  students  and  20  foreign  teachers.  Both  are  well  equipped 
with  books  and  apparatus.  At  the  banquet  given  October  9th,  Higaslii  Fushimi 
no  Miya,  prince  of  the  blood;  Sanjo  Saudyoshi,  Dai  Jo  Dai  Jin;  Eto  Shimpei,  Oki, 
and  Itagaki,  Counselors  of  State;  Saigo  Yorimichi,  Yoshida  Kiyonari,  and  many 
others,  were  present,  all  of  whom  I  met.  The  empire  is,  for  educational  purposes, 
divided  into  eight  districts,  in  each  of  which  is  to  be  a  university,  supplied  by  210 
schools  of  foreign  languages.  The  elementary  vernacular  schools  will  number 
53,000,  or  one  for  every  600  persons  in  the  empire.  They  are  supplied  by  native 
teachers  trained  in  normal  schools.  At  present,  nearly  3,000,000  youths  of  both 
sexes  are  in  school.  With  such  excellent  provision  at  home,  the  Government, 
having  found  out  their  expensive  mistake  of  sending  raw  students  abroad  to 
study,  and  the  political  objects  of  the  movement  having  been  secured,  recalled 
most  of  them  in  1873 — an  order  that  was  curiously  misunderstood  in  America  and 
Europe  to  mean  reaction.  This,  however,  is  a  mistake.  Trained  students  versed 
in  the  languages  and  science  have  taken  the  place  of  many  of  those  recalled.  While 
the  embassy  was  in  America,  David  Murray,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Mathemat- 
ics and  Astronomy  in  Rutgers  College,  was  appointed  Superintendent  of  Schools 
and  Colleges  in  Japan.  Dr.  Murray,  by  his  quiet  vigor,  unassuming  manners, 
thorough  competence,  ability,  and  industry,  has  done  much  to  improve  and  per- 
fect education  in  Japan.  He  was,  in  1875,  also  appointed  Commissioner  to  the 
Centennial  Exhibition. 


564 


THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 


Durinor  the  summer,  Mr.  Katsu  Awa  was  made  Minister  of  the 
Navy,  and  Mr.  Okubo  Ichio,  Mayor  of  Tokio.  A  large  number  of  ex- 
Tokugawa  vassals  were  called  into  the  service 
of  the  Government,  and  the  old  lines  of  divis- 
ion obliterated.  The  head  of  the  Tokugawa 
family  appointed  by  the  mikado's  court  in 
1868,  is  Jiusammi  Tokugawa  Kamenosuke, 
whom  I  often  met  in  Tokio.  The  Tokugawa 
clansmen  are  now  among  the  loyal  upholders 
of  the  throne  and  the  new  order  of  things. 
Mr.  Katsu  devoted  himself  to  the  thorough  or- 
ganization of  the  navy  (see  page  597).  The 
British  model  had  already  been  selected.  In 
the  accompanying  cut  is  given  a  specimen  of 
the  national  fleet,  the  Tsukuba  Kan,  which 
japaDChe  N.uai  Officer,  visited  San  Francisco  during  1875.  The  por- 
trait of  the  commander  shows  the  Japanese  naval  officer  of  the  period 
in  modern  tonsure  and  uniform.  The  sun-flag  of  Japan  floats  astern. 
In  the  latter  part  of  June,  1872,  the  mikado  left  Tokio  in  the  flag- 
ship of  Admiral  Akamatsu,  who  was  trained  in  Holland  with  Enomoto, 


The  Japanese  Steam  Corvette  Tsukuba  Kan 


and  made  a  tour  in  Kiushiu  and  the  South  and  West  of  the  empire. 
For  the  first  time  in  twelve  centuries,  the  Emperor  of  Japan  moved 
freely  and  unveiled  among  his  subjects,  whose  loyalty  and  devotion 
were  manifested  in  the  intense  but  decorous  enthusiasm  characteristic 
of  a  people  to  whom  etiquette  is  second  nature.  In  several  ancient 
places  the  imperial  hands  opened,  in  anticipation  of  the  Vienna  Ex- 


NUW  JAPAN.  565 

position,  store-houses  which  had  been  sealed  since  the  time  of  Seiwa 
Tenno  (a.d.  859-876).  Vienna  was  ah-eady  engaging  the  attention  of 
the  Government.  The  mikado  visited  Nagasaki,  Kagoshima,  Nara, 
Kioto,  Ozaka,  and  other  places,  returning  to  Toki5,  August  16th,  rid- 
ing from  Yokohama  by  railway. 

The  14th  of  October  was  a  day  of  matchless  autumnal  beauty  and 
ineffable  influence.  The  sun  rose  cloudlessly  on  the  Sunrise  Land. 
Fuji  blushed  at  dawn  out  of  the  roseate  deeps  of  space,  and  on  stain- 
less blue  printed  its  white  magnificence  all  day  long,  and  in  the  mys- 
tic twilight  sunk  in  floods  of  golden  splendor,  resting  at  night  with  its 
head  among  the  stars.  On  that  auspicious  day,  the  mikado,  princes 
of  the  blood,  court  nobles,  the  "  flowery  nobility""  of  ex-daimios,  and 
guests,  representing  the  literature,  science,  art,  and  arms  of  Japan,  in 
flowing,  picturesque  costume ;  the  foreign  Diplomatic  Corps,  in  tight 
cloth  smeared  with  gold ;  the  embassadors  of  Liu  Kiu,  the  Aino  chiefs, 
and  officials  in  modern  dress,  made  the  procession,  that,  underneath 
arches  of  camellias,  azaleas,  and  chrysanthemums,  moved  into  the  stone- 
built  depot,  and,  before  twenty  thousand  spectators,  stepped  into  the 
train.  It  was  a  sublime  moment,  when,  before  that  august  array  of 
rank  and  fame,  and  myriads  of  his  subjects,  the  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-third representative  of  the  imperial  line  declared  the  road  open. 
The  young  emperor  beheld  with  deep  emotion  the  presence  of  so  many 
human  beings.  As  the  train  moved,  the  weird  strains  of  the  national 
hymn  of  Japan,  first  heard  before  the  Roman  empire  fell  or  Charle- 
magne ruled,  were  played.  Empires  had  risen,  flourished,  and  passed 
away  since  those  sounds  were  first  attuned.  To-day  Japan,  fresh  and 
vigorous,  with  new  blood  in  her  heart,  was  taking  an  upward  step  in 
life.  May  the  Almighty  Disposer  grant  the  island  empire  strength, 
national  unity,  and  noble  purpose  while  the  world  stands ! 

These  were  my  thoughts  as  the  smoke  puffed  and  the  wheels  re- 
volved. Past  flower-decked  stations,  the  train  moved  on.  When  at 
Kanagawa,  puffs  of  smoke  and  tongues  of  flame  leaped  from  the 
fleet  of  the  foreign  war-ships  as  their  broadsides  thundered  the  con- 
gratulations of  Christendom  to  New  Japan.  But  all  ceremony,  pag- 
eant, and  loyal  hosannas  paled  before  the  sublime  significance  of  the 
act  of  the  mikado,  when  four  of  his  subjects,  in  the  plain  garb  of  mer- 
chants, stood  in  the  presence  of  majesty,  and  read  an  address  of  con- 
gratulation, to  which  the  emperor  replied.  The  merchant  face  to  face 
with  the  mikado  ?  The  lowest  social  class  before  traditional  divinity  ? 
It  was  a  political  miracle !     I  saw  in  that  scene  a  moral  grandeur  that 


566  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

measured  itself  against  centuries  of  feudalism.  What  were  war's  vic- 
tories, or  the  pomp  of  courts,  compared  with  that  moment  when  Japa- 
nese social  progress  and  national  regeneration  touched  high -water 
mark?  It  foreshadowed  the  time  to  come  when  the  merchant,  no 
longer  despised,  should  take  his  place  in  the  council-halls  of  the  nation. 

When  representative  government  comes,  as  come  it  must,  the  mer- 
chant, becoming  senator,  will  help  to  sway  the  national  destinies. 
The  emperor  in  whose  reign  the  eta  were  made  citizens — an  act  as 
morally  grand  as  the  emancipation  of  slaves — now  dwells  at  times  the 
guest  of  a  merchant.  Before  the  end  of  this  century,  it  may  be,  the 
throne,  no  longer  stilted  on  the  effete  fiction  of  petty  divinity,  may 
rest  wholly  upon  constitution,  law,  and  intelligent  patriotism. 

The  doctrine  of  the  divine  descent  of  the  mikado  has  been  very 
useful  in  times  past ;  but  its  work  is  done.  Its  light  is  paling ;  it  is 
time  for  its  wane ;  it  can  not  long  remain  above  the  horizon.  There 
are  so  many  Sons  of  Heaven,  so  many  Centres  of  the  Universe,  Infal- 
libilities, etc.,  in  Asia,  where  the  fashion  still  lingers  of  making  gods 
of  men  for  the  purposes  of  political  machinery,  that  the  very  mention 
of  such  an  idea  is  an  evidence  of  weakness,  even  of  imbecility.  Japan 
will  win  the  respect  of  civilization  by  dropping  the  fiction.* 

Again,  in  the  same  year,  Japan  challenged  the  admiration  of  Chris- 
tendom. The  coolie  trade,  carried  on  by  the  Portuguese  at  Macao, 
in  China,  between  the  local  kidnapers  and  Peru  and  Cuba,  had  long 
existed  in  defiance  of  the  Chinese  Government.  Thousands  of  igno- 
rant Chinese  were  yearly  decoyed  to  Macao,  and  shipped,  in  swelter- 
ing ship-holds,  under  the  name  of  "  passengers."  In  Cuba  and  Peru, 
their  contracts  were  often  broken,  they  were  cruelly  treated,  and  only 
a  small  proportion  of  them  returned  alive  to  tell  their  wrongs. 

The  Japanese  Government  had,  with  a  fierce  jealousy,  born  of  their 
experiences  of  slave-trade  in  the  sixteenth  century,  watched  the  first 
beginnings  of  such  a  traffic  on  their  own  shores.  Certain  "  Chris- 
tian "  nations  seemed  to  have  a  special  inclination  to  trade  in  human 
flesh.  The  Dutch  at  Deshima  during  two  centuries  gave  them  exam- 
ples of  sordid  greed  that  stops  not  at  selling  men.  Even  their  own 
pagan  morals  taught  them  the  iniquity  of  the  traflSc.     The  works  of 

*  The  propriety  of  giving  the  title  "The  Mikado's  Empire"  to  this  book  has 
been  challenged  by  several  modernized  Japanese,  who  believe  that  the  life  of  the 
nation  is  more  than  the  meat  of  a  title,  and  the  body  more  than  its  raiment  of  im- 
perialism; but  the  vindication  of  its  use  is  abundantly  shown  in  Japan's  past  and 
present. 


NEW  JAPAK  667 

Japanese  authors  condemn  the  crime  in  unsparing  terms,  and  load 
those  guihy  of  it  with  obloquy.  In  the  last  days  of  the  bakufu, 
coolie  traders  came  to  Japan  to  ship  irresponsible  hordes  of  Japanese 
coolies,  and  women  for  a  viler  purpose,  to  the  United  States.  To  their 
everlasting  shame,  be  it  said,  some  were  Americans.  A  few  cargoes 
were  sent  to  Hawaii  and  California,  and  natives  of  Japan  were  actual- 
ly sold  for  contemptible  sums  to  task-masters.  Of  those  who  return- 
ed were  some  of  ray  own  students.  Among  the  first  things  done  by 
the  mikado's  Government  after  the  Restoration  was  the  sending  of  an 
official  who  effected  the  joyful  delivery  of  these  people  and  their  re- 
turn to  their  homes.  No  Japanese  are  ever  allowed  to  go  abroad,  ex- 
cept as  responsible,  competent,  and  respectable  citizens,  who  will  do 
credit  to  their  country. 

The  story  of  the  Maria  Luz  is  a  long  one.  I  hope  to  condense  it 
justlj".  The  Peruvian  ship,  loaded  with  Chinese,  put  into  the  port  of 
Yokohama.  Two  fugitive  coolies  in  succession  swam  to  the  English 
war  -  ship, /ron  Duke.  Hearing  the  piteous  story  of  their  wrongs, 
Mr.  Watson,  the  British  charge  d'affaires,  called  the  attention  of  the 
Japanese  authorities  to  these  illegal  acts  committed  in  their  waters. 
A  protracted  inquiry  was  instituted,  and  the  coolies  landed.  The 
Japanese  refused  to  force  them  on  board  in  duress  against  their  will, 
and  later,  shipped  them  to  China,  a  favor  which  was  gratefully  ac- 
knowledged by  the  Peking  Government.  This  act  of  a  pagan  nation 
achieved  a  grand  moral  victory  for  the  world  and  humanity.  Writ- 
ing now,  in  1876,  we  see  the  coolie-traffic — a  euphemism  for  the  slave- 
trade — abolished  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  the  barracoons  of  Ma- 
cao in  ruins.  China,  shamed  into  better  care  of  her  people,  has  sent 
commissioners  to  Cuba  and  Peru,  and  has  refused  to  enter  into  any 
treaty  obligation  with  any  South  American  State  so  long  as  a  single 
Chinaman  remains  in  the  country  against  his  will.  Instead  of  a  bom- 
bardment by  Peruvian  iron-clads,  and  war,  so  generously  threatened, 
Japan  and  Peru  have  clasped  reconciled  hands  in  friendship.  The 
case  of  the  Maria  Luz,  referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia  for  arbitra- 
tion, was  decided  by  him  in  favor  of  Japan.  A  Peruvian  legation  is 
now  established  in  Tokio.  Yet  the  act  of  freeing  the  Chinese  coolies 
in  1872  was  done  in  the  face  of  clamor  and  opposition  and  a  rain  of 
protests  from  the  foreign  consuls,  ministers,  and  a  part  of  the  press. 
But  abuse  and  threats  and  diplorpatic  pressure  were  in  vain.  The 
Japanese  never  wavered.  As  straight  as  Gulliver  through  the  hail 
of  pin-point  arrows,  the  Japanese  marched  to  the  duty  before  them. 


568  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

They  had  freed  their  eta;  they  now  liberated  the  slaves.  The  Brit- 
ish charge  and  the  American  consul,  Colonel  Charles  0.  Shepherd, 
alone  gave  hearty  support  and  unwavering  sympathy  to  the  right  side. 

During  the  year  1872,  two  legations  and  three  consulates  were  es- 
tablished abroad.  The  number  of  these  is  now  ten  in  all.  At  home 
the  work  of  national  consolidation  went  on,  occasionally  interrupt- 
ed by  sporadic  uprisings  of  peasantry,  too  ignorant  to  see  that  local 
abuses  or  privileges  were  being  adjusted  to  a  national  basis  of  just 
equality.  The  press  of  Japan  passed  from  the  realm  of  experiment  into 
that  of  an  estate.  The  wondrous  growth  of  this  civilizing  force  is 
best  seen  by  a  study  of  the  postal  statistics  on  page  590.  Ten  daily 
newspapers  in  the  capital,  and  two  hundred  publications  in  the  em- 
pire, furnished  with  metal  type  and  printing-presses,  are  flooding  the 
country  with  information  and  awakening  thought.  The  editors  are 
often  men  of  culture,  or  students  returned  from  abroad,  and  special 
scholars  are  found  on  the  editorial  staff.  The  surprisingly  large 
measure  of  liberty  of  the  press  granted  in  1872,  1873,  and  1874  was 
severely  curtailed  in  1875,  and  the  problem  of  allowing  newspapers  in 
a  country  still  governed  by  a  despotic  monarchy  remains  unsolved. 
The  Japanese  statesmen  seem  to  imagine  that  a  people  may  be  educa- 
ted thoroughly,  and  yet  be  governed  like  children.  To  show  the  power 
possessed  by  the  Government  over  the  people,  it  is  enough  to  say  that 
the  whereabouts  of  ninety-nine  hundredths  of  all  the  citizens  during 
any  given  past  twenty-four  hours  can  be  told  with  great  certainty. 

The  establishment  of  the  press  has  also  exposed  the  fact  that  in 
these  isles  of  the  blest,  in  which  some  foreigners  supposed  existed 
only  innocence,  gentleness,  or  good -mannered  poverty,  reeks  every 
species  of  moral  filth,  abomination,  crime,  and  corruption.  To  scan 
the  columns  of  an  average  Japanese  newspaper  is  to  read  a  tale  of 
horror  and  nastiness  that  puts  to  the  blush  the  obscene  calendars  in 
the  sensational  dailies  and  illustrated  Police  Gazettes  of  New  York, 
which  find  their  way  only  too  plentifully  into  the  editorial  rooms  of 
Japanese  cities.  As  one  measure  of  crime  in  Dai  Nippon,  I  believe  the 
number  of  executions  and  deaths  in  the  native  prisons  averages  three 
thousand  per  annum.  There  is  scarcely  a  form  of  sin  known  to  Sodom, 
Greece,  Rome,  or  India,  but  has  been,  or  is,  practiced  in  Japan,  which 
has  sorest  need  of  moral  renovation. 

Yet  in  the  department  of  jurisprudence  vast  progress  has  been 
made.  I  doubt  whether  any  nation  on  earth  can  show  a  more  revolt- 
ing list  of  horrible  methods  of  torture  and  punishment  in  the  past 


NEW  JAPAN. 


569 


with  so  great  amelioration  in  so  short  a  time.     Their  cruel  and  bloody 
codes  were  mostly  borrowed  from  China. 

Since  the  Restoration,  revised  statutes  and  regulations  have  greatly 
decreased  the  list  of  capital  punishments,  reformed  the  condition  of 
prisons,  and  made  legal  processes  less  cruelly  simple,  but  with  elabora- 
tion of  mercy  and  justice.  The  use  of  torture  to  obtain  testimony  is 
now  entirely  abolished.  Law  schools  have  also  been  established,  law- 
yers are  allowed  to  plead,  thus  giving  the  accused  the  assistance  of 
counsel  for  his  defense.      The  cut  represents  the  old  style  of  trial. 


Court  Scene.    Old  Style. 

The  prisoner,  the  torturer,  secretary,  and  judge  were  the  chief  or  only 
personages  at  the  trial.  A  museum  as  curious  as  any  to  be  found  in 
Europe  might  be  made  of  the  now  obsolete  instruments  of  torture. 
Let  us  hope  that  the  system  of  jurisprudence  founded  on  Roman  law, 
infused  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  may  be  imported,  and  tlourish 
in  Japan.     This  is  now  being  done. 

In  moral  character,  the  average  Japanese  is  frank,  honest,  faithful, 
kind,  gentle,  courteous,  confiding,  affectionate,  filial,  loyal.  Love  of 
truth  for  its  own  sake,  chastity,  temperance,  are  not  characteristic 
virtues.  A  high,  almost  painful,  sense  of  honor  is  cultivated  by  the 
samurai.  In  spirit,  the  average  artisan  and  farmer  is  a  sheep.  In  in- 
tellectual capacity  the  actual  merchant  is  mean,  and  in  moral  character 
low.     He  is  beneath  the  Chinaman  in  this  respect.     The  male  Japa- 


570  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

nese  is  far  less  overbearing  and  more  chivalrous  to  woman  than  any 
other  Asiatic.  In  political  knowledge  or  gregarious  ability  the  coun- 
tryman is  a  baby,  and  the  city  artisan  a  boy.  The  peasant  is  a  pro- 
nounced pagan,  with  superstition  ingrained  and  dyed  into  the  very 
finest  fibre  of  his  nature. 

In  reverence  to  elders  and  to  antiquity,  obedience  to  parents,  gentle 
manners,  and  universal  courtesy  and  generous  impulses,  the  Japanese  are 
the  peers  of  any,  and  superior  to  many,  peoples  of  Christendom.  The 
idea  of  filial  obedience  has  been  developed  into  fanaticism,  is  the  main 
prop  of  paganism  and  superstition,  and  is  the  root  of  the  worst  blot 
on  the  Japanese  character — the  slavery  of  prostituted  Avomen. 

To  sum  up :  Japanese  are  simply  human,  no  better,  no  worse  than 
mankind  outside.  The  attempts  of  good  people,  with  eyes  jaundiced 
by  theological  dogmatics,  to  put  so  heavy  a  coat  of  moral  tar  and 
feathers  upon  the  Japanese  as  to  make  them  sinners  above  all  nations ; 
or  of  hearty  haters  of  all  missionary  labors,  who  are  in  love  with  the 
Utopia  of  their  own  creation,  to  make  them  guileless  innocents,  must 
alike  fail  before  the  hard  facts. 

The  whole  question  of  the  ability  of  the  Japanese  to  receive  the 
highest  form  of  civilization  is  intimately  connected  with  their  phys- 
ical constitution. 

The  physique  of  the  mountaineers  and  sailors,  fishermen  and  stead- 
ily employed  coolies,  seems  to  be  the  finest.  The  average  height  of 
the  men  is  five  feet.  The  Japanese  never  smoke  opium,  like  the  Chi- 
nese ;  but  the  habit  of  filling  the  lungs  with  tobacco-smoke  and  exhal- 
ing it  through  the  nose  does  not  tend  to  pulmonary  health,  and,  in 
comparison  with  the  white  nations,  they  are  notably  flat  -  breasted. 
The  question  has  been  raised  as  to  whether  the  Japanese  are  a  degen- 
erate race.  I  think  the  evidence  leans  to  the  negative  side.  In  their 
method  of  rearing  infants,  only  the  hardy  ones  can  survive  the  expos- 
ure to  which  they  are  subject.  Deformity  is  strikingly  rare.  Rheu- 
matism, chills,  and  fever  in  the  low-lying  marshy  districts,  catarrh,  and 
diarrhea  are  common,  though  not  strikingly  so.  Nervous  disorders 
are  not  general.  Leprosy,  or  elephantiasis,  is  known,  and  kakke  (leg- 
humor)  is  peculiar  to  Japan.  It  is  probable  that  the  people  do  not 
always  take  extraordinary  pains  to  rear  deformed  infants.  Exposure 
or  desertion  of  children  is  an  almost  unheard-of  thing.  The  maim- 
ing and  breaking  of  limbs,  caused  by  accidents  —  by  falling,  explo- 
sions, etc. — so  frequent  in  countries  where  high  buildings  and  machin- 
ery are  in  general  use,  are  rare  among  the  Japanese.     Varicose  veins, 


^^EW  JAPAN.  571 

resulting  from  sans-culottism,  furnish  a  curious  argument  in  favor  of  a 
liberal  supplement  to  Eden's  costume,  even  to  the  donning  of  unpict- 
uresque  pantaloons.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  jin-riki-sha,  the 
prevalence  of  heart-disease  among  the  coolies  has  assumed  frightful 
proportions.  The  almost  national  change  for  the  better  in  the  diet, 
clothing,  and  public  hygienic  protection  and  education  of  the  people 
must  bear  good  fruit  for  future  generations,  and  greatly  improve  the 
average  physique  of  the  nation.* 

The  Corean  war  project  had,  in  1872,  become  popular  in  the  Cabi- 
net. It  was  the  absorbing  theme  of  the  army  and  navy.  The  samu- 
rai burned  to  make  "  the  glory  of  Japan  shine  beyond  the  seas."  It 
has  been  said  that  "  if  Japan  weighs  one  hundred  pounds,  Satsuma 
is  fifty  of  them."  This  warlike  clan,  and  that  of  Hizen,  boiling  over 
with  patriotism,  vexed  their  righteous  souls  daily  because  the  revolu- 
tion of  1868  had  gone  too  far.  The  Yamato  damashi  and  warlike  pol- 
icy were  giving  way  to  considerations  of  finance.  They  clamored  for 
a  general  return  to  ancient  ideals,  principles,  dress,  tonsure,  and  side- 
arms,  to  which  they  still  clung.  During  the  Tokugawa  period  Corea 
had  regularly  sent  embassies  of  homage  and  congratulation  to  Japan ; 
but,  not  relishing  the  change  of  aflEairs  in  1868,  disgusted  at  the  for- 
eignizing  tendencies  of  the  mikado's  Government,  incensed  at  Ja- 
pan's departure  from  Turanian  ideals,  and  emboldened  by  the  failure 
of  the  French  and  American  expeditions,  Corea  sent  insulting  letters, 
taunting  Japan  with  slavish  truckling  to  the  foreign  barbarians,  de- 
clared herself  an  enemy,  and  challenged  Japan  to  fight.  The  divul- 
ging of  this  news,  after  vain  attempts  to  repress  it,  acted  like  a  moral 
volcano. 

About  this  time,  a  Liu  Kiu  junk  was  wrecked  on  eastern  Formosa. 
The  crew  were  killed  by  the  savages,  and,  as  it  is  said,  eaten.  The 
Liu  Kiuans  appealed  to  their  tributary  lords  at  Satsuma,  who  referred 
the  matter  to  Tokio.  English,  Dutch,  American,  German,  and  Chinese 
ships  had,  from  time  to  time,  been  wrecked  on  this  "  cannibal "  coast, 
the  terror  of  the  commerce  of  Christendom.     Their  war-ships  vainly 

*  Medical  Statistics,  not  including  Naval  and  3filitary  Medical  Staff,  Hospitals,  and 
Students. —  There  were  in  the  empire  in  1874:  1  Government  hospital;  31  public 
hospitals  (assisted  by  Government  grants  in  aid);  29  private  hospitals;  33,015 
physicians  practicing  according  to  Eastern,  and  5247  according  to  Western,  sci- 
ence ;  5205  apothecaries ;  361  mineral  springs ;  944  patent  medicines  in  use. 
There  were,  in  1875,  as  many  as  25  foreign  surgeons  and  physicians  in  Japanese 
Government  employ,  with  250  students  in  the  Medical  College  in  Tokio,  and  75 
in  that  at  Nagasaki,  instructed  by  German,  Dutch,  and  English  professors. 


572  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

attempted  to  chastise  the  savages.  Soyejima,  with  others,  conceived 
the  idea  of  occupying  the  coast  to  rule  the  wild  tribes,  and  of  erect- 
ing light-houses,  in  the  interests  of  commerce.  China  laid  no  claim 
to  eastern  Formosa,  all  trace  of  which  was  omitted  from  maps  of 
the  "Middle  Kingdom."  In  the  spring  of  1873,  Soyejima  went  to 
Peking,  and  there  among  other  things  granted  him  was  an  audience 
with  the  Chinese  emperor.  He  thus  reaped  the  results  of  the  dip- 
lomatic labors  of  half  a  century.  The  Japanese  embassador  stood 
upright  before  the  Dragon  Face  and  the  Dragon  Throne,  robed  in 
the  tight  black  dress-coat,  pantaloons,  and  white  neck  linen  of  Westr 
em  civilization,  bearing  the  congratulations  of  the  young  mikado  of 
the  Sunrise  to  the  youthful  emperor  of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  In  the 
Tsung  Li  Yamen,  Chinese  responsibility  over  Eastern  Formosa  was 
disavowed,  and  the  right  of  Japan  to  chastise  the  savages  granted.  A 
Japanese  junk  was  wrecked  on  Formosa,  and  its  crew  stripped  and 
plundered,  while  Soyejima  was  absent  in  China.  This  event  piled 
fresh  fuel  on  the  flames  of  the  war  feeling,  now  popular  even  among 
the  unarmed  classes.  The  only  thing  waited  for  before  drawing  the 
sword  was  the  arrival  of  the  embassy. 

In  its  subordinate  objects  the  embassy  was  a  signal  success.  Much 
was  learned  of  Christendom.  The  results  at  home  were  the  splendid 
series  of  reforms  which  mark  the  year  1872  as  epochal.  Moral,  social, 
legal,  political,  educational,  and  material  changes  were  so  numerous 
and  sweeping  as  to  daze  the  alien  spectator  on  the  soil,  and  cause 
him  to  ask  again,  "  Can  a  nation  be  born  at  once  ?" 

In  its  prime  object  the  embassy  was  a  magnificent  failure.  Be- 
yond amusement,  curiosity,  thirst  for  knowledge,  its  purpose  was 
constant,  single,,  supreme.  It  was  to  ask  that  in  the  revision  of  the 
treaties  the  extra-territoriality  clause  be  stricken  out,  that  foreigners 
be  made  subject  to  the  laws  of  Japan.  The  failure  of  the  mission  was 
predicted  by  all  who  knew  the  facts.  From  Washington  to  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, point-blank  refusal  was  made.  No  Christian  governments 
would  for  a  moment  trust  their  people  to  pagan  edicts  and  prisons. 
While  Japan  slandered  Christianity  by  proclamations,  imprisoned  men 
for  their  belief,  knew  nothing  of  trial  by  jury,  of  the  habeas-corpus 
writ,  or  of  modern  jurisprudence ;  in  short,  while  Japan  maintained 
the  institutions  of  barbarism,  they  refused  to  recognize  her  as  peer  in 
the  comity  of  nations. 

Meanwhile,  at  home  the  watch-word  was  progress.  The  sale  of  orphan 
female  children  to  brothel  -  keepers,  the  traffic  in  native  or  European 


NEW  JAPAN.  573 

Dbscene  pictures,  the  lascivious  dances,  even  to  nudity,  of  the  sing- 
ing-girls, the  custom  of  promiscuous  bathing  in  the  public  baths,  and 
of  the  country  coolies  going  naked  or  nearly  without  clothing,  were 
abolished.  Public  decency  was  improved,  and  the  standards  of  Chris- 
tendom attempted.  The  law  entered  that  the  offense  might  abound. 
Many  things  absolutely  innocent  became  at  once  relatively  sinful.  It 
was  an  earnest  effort  to  elevate  the  social  condition.  With  a  basis  of 
education  and  moral  training  in  the  minds  of  the  people  to  underlie 
the  Government  edicts,  complete  success  may  be  hoped  for ;  but  even 
in  the  mikado's  empire  the  moral  character  of  a  people  is  not  made 
or  unmade  by  fiat.  Marvelous  progress  has,  however,  been  made. 
The  slanderous  anti-Claistian  kosatsu  were  also  taken  down,  and  the 
last  relic  of  public  persecution  for  conscience'  sake  removed.  The 
engraving,  page  368,  represents  a  vanished  curiosity.  A  noble  step 
was  still  further  taken  in  the  face  of  a  bigoted  priesthood  and  fanatic 
conservatives.  All  the  "  Christians  "  torn  from  their  homes  at  Ura- 
kami,  near  Nagasaki,  in  1868  and  1869,  and  exiled  and  imprisoned  in 
Kaga,  Echizen,  and  other  provinces,  were  set  free  and  restored  to  their 
native  villages.  This  measure  had  long  been  urged  by  Hon.  Charles 
E.  De  Long,  Sir  Harry  Parkes,  Mr.  F.  0.  Adams,  and  Count  Turenne. 
In  this  year  (1872)  I  made  a  tour  of  one  month,  over  nine  hundred 
miles,  to  Shidzuoka,  Kioto,  Fukui,  and  along  the  Sea  of  Japan,  to  near 
Niigata,  thence  through  Shinano  and  Kodzuke.  I  went  to  spy  out 
the  land  and  see  how  deeply  civilization  had  penetrated.  A  week's 
journey  was  also  made  through  Kadzusa  and  Awa,  another  in  Shimosa 
and  Hitachi,  and  three  separate  trips  for  purposes  of  research  in  Sa- 
gami,  Idzu,  and  Suruga.  My  intense  enjoyment  of  the  classic  ground 
was  shadowed  by  the  vivid  realization  of  the  poverty  of  the  country, 
the  low  estate  of  the  peasantry,  the  need  of  something  better  than 
paganism,  and  the  vastness  of  the  task  of  regenerating  an  agricultural 
nation.  The  task,  though  great,  is  not  hopeless.  I  was  pleased  to 
find  education  thoroughly  extended,  schools  everywhere,  and  boys  and 
girls  alike  studying  with  the  help  of  such  new  improvements  as  slate 
and  pencil,  blackboard  and  chalk,  charts  and  text-books  on  geography, 
history,  reading,  etc.,  translated  from  standard  American  school-books. 
In  Europe,  Iwakura  and  his  colleagues  were  cognizant  of  home 
affairs.  With  eyes  opened  by  all  they  had  seen  abroad  —  mighty 
results,  but  of  slow  growth  —  they  saw  their  country  going  too  fast. 
Under  the  war  project  lay  an  abyss  of  financial  ruin.  It  must  be 
crushed.     Shrewdly  they  laid  plans,  warily  they  kept  silence,  sudden- 

37 


674  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

ly  they  struck  the  blow.  The  war  scheme,  brought  up  in  a  cabiuet 
meeting,  was  squelched.  The  disappointment  of  the  army  was  keen, 
that  of  expectant  foreign  contractors  pitiable.  The  soldiers  vented 
their  rage  in  curses,  the  contractors  in  printed  mud.  Finding  it  use- 
less to  resist  the  crushing  power  of  Iwakura,  backed  by  Okubo,  Kido, 
Katsu  Ito,  and  Oki,  the  ablest  men  of  the  cabinet,  Goto,  Soyejima, 
and  Eto  resigned  and  retired  to  private  life. 

The  volcano  hardened  to  an  outer  crust.  The  war-loving  samurai 
looked  upon  Iwakura  as  a  peace-at-any-price  man.  He  was  also  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  financial  scheme,  now  promulgated,  of  com- 
muting, with  a  view  to  final  extinction,  the  samurai  pensions.  The 
nation,  groaning  under  this  burden — the  legacy  of  feudalism — must 
throw  it  off,  become  bankrupt,  or  go  back  to  isolation.  It  was  throt- 
tling the  life  of  the  nation. 

It  has  been  said  that  "  the  actual  government  of  Japan  is  despot- 
ism, tempered  by  assassination."  The  old  spirit  was  not  yet  dead. 
On  the  evening  of  January  14th,  outside  the  castle  moat,  and  near  the 
palace-gates,  the  U  Dai  Jin  was  returning  from  an  interview  with  the 
emperor.  In  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  his  betto  was  cut  down,  the 
driver  wounded,  and  the  sides  of  the  carriage  pierced  and  cut  to  rib- 
bons with  spear-points  and  sword-blades.  Iwakura,  wounded  in  two 
places,  leaped  out  on  the  edge  of  the  moat.  He  fell,  and  rolled  into 
the  water.  The  foiled  assassins,  in  the  pitch-darkness,  not  daring  to 
linger  for  search,  and  unable  to  see  or  find  their  victim,  made  off. 
In  spite  of  wounds,  cold,  and  immersion,  the  U  Dai  Jin  recovered. 
Soon  afterward,  nine  ronins  —  eight  from  Tosa  and  one  from  Satsu- 
ma — were  arrested,  and  their  crime  proved.  The  U  Dai  Jin  pleaded 
that  mercy  be  shown  them.  In  vain.  The  nine  heads  rolled  into 
the  blood-pit. 

On  the  17th  of  January,  the  ex-ministers.  Goto,  Soyejima,  Eto,  Ita- 
gaki,  with  Yuri,  of  Fukui,  and  others,  sent  in  a  memorial,  praying  for 
the  establishment  of  a  representative  assembly,  in  which  the  popular 
wish  might  be  discussed.  They  complained  that  authority  lay  neither 
with  the  crown  nor  people,  but  with  the  officials  in  power.  Their  re- 
quest was  declined.  It  was  officially  declared  that  Japan  was  not  ready 
for  such  institutions. 

Hizen,  the  home  of  one  of  the  great  clans  of  the  coalition  of  1868, 
was  now  the  chief  seat  of  disaffection.  With  perhaps  no  evil  intent, 
Eto,  who  had  been  head  of  the  Department  of  Justice,  had  gone  back 
to  his  home  in  Hizen,  an  example  which  many  of  his  clansmen  follow- 


NEW  JAPAN.  575 

ed,  among  them  Katsuki  Keguro,  a  student  educated  in  Albany  and 
London.  It  was  the  old  story  of  sectionalism  against  national  inter- 
ests. It  was  miniature  secession.  Scores  of  officials  and  men,  but 
very  few  students,  bound  by  oath  and  duty  to  the  National  Govern- 
ment, which  had  nourished  or  educated  them,  assembled  with  arms 
and  traitorous  intent  in  Ilizen,  and  raised  the  cry  of  "  On  to  Corea !" 

Here  was  armed  rebellion.  Were  the  flames  to  spread,  all  Kiushiu 
Avould  be  involved.  In  the  midst  of  the  impending  civil  war,  the  for- 
eign ministers  pressed  the  payment  of  the  last  installment  of  the  Shi- 
monoseki  indemnity,  expecting  that  Japan  could  not  or  would  not  pay 
it,  but  would  grant  more  one-sided  concessions.  In  pride  and  anger, 
the  Japanese  passed  over  the  money-bags,  and  closed  the  contemptible 
business  forever. 

The  political  barometer  now  began  rapidly  to  fall.  The  Hizen 
war-cloud  gathered  blackness.  The  storm  broke  in  war -fires  and 
battle-blood.  The  rebels  attacked  the  castle,  and  killed  the  garrison. 
Elated,  they  waited  to  see  all  Kiushiu  join  them.  Their  reckoning 
was  fifty  years  behind  the  age.  The  days  of  Old  Japan  were  passed. 
The  era  of  steam,  electricity,  and  breech-loaders  had  come.  From  the 
national  capital  darted  the  telegraphic  lightnings.  On  the  wings  of 
steam,  the  imperial  battalions  swooped  on  Saga,  as  if  by  magic.  The 
rebellion  was  annihilated  in  ten  days.  The  leader,  master-spirit,  and 
judge  was  Okubo,  modest  in  demeanor,  wise  in  council,  but  in  the  field 
the  lion-hearted  hero  that  knows  no  fear.  Eto,  Katsuki,  and  ten  oth- 
er ringleaders  were  sent  to  kneel  before  the  blood-pit.  The  sword 
fell  as  each  chanted  his  death-song.  The  heads  of  Eto  and  Shima 
were  exposed  on  the  pillory.  The  National  Government  was  vindi- 
cated, and  sectionalism  crushed,  perhaps,  forever.* 

The  story  of  the  Formosan  affair  is  more  familiar  to  my  readers. 
Thirteen  hundred  Japanese  soldiers  occupied  this  island  for  six  months. 
In  the  few  skirmishes  with  the  savages,  breech-loaders  prevailed  over 
arrows  and  smooth-bores.  The  imperial  troops  were  commanded  by 
Saigo  Yorimichi,  brother  of  Saigo  Kichinosuke.     They  built  roads, 


*  In  this  campait^n,  over  40  Tinajj;cs  and  1600  houses  in  Saga  were  burned,  and 
350  of  the  national  troops  and  400  of  the  insurgents  were  put  hors  de  combat. 
About  500  persons  thus  lost  their  lives  by  war's  accidents,  and  195  were  punished 
with  hard  labor,  imprisonment,  or  degradation  from  the  rank  of  samurai.  Eto 
was  discovered  in  disguise,  by  means  of  a  photograph  for  which  he  had  sat,  to 
begin  a  "  rogue's  gallery,"  when  Minister  of  Justice,  in  Tokio.  Okubo  proved 
himself  a  Jackson,  not  a  Buchanan,  and  made  Saga  both  the  Sumter  and  the 
Petersburg  of  the  Hizen  secession. 


576  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

and  kept  camps,  and  made  fortifications  in  the  style  of  modern  engi- 
neering and  military  art.  The  attitude  of  China  at  first  had  been  that 
of  the  sleeping  crocodile  that  allows  the  tiny  bird  to  enter  its  mouth 
to  pick  its  teeth  for  food.  Incited,  however,  by  foreign  influence  in 
Peking,  the  sleepy  nation  woke  in  wrath  and  shame  at  the  rebuke  of 
Japan,  The  Chinese  Government  began  to  urge  their  claims  on  For- 
mosa, to  declare  the  Japanese  intruders,  and  to  menace  hostilities. 
For  a  time,  war  seemed  inevitable.  Again  the  man  for  the  crisis  was 
Okubo,  who  went  to  Peking.  The  result  of  this  was  that  the  Chi- 
nese paid,  in  solid  silver,  an  indemnity  of  seven  hundred  thousand 
dollars,  and  the  Japanese  disembarked.  To  outsiders  in  Europe,  the 
whole  affair  seemed  but  a  "tempest  in  two  tea-pots;"  but,  morally,  it 
was  sublime.  Japan,  single-handed,  with  no  foreign  sympathy,  but 
with  positive  opposition,  had,  in  the  interests  of  humanity,  rescued  a 
coast  from  terror,  and  placed  it  in  a  condition  of  safety.  In  the  face 
of  threatened  war,  a  nation  having  but  one-tenth  the  population,  area, 
and  resources  of  China,  had  abated  not  a  jot  of  its  just  demands,  nor 
flinched  from  the  wao;er  of  the  battle.  The  righteousness  of  her  cause 
was  vindicated.  China  now  occupies  Eastern  Formosa.  The  expedi- 
tion cost  Japan  five  millions  of  dollars.  Seven  hundred  victims  of  dis- 
ease in  peaceful  graves  sleep  under  the  camphor-trees  on  the  templed 
slopes  of  the  Nagasaki  hills. 

The  Corean  affair  ended  happily.  In  1875,  Mr.  Arinori  Mori  went 
to  Peking.  Kuroda  Kiyotaka,  with  men-of-war,  entered  Corean  wa- 
ters. Patience,  skill,  and  tact  were  crowned  with  success.  On  behalf 
of  Japan,  a  treaty  of  peace,  friendship,  and  commerce  was  made  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  February  27th,  1876.  Japan  has  thus  peace- 
fully opened  this  last  of  the  hermit  nations  to  the  world. 

Japan  was  among  the  first  to  accept  the  invitation  to  be  represent- 
ed at  the  centennial  of  American  independence.  A  commission  was 
appointed,  of  which  Okubo  was  made  president,  and  General  Saigo 
Tsukumichi  vice-president. 

Let  us  now  award  to  every  nation  due  honor.  The  Portuguese  dis- 
covered Japan,  and  gave  her  slave-traders  and  the  Jesuits;  the  Span- 
iards sent  friars,  slavers,  and  conspirators ;  the  Dutch  ignobly  kept  alive 
our  knowledge  of  Japan  during  her  hermit  life  ;  the  Russians,  after  no- 
ble and  base  failures  to  open  the  country,  harried  her  shores.  Then 
came  Perry,  the  moral  grandeur  of  whose  peaceful  triumph  has  never 
been  challenged  or  compromised.  The  United  States  introduced  Ja- 
pan to  the  world,  though  her  opening  could  not  have  been  long  delay- 


NEW  JAPAN.  577 

ed.  The  x\merican,  Townsend  Harris,  peer  and  successor  to  Perry,  by 
his  dauntless  courage,  patience,  courtesy,  gentleness,  firmness,  and  in- 
corruptible honesty,  won  for  all  nations  treaties,  trade,  residence,  and 
commerce.  The  Dutch  secured  the  abolition  of  insults  to  Christianity. 
To  the  English  was  reserved  a  quiet  victory  and  a  mighty  discovery, 
second  to  none  achieved  on  the  soil  of  the  mysterious  islands.  En 
glish  scholarship  first  discovered  the  true  source  of  power,  exposed  the 
counterfeit  government  in  Yedo,  read  the  riddle  of  ages,  and  rent  the 
veil  that  so  long  hid  the  truth.  It  was  the  English  minister.  Sir  Har- 
ry Parkes,  who  first  risked  his  life  to  find  the  truth ;  stripped  the  sho- 
gun  of  his  fictitious  title  of  "  majesty ;"  asked  for  at  home,  obtained, 
and  presented  credentials  to  the  mikado,  the  sovereign  of  Japan  ;  recog- 
nized the  new  National  Government,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of 
true  diplomacy  in  Japan.  It  is  but  fair  to  note  that  Americans  have, 
in  certain  emergencies,  derived  no  small  advantage  from  the  expensive 
show  of  English  and  French  force  in  the  seas  of  China  and  Japan, 
and  from  the  literary  fruits  of  the  unrivaled  British  Civil  Service. 

Let  us  note  what  Americans  have  done.  Our  missionaries,  a  no- 
ble body  of  cultured  gentlemen  and  ladies,  with  but  few  exceptions, 
have  translated  large  portions  of  the  Bible  in  a  scholarly  and  simple 
version,  and  thus  given  to  Japan  the  sum  of  religious  knowledge  and 
the  mightiest  moral  force  and  motor  of  civilization.  The  standard 
Japanese-English  and  English-Japanese  dictionary  is  the  fruit  of  thir- 
teen years'  labor  of  an  eminent  scholar,  translator,  physician,  and  phi- 
lanthropist, J.  C.  Hepburn  M.D.,  LL.D.  The  first  grammar  of  the 
Japanese  language  printed  in  English,  the  beginnings  of  a  Christian 
popular  literature  and  hymnology,  the  organization  of  Christian 
churches,  the  introduction  of  theological  seminaries,  and  of  girls' 
schools,  are  the  work  of  American  ladies  and  gentlemen.  The  first 
regular  teachers  in  their  schools,  and  probably  half  their  staff  in  their 
colleges,  are  Americans.  In  the  grand  work  of  agricultural  and  min- 
eral development,  in  the  healing  art,  and  in  jurisprudence,  education, 
and  financiering,  Americans  have  done  valuable  service. 

Foreigners  suppose  the  present  Government  to  be  modeled  on  the 
French  system  of  ministries,  whereas  it  is  simply  the  modernized 
form  of  the  constitution  of  the  Osei  era  (see  pages  103,  104) :  1.  the 
Emperor ;  2.  the  Dai  J5  Kuan  ;  8.  the  Sa  In,  Left  Chamber ;  the  Genro 
In,  or  Council  of  State ;  4.  the  U  In,  or  Right  Chamber,  Council  of 
Ministers  or  Heads  of  Department  (Sho),  which  number  ten  (see  page 
598).     The  Dai  Jo  Kuan  also  directs  the  three  imperial  cities  [fu]  and 


578  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

sixty-eight  ken,  or  prefectures.     The  "provinces"  are  now  merely  geo- 
graphical divisions. 

In  accordance  with  the  oath  of  the  mikado  in  Kioto,  in  1868,  that 
"  intellect  and  learning  should  be  sought  for  throughout  the  world,  in 
order  to  establish  the  foundations  of  the  empire"  (see  page  318),  about 
four  hundred  foreigners,  from  many  countries,  have  been  in  the  Civil 
Service  of  the  Government.  All  these,  with  but  two  exceptions,  are 
simply  helpers  and  servants,  not  commissioned  officers,  and  have  no  act- 
ual authority.  To  their  faithful  and  competent  advisers  they  award  a 
fair  measure  of  confidence  and  co-operation.  To  the  worthless,  nepot- 
ic, or  those  who  would  play  the  lord  over  their  employers,  they  quiet- 
ly pay  salary  and  snub.  Whoever  expects  to  be  master  will  find  him- 
self a  cipher.  Nevertheless,  whosoever  would  serve  well  will  surely 
rule. 

Can  an  Asiatic  despotism,  based  on  paganism,  and  propped  on  a  fic- 
tion, regenerate  itself  ?  Can  Japan  go  on  in  the  race  she  has  begun  ? 
Will  the  mighty  reforms  now  attempted  be  completed  and  made  per- 
manent ?  Can  a  nation  appropriate  the  fruits  of  Christian  civilization 
without  its  root?  I  believe  not.  I  can  not  but  think  that  unless  the 
modern  enlightened  ideas  of  government,  law,  society,  and  the  rights 
of  the  individual  be  adopted  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  they  have 
been,  the  people  be  thoroughly  educated,  and  a  mightier  spiritual  force 
replace  Shinto  and  Buddhism,  little  will  be  gained  but  a  glittering 
veneer  of  material  civilization  and  the  corroding  foreign  vices,  under 
which,  in  the  presence  of  the  superior  aggressive  nations  of  the  West, 
Dai  Nippon  must  fall  like  the  doomed  races  of  America. 

A  new  sun  is  rising  on  Japan.  In  1870  there  were  not  ten  Prot- 
estant Christians  in  the  empire.  There  are  now  (May,  1876)  ten 
churches,  with  a  membership  of  eight  hundred  souls.  Gently,  but  re- 
sistlessly,  Christianity  is  leavening  the  nation.  In  the  next  century 
the  native  word  inaka  (rustic,  boor)  will  mean  "heathen."  With 
those  forces  that  centre  in  pure  Christianity,  and  under  that  Almighty 
Providence  who  raises  up  one  nation  and  casts  down  another,  I  cher- 
ish the  firm  hope  that  Japan  will  in  time  take  and  hold  her  equal 
place  among  the  foremost  nations  of  the  world,  and  that,  in  the  on- 
ward march  of  civilization  which  follows  the  sun,  the  Sun  -  land  may 
lead  the  nations  of  Asia  that  are  now  appearing  in  the  theatre  of  uni- 
versal history. 


JAPAN  IN  1883.  679 


SUPPLEMENTAEY   CHAPTERS. 

I. 

JAPAN  IN  1883. 

Our  record  of  events  in  the  last  chapter  closed  with  a  notice  of 
the  treaty  made  with  Corea,  February  27th,  1876,  a  diplomatic  tri- 
umph which  so  silenced  the  disaffected,  and  so  strengthened  the 
power  of  the  Government,  that  immediate  advantage  was  taken  of  it 
to  disarm  the  samurai.  In  response  to  a  public  sentiment  already 
grown  strong,  and  especially  to  the  memorial  of  December  7th,  1875, 
from  Yamagata,  the  Minister  of  War,  the  Premier  Sanjo,  on  the  28th 
of  March,  1876,  issued  a  proclamation  abolishing  the  custom  of  wear- 
ing two  swords  :  "  No  individual  will  henceforth  be  permitted  to 
wear  a  sword  unless  he  be  in  court  dress,  a  member  of  the  military 
or  naval  forces,  or  a  police  officer."  This  measure,  first  advocated 
by  Arinori  Mori,  in  1870,  now  became  law  throughout  the  land — 
even  in  Satsuma. 

The  Coreans  responded  promptly  to  their  treaty  obligations.  A 
Japanese  steamer  was  sent  to  Fusan ;  and  the  embassy  from  Seoul, 
numbering  eighty  persons  in  all,  landed  at  Yokohama  May  29th,  the 
ambassador  receiving  audience  of  the  mikado  June  1st.  These  Co- 
reans were  the  first  accredited  to  Japan  since  1835,  and  none  had 
come  as  far  east  as  Yedo  since  the  last  century.  Then  they  were  the 
guests  of  the  shogun  ;  but  now  direct  oflicial  relations  with  the  mika- 
do were  resumed,  after  a  lapse  of  nearly  a  millennium.  These  men, 
in  huge  hats,  and  white,  blue,  and  pink  cotton  or  silk  robes,  were 
profusely  entertained  in  Tokio.  They  visited  the  public  buildings, 
schools,  founderies,  and  arsenals,  inspecting  the  curious  things  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  but  avoiding  all  white  foreigners  as  though  they 
were  reptiles,  and  embarked  for  home  June  18th. 

Meanwhile  the  mikado,  accompanied  by  several  members  of  his 
cabinet,  set  out  on  a  tour  overland  to  Yezo.  No  emperor  of  Japan 
had  ever  visited  the  northern  provinces,  and  the  delight  of  the  people 
at  seeing  their  sovereign  was  intense.  Visiting  Nikko  and  the  cas- 
tled towns  along  the  route,  the  emperor  made  himself  everywhere 


580  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

visible,  allowing  no  check  to  be  placed  upon  the  business  or  behavior 
of  the  people,  except  that  which  their  own  sense  of  respect  imposed. 
Among  the  excellent  fruits  of  this  tour  were  :  the  erection  of  a  mon- 
ument  to  the  patriot  Rin  Shihei  ;*  the  making  public  of  the  docu- 
ments and  relics  of  Father  Louis  Sotelo  ;f  and  the  gracious  reception 
of  an  address  to  his  majesty  from  the  Greek  Church  Christians  of 
Sendai,  which  augured  the  near  future  of  complete  religious  tolera- 
tion. The  imperial  journey,  begun  June  2d,  was  continued  until  the 
middle  of  July.  His  return  to  the  capital  amid  many  demonstra- 
tions of  popular  joy  was  soon  after  signalized  by  another  bold  stroke 
of  power.  On  the  5th  of  August  the  measure,  long  before  conceived, 
of  extinguishing  the  hereditary  pensions  and  life-incomes  of  the  sa- 
murai, was  proclaimed.  Commutation  in  Government  bonds,  at  from 
five  to  fourteen  years'  purchase,  was  made  obligatory  upon  all.  The 
scheme  provided  that  the  largest  incomes  should  be  extinguished  first, 
and,  when  completed,  will  relieve  the  national  Treasury  of  an  annual 
burden  of  about  $20,000,000.  This  act  of  the  Government,  which 
lightened  the  enforced  poverty  of  thirty  millions  of  people,  and  com- 
pelled the  privileged  classes  to  begin  to  earn  their  bread,  was  warmly 
welcomed  by  the  masses. 

On  the  21st  of  August  another  measure  in  the  interest  of  public 
economy  and  of  centralization  was  carried  out :  the  empire  was  re- 
divided,  and  the  sixty-eight  ken  or  prefectures  were  reduced  in  num- 
ber to  thirty-five. 

These  radical  measures  enforced  by  the  mikado's  advisers — an  ir- 
responsible ministry,  possessing  slight  facilities  for  adequately  gauging 

*  Rin  Shihei,  a  native  of  Sendai — whose  worii  San  Koku  Tsuran  To-setsu{^^  Gen- 
eral View  of  the  Three  Kingdoms  [tributary  to  Japan],  i.  e.,  Corea,  Yezo,  and  Ria 
Kiu"),  was  printed  in  1785,  and  translated  by  Klaproth  in  1832— was  born  in  1737. 
A  far-seeing  patriot,  he  studied  military  strategy  while  making  pedestrian  ex- 
cursions over  the  whole  of  Japan,  especially  along  tlie  coast,  and  by  learning 
from  the  Dutch  at  Nagasaki  and  the  Russians  in  Yezo.  He  was  keenly  alive  to 
the  subject  of  national  progress  and  defense.  His  maps  and  books  fell  under  the 
eye  of  tlie  censors  (p.  295)  of  the  shoguu,  who  ordered  the  plates  of  his  publica- 
tions to  be  destroyed,  and  had  him  thrown  into  prison,  from  which  he  never 
came  out  alive. 

t  Father  Louis  Sotelo  was  a  Spanish  Franciscan  friar,  who,  with  Hashikura 
Rokuyeinon,  a  retainer  of  the  daimio  of  Sendai,  sailed  across  the  Pacific  in  a 
Japanese  ship  (p.  246)  to  Mexico  in  1613,  and  thence  reached  Seville  and  Rome. 
They  liad  audience  of  Pope  Paul  V.,  and  Hashikura  was  made  a  Roman  senator. 
They  returned  by  way  of  Mexico  to  Japan ;  but  Hashikura  was  compelled  to 
renounce  his  faith,  and  Sotelo  was  martyred  at  Nagasaki.  (See  Hildreth's 
"Japan,"  pp.  158, 199.) 


JAPAN  IX  1883.  581 

public  opinion — were  not  executed  without  protest  within  and  without 
the  cabinet.  In  tlie  south-west,  especially,  were  many  earnest  men, 
narrow  and  un progressive,  perhaps,  who  grieved  deeply  over  the  decay 
of  old  customs,  the  secularization  of  the  Divine  Country,  the  arbitrary 
policy  and  personal  extravagance  of  "  the  bad  councillors  of  the  em- 
peror," and  his  "  imprisonment "  by  them,  the  influence  of  foreign- 
ers, the  toleration  of  Christianity,  and  the  loss  of  their  swords  and 
pensions.  Among  the  leaders  of  these  conservatives  were  Mayebara 
and  Uyeno — the  one  a  discharged  office-holder,  and  the  other  a  man 
of  seventy — whose  followers  organized  clubs  named  Jimpu  (Divine 
Breath,  or  Wind)  and  Sonno-Joi  (Reverence  to  the  Mikado,  and  Ex- 
pulsion of  the  Barbarian). 

On  the  24th  of  October  a  party  of  nearly  two  hundred  of  these  fa- 
natics, dressed  in  beetle-headed  iron  helmets  and  old  armor  made  of 
steel  and  paper  laced  with  silk,  and  armed  with  spears  and  swords, 
attacked  the  imperial  garrison  at  Kumamoto,  in  Higo.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  injuring  about  three  hundred  of  the  troops  before  they  were 
dispersed,  taken  prisoners,  or  had  disemboweled  themselves.  Other 
uprisings,  more  easily  quelled,  took  place  in  Kiashiu;  while  in  Cho- 
shiu,  Mayebara  led  five  hundred  armed  men  vainly  against  the  new 
order  of  things,  in  which  rifles,  cannon,  telegraphs,  and  steamers 
played  their  part.  As  by  some  new  Jove,  with  hands  full  of  thun- 
der-bolts, these  Titans  of  a  later  day  were  transfixed  by  the  lightnings 
hurled  from  Tokio  in  the  form  of  steamers  and  rifled  artillery.  Quiet 
was  entirely  restored  by  December.  A  few  heads  were  struck  off, 
hundreds  of  the  choteki  were  exiled  or  degraded,  and  another  of  the 
throes  of  expiring  feudalism  was  over. 

The  next  insurrections  were  by  men  equipped  in  calico,  with  rush 
hats  and  straw  sandals,  gathered  under  banners  of  matting  inscribed 
with  mottoes  daubed  on  in  ink,  and  armed  with  spears  made  by 
pointing  and  fire- hardening  staves  of  bamboos.  These  embattled 
farmers  were  enraged  because  the  taxes  had  been  changed  from  kind 
to  money,  and,  instead  of  being  assessed  on  the  produce,  were  laid 
on  the  soil.  Assaulting  the  local  magistrates'  offices,  they  had  to  be 
dispersed  by  the  military,  in  some  cases  only  after  bloodshed.  Time, 
good  roads,  banking  facilities,  clearer  understanding  of  the  purpose 
of  the  Government,  have  already  changed  temporary  distress,  caused 
by  innovations,  into  satisfied  prosperity. 

These  violent  expressions  of  the  real  grievances  of  the  agricultural 
class,  on  whom  the  burdens  of  taxation  mainly  fall — three-fourths, 


582  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

or  $50,000,000,  of  the  total  revenue  of  the  empire  ($69,000,000), 
being  drawn  from  the  tax  on  land — hastened  another  beneficial  re- 
form. On  the  4th  of  January,  1877,  the  national  land-tax  was  re- 
duced from  three  to  two  and  a  half  per  cent. — a  loss  to  the  Treasury 
of  about  $8,000,000.  The  local  tax,  formerly  amounting  to  one- 
third  of  the  land-tax,  was  reduced  to  one-fifth,  or  nearly  one-half. 
About  the  same  time  two  other  sweeping  measures  of  economy,  in- 
tended as  an  offset,  were  carried  out.  Besides  thus  directly  relieving 
the  people,  the  salaries  of  nearly  all  the  Government  officers  and  the 
expenses  of  the  departments  were  reduced,  several  thousand  office- 
holders were  discharged,  the  Department  of  Religion  (Kio  Bu  Sho) 
and  the  Prefecture  of  Police  were  abolished,  and  their  functions  trans- 
ferred to  the  Home  Department,  and  a  saving  of  about  $8,000,000 
annually  effected,  to  balance  the  loss  to  the  Treasury  from  reform  in 
the  tax  on  land.  Such  a  movement  in  official  circles,  popularly  called 
ajishin  (earthquake),  met  with  the  keen  satisfaction  of  the  majority, 
the  joy  of  the  citizens  and  peasantry  being  "  beyond  imagination." 
The  Government  now  began  to  be  less  afraid  of  Satsuma;  less  careful, 
also,  perhaps,  to  keep  informed  of  the  state  of  public  opinion,  since 
the  press  laws  were  excessively  stringent,  and  there  was  no  safety- 
valve  for  discontent. 

The  year  1876  will  ever  remain  memorable  as  the  critical  year  in 
Japanese  journalism,  when  the  severity  of  the  press  laws  and  Govern- 
ment prosecutions  was  more  than  equaled  by  the  courage,  firmness, 
and  patience  of  a  noble  array  of  editors  and  writers,  who  crowded  the 
jails  of  Japan,  and  joyfully  suffered  fines  and  imprisonment  in  order 
to  secure  a  measure  of  "the  freedom  of  the  press" — a  phrase  which 
is  the  watch-word  of  liberty,  not  only  in  Europe  and  America,  but 
among  the  Japanese  also,  in  whose  language  it  has  become  domesti- 
cated in  common  speech,  like  the  new  words  which  science,  religion, 
and  advancing  political  knowledge  require  for  their  expression. 

Closely  connected  with  all  measures  of  genuine  reform  is  the  name 
of  Kido.,  "  the  finest  intellect "  and  "  the  brain  and  pen  "  of  the  revo- 
lution. While  other  leaders  were  eager  and  able  to  break  down, 
Kido  was  pre-eminently  the  builder -up,  and  his  genius  essentially 
constructive.  Himself  the  purest  representative  of  the  mind  of 
Japan,  he  had  applied  the  logic  of  the  cardinal  doctrines  of  Japanese 
politics — the  divine  right  of  the  mikado  to  govern  his  people — and 
feudalism  fell.  He  believed  in  discussion,  in  the  wisdom  of  the  ma- 
jority, and  so  he  established  newspapers  and  pleaded  for  representa- 


JAPAN  IN  1883.  683 

tive  assemblies.  He  incarnated  the  soul  of  peaceful  progress.  He 
opposed  alike  the  Corean  and  Forinosan  war  projects,  and  the  too 
rapid  capitalization  of  the  samurai's  pensions.  He  applied  himself 
to  master  the  details  of  local  administration,  and  carefully  studied  the 
problems  of  taxation  and  municipal  procedure,  both  at  home  and  in 
Europe  and  America.  To  rare  political  ability  he  joined  an  unselfish 
patriotism  and  a  stainless  record.  Amidst  all  the  clash  of  opposing 
interests  which  the  destruction  of  the  old  and  the  creation  of  new 
institutions  called  out  the  voice  of  Kido  was  ever  authoritative. 
While  Okubo  represented  the  foreign  side  of  the  revolution,  and 
Saigo  the  military  genius  of  Old  Nippon,  Kido  embodied  in  himself 
the  best  elements  of  New  Japan.  He  had  been  especially  earnest  and 
influential  in  bringing  about  the  reforms  in  taxation  and  govern- 
mental economy,  and  in  the  calling  together  of  a  deliberative  body 
of  the  ken  and /«  magistrates,  which,  meeting  in  Toki5  in  1875,  was 
opened  by  the  mikado  in  person,  and  presided  over  by  himself.  He 
was  now  hoping  to  conciliate  the  disaffected  samurai  of  Kiushiu  and 
the  one  man  whom  they  trusted,  after  having  been,  as  they  believed, 
betrayed  by  Okubo  and  the  irresponsible  ministers  in  Tokio.  Had 
Kido  lived,  the  sad  and  costly  civil  war  might  not  have  broken  out. 
In  the  moment  of  his  country's  greatest  need  this  noble  patriot,  over- 
wearied and  wounded  in  spirit,  was  seized  with  a  disease  which  soon 
made  him  understand  that  his  work  was  nearly  over.  He  died  at 
Kioto,  May  27th,  1877. 

Ever  since  1868  Satsuma  had  remained  the  one  portion  of  the  em- 
pire unassimilated  to  the  life  of  progressive  Japan.  The  old  clan 
which  of  old  had  awed  the  Yedo  shoguns  now  terrified  the  rest  of  the 
country.  Goaded  by  hatred  and  long-cherished  revenge,  the  Satsuma 
men,  without  any  sympathy  with  the  nation  at  large,  had  led  in  the 
overthrow  of  their  enemies,  the  Tokugawas.  The  political  education 
of  most  of  the  clansmen  was  purely  feudal.  Their  compass  of  duty, 
vibrating  between  reverence  to  the  mikado  and  hatred  to  barbarians, 
pointed  to  personal  loyalty  as  their  lodestar.  Anything  broader  in 
scope  than  the  old  elements  of  Japanese  politics — loyalty  to  their 
chief,  clan-fights,  struggles  between  rival  factions  for  the  person  of 
the  mikado,  the  reign  of  the  sword  held  by  the  idle  and  privileged 
classes,  the  grinding  of  the  peasantry,  and  the  expulsion  or  subordi- 
nation of  foreigners — in  a  word,  the  virtues  and  the  vices  of  feudalism 
— was  not  within  their  horizon.  As  for  Saigo,  their  leader,  with  all 
the  qualities  in  his  character  so  attractive  to  a  Japanese;  he  Jacked 


584  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

genuine  patriotism,  and  probably  aspired  to  be  simply  another  "  man 
on  horseback,"  furnishing  to  history  one  more  illustration  of  the 
Japanese  variety  of  Csesarism.  Had  not  this  ninth  decade  of  the 
nineteenth  century  been  one  of  steam  and  electricity,  instead  of 
armor  and  arrows,  the  Tokio  ministers  might  have  kneeled  at  the 
blood-pit  as  choteki  while  Saigo  dictated  to  Dai  Nippon  as  Sei-i  Tai 
Shogun.  Providence  meant  it  otherwise.  The  old  style  of  Japanese 
Caesarism  was  over. 

After  the  revolution  large  numbers  of  Satsuma  men  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  posts  of  honor  in  the  army,  navy,  and  police  force,  while 
Saigo  and  Shimadzu  Saburo  were  offered  seats  in  the  Cabinet ;  but  one 
after  another  the  liberal  political  measures  were  carried  out  against 
the  sentiments  of  men  steeped  in  the  vices  of  feudalism.  Peace  with 
Corea,  commutation  of  pensions,  the  abolition  of  swords,  and  the 
contempt  cast  upon  the  wearing  of  the  top-knot — as  significant  of  the 
feudal  spirit  to  a  Japanese  of  the  old  school  as  a  Pawnee's  war-lock 
is  to  the  red  rider  of  the  prairie — were  too  much  for  both  Saigo  and 
Shimadzu.  The  former,  retiring  to  Kagoshima,  founded  a  military 
school,  which  was  soon  attended  by  the  flower  of  Satsuma's  youth, 
while  nearly  twenty  thousand  men  in  Satsuma  and  Ozumi,  living  with 
their  faces  to  the  past,  looked  to  Saigo  as  their  master.  The  writer 
cherishes  very  vivid  remembrances  of  walking  unarmed  in  Tokio,  and 
meeting  face  to  face  in  nanow  streets  these  fiery  men  of  the  old 
swashbuckler  spirit.  With  their  hair  shorn  off  their  temples,  a  gen- 
eral wildness  of  expression  in  their  faces,  a  scowl  of  mingled  defiance 
and  contempt  in  their  eyes,  with  their  protruding  swords  and  long, 
red-lacquered  scabbards,  they  seemed  the  incarnation  of  fanatical  pa- 
triotism and  diabolical  pride.  Their  favorite  proverb  was,  "  Though 
the  eagle  be  starving,  he  will  not  eat  grain,"  and  rather  than  earn 
their  living  by  vulgar  trade,  and  accept  the  new  order  of  things,  they 
would  gratify  their  thirst  for  blood.  So  great  was  the  influence 
and  prestige  of  Satsuma,  that  the  impression  became  general  through- 
out the  country  that  the  Government  was  afraid  of  this  one  sullen 
clan.  "What  lent  additional  danger  to  the  situation  was,  that  a  large 
arsenal,  equipped  with  steam  machinery  and  full  of  military  stores, 
together  with  two  powder-mills,  capable  of  turning  out  thirty  thou- 
sand pounds  of  powder  daily,  stood  near  the  city  of  Kagoshima. 

Hitherto  all  revolts  against  the  imperial  authority  had  been  minor 
and  sporadic,  and  led  by  men  of  no  special  fitness  for  their  task. 
That  which  we  shall  now  describe  was  organized  by  the  ablest  mili- 


JAPAN  IN  1883.  585 

tary  mind,  backed  by  the  best  fighting  blood  in  the  empire.  Had  the 
Government  remained  inert  much  longer,  the  plans  of  Saigo  would 
have  been  matured,  and  with  ampler  resources  the  issue  might  have 
been  different,  or  the  struggle  prolonged  to  the  ruin  of  the  nation. 

Wisely  the  rulers  in  Tokio  resolved  to  precipitate  the  crisis,  or  at 
least  unmask  Saigo's  designs,  and  a  vessel  was  sent  to  Kagoshima,  in 
January,  1877,  under  Admiral  Kawamura,  to  remove  the  gunpowder. 
An  attack  threatened  upon  it  by  boats  full  of  armed  men  was  avoided 
by  the  admiral,  but  the  arsenals  and  powder-mills  were  seized  Febru- 
ary 1st,  1877,  by  a  body  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  samurai.  At 
this  time  the  mikado  and  most  of  his  Cabinet  were  in  Ki5to,  whence 
they  had  come  to  inaugurate  the  opening  of  the  railway  between 
Kobe,  Ozaka,  and  Kioto,  which  was  celebrated  on  the  5th  of  February. 
At  once  recognizing  the  gravity  of  the  situation,  they  dispatched  the 
flower  of  the  army  and  police  to  Kiushiu  in  steamers.  All  doubts  as 
to  Saigo's  personal  participation  in  the  uprising  were  set  at  rest  by 
his  appearing  before  Kumamoto  castle,  to  which  he  laid  siege. 

The  Island  of  the  Nine  Provinces  was  ordered  to  be  placed  under 
martial  law,  and  Saigo,  now  named  Saigo  Takamori,  was  degraded 
from  his  rank  as  Marshal  of  the  Empire,  and  Prince  Arisugawa  no 
Miya  was  appointed  to  the  supreme  command.  Saigo  and  his  gener- 
als, Kirino,  Beppu,  and  Shinohara,  were  branded  as  choteki,  but  Shi- 
madzu  Saburo  remained  loyal.  The  insurgent  ports  were  blockaded,  and 
fresh  levies  of  troops  were  made  and  hurried  forward.  After  a  siege 
of  fifty-five  days,  during  which  Kumamoto  castle  was  nobly  defended 
by  Colonel  Tani  and  his  little  band,  Saigo  was  compelled  to  retreat. 

The  war  soon  became  scattered.  The  imperial  army,  under  Yama- 
gata  and  Kawaji,  marched  in  two  large  divisions  from  Kumamoto 
and  Kagoshima,  intending  to  inclose  the  rebels  in  a  cordon.  After 
many  bloody  skirmishes  and  a  great  battle,  the  two  divisions  effect- 
ed a  junction.  Saig5  Tsukumichi,  a  brother  of  the  rebel  leader,  took 
the  field  in  July,  during  which  month,  owing  to  the  hard  fight- 
ing, six  thousand  of  the  mikado's  troops  were  killed  or  wounded. 
While  the  imperialists  were  largely  raw  levies  from  the  peasantry 
and  middle  classes,  the  rebels  were  in  the  main  the  veteran  samurai 
of  1868.  Even  their  women  fought  under  the  rebel  banner.  De- 
fending themselves  in  some  instances  by  making  a  shield  of  the  light, 
thick  floor-mats,  or  tatami,  the  rebel  swordsmen,  by  a  sudden  charge, 
drew  the  fire  of  the  troops  harmlessly,  and  rushing  on  them  with 
their  swords  butchered  them  easily. 


586  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

On  the  16th  of  August,  Saigo  Talvamori's  forces,  reduced  to  less 
than  ten  thousand  men,  were  attacked  at  Nobeoka,  an  old  natural 
stronghold,  and  the  bloody  conflict  resulted  in  a  complete  victory 
for  the  imperialists.  With  a  few  hundred  followers  the  rebel  leaders 
escaped  into  Hiuga,  whence,  on  the  2d  of  September,  they  made  a 
dash  on  Kagoshima,  and  held  it  two  weeks.  Thence  they  were  driven 
out  to  Shiroyama,  a  few  miles  from  the  city.  There,  on  the  24th  of 
September,  Saigo,  Kirino,  and  Murata,  having  less  than  four  hundred 
followers,  were  attacked  by  fifteen  thousand  troops  of  the  imperial 
army,  with  mortars,  cannon,  and  rifles.  Armed  only  with  swords,  the 
little  band  fought,  scorning  quarter.  Many  of  them  committed 
hara-kiri,  and  Saig5  was  beheaded  by  one  of  his  friends,  who  as  a 
favor  performed  this  act  of  kindness.  Not  one  of  the  imperial  sol- 
diers was  killed.  The  three  leaders  and  nearly  three  hundred  of  the 
band  gladly  met  their  death  with  unquailing  courage,  proud  to  die  in 
blood  by  their  own  or  at  their  comrades'  hands,  knowing  no  greater 
glory  than  to  imitate  Kusunoki  and  the  ancient  models  of  that  fero- 
cious military  virtue  of  Old  Japan — Yamato  damashii. 

This  was  the  mightiest  rebellion,  inspired  by  the  spirit  of  the  past, 
against  which  the  mikado's  Government  has  had  to  cope.  It  was  the 
supreme  effort  of  defiance  of  the  forces  of  feudalism  and  misrule 
against  order  and  united  government.  The  Old  met  the  New — me- 
diaevalism  was  pitted  against  the  nineteenth  century,  and  failed. 
"  What  Saigo  could  not  achieve,  no  imitator  will  presume  to  attempt." 
The  rebellion  cost  Japan  fifty  millions  of  dollars.  The  rebel  troops 
of  Satsuma,  Ozumi,  and  Hiuga  numbered  39,760,  of  whom  3533  men 
were  killed,  4344  wounded,  and  3123  missing.  Of  the  imperial  army, 
probably  an  equal  number  or  more  suffered  the  fate  of  war,  a  very 
large  proportion  of  wounds  being  cuts  from  the  old  two-handed  sword- 
blades.  In  the  cities  and  villages  of  Japan,  ouce  quite  free  from  the 
sight  of  legless  and  armless  men  and  the  results  of  gunshot  wounds, 
the  spectacle  of  empty  sleeves,  of  men  hobbling  on  crutches,  and  of 
bullet-scarred  victims  of  gunpowder  wars,  is  no  longer  a  rarity.  In 
the  treatment  of  the  rebels  the  Government  displayed  a  spirit  of  leni- 
ency unknown  to  Asia,  and  worthy  of  the  Christian  name.  Of  the 
38,163  persons  tried  in  Kiushiu,  there  were  295  acquitted,  35,918 
pardoned,  20  fined,  117  degraded  from  the  class  of  samurai,  1793 
condemned  to  imprisonment,  with  hard  labor,  for  terms  varying 
from  thirty  days  to  ten  years.     Twenty  persons  wore  decapitated. 

Notwithstanding  the  war  in  the   south,  the   enterprises  of  peace 


JAPAX  IN  1883.  587 

went  on.  The  National  Industrial  Exhibition  at  Ujeno,  on  the  site 
of  the  battle-ground  of  1868  (p.  315),  which  was  closely  modeled 
upon  the  Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia,  was  opened  August 
21st,  and  closed  November  30th,  and  was  in  every  respect  successful. 
During  this  time  the  cholera  broke  out  in  Japan,  but  by  the  stringent 
enforcement  of  sanitary  measures  its  ravages  were  slight.  Out  of 
11,675  cases,  there  were  but  6297  deaths — a  victory  of  science  no 
less  renowned  than  that  of  the  army  at  Nobeoka. 

The  year  1878  marked  the  first  decade  of  the  mikado's  government 
by  means  of  an  irresponsible  ministry.  The  oath  made  by  His  Maj- 
esty in  Kioto  in  1868  to  form  a  deliberative  assembly  had  never  been 
fully  carried  out.  The  earnest  men  in  office  were  perhaps  too  busy 
to  remind  the  mikado  of  his  promise ;  but  the  equally  earnest  men 
outside,  continually  advancing  in  political  knowledge,  and  seeing  one 
cause  of  the  troubles  that  aflSicted  the  nation  in  the  oiEcial  io-norance 
of  public  sentiment,  had  lost  no  opportunity  to  make  their  convictions 
known.  By  agitation  in  the  newspapers,  by  memorials  to  the  Govern- 
ment, by  public  lectures,  the  subject  was  pressed.  One  or  two  steps 
had  been  taken.  In  1875  a  Senate  (Genro-in,  or  House  of  Eders) 
had  been  established,  and  an  assembly  of  the  ken  governors  —  the 
creation  of  Kido — held  one  session  in  the  capital,  but  only  one.  Un- 
der the  pretext  of  the  mikado's  journey  north  in  1876,  and  of  the 
war  in  Kiushiu  in  1877,  the  meetings  of  this  body  had  been  adjourn- 
ed, greatly  to  the  irritation  of  those  who  clamored  for  it  as  a  national 
right,  and  complained  both  of  the  excess  of  personal  government,  and 
of  the  flagrant  defiance  of  popular  rights  as  based  on  the  mikado's 
oath. 

Yet,  more  rapidly  than  the  petitioners  dreamed,  the  era  of  personal 
government  was  drawing  to  a  close  ;  and,  as  usual  in  Japanese  politics, 
the  new  era  was  to  be  ushered  in  by  assassination.  Okubo  was  mur- 
dered in  the  public  highway  in  broad  daylight  May  14th,  1878. 

Within  one  year  Japan  lost  her  three  ablest  men — Kido,  Saigo,  and 
Okubo.  Of  all  these,  Okubo,  by  temperament,  training,  and  character, 
was  best  fitted  to  be  the  interpreter  of  foreign  ideas  to  his  colleagues. 
Resolute,  daring,  ambitious,  his  will  was  iron  and  his  action  light- 
ning. His  burning  desire,  to  raise  his  country  from  the  low  level  of 
semi-civilized  states  to  the  height  of  equality  with  the  proudest  na- 
tions of  the  earth,  created  in  him  a  ceaseless  energy,  that  showed  it- 
self in  a  long  list  of  reforms  with  which  his  name  is  inseparablv  asso- 
ciated.    He  expected  almost  to  see  his  country  regenerated  in  a  life- 


588  TEE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

time.  His  chief  idea  was  the  thorough  unification  of  Japan,  and  the 
extirpation  of  all  vestiges  of  the  feudal  spirit  and  of  sectionalism. 
He  believed  that  a  railway  built  from  Yezo  to  Kiushiu,  even  if  it 
paid  no  dividend  for  a  thousand  years,  would  be  of  incalculable  ad- 
vantage to  the  country  in  unifying  the  people.  In  order  to  hasten 
the  growth  of  a  century  in  a  decade,  he  considered,  perhaps  too 
blindly,  a  strongly  centralized  Government  to  be  of  the  first  necessity, 
and  in  this  opinion  he  was  seconded  by  his  colleagues  of  like  mind.* 

Hence  the  error  of  these  able  men  in  not  estimating  at  its  proper 
value  the  equally  eager  desire  of  men  outside  the  Government  to  take 
part  in  the  tasks  of  civilization.  Kido  had  warned  them  not  to  cling 
too  closely  to  the  traditions  of  paternal  government,  and  the  charge 
began  to  be  made  that  Okubo  was  an  enemy  to  public  discussion  and 
popular  rights.     Again  the  assassin's  sword  cast  its  shadow. 

On  the  evening  of  May  13th,  1878,  having  been  warned  of  the  im- 
pending danger,  Okubo  expressed  before  a  party  of  friends  his  belief 
in  the  decree  of  Heaven,  that  would  protect  him  if  his  work  were  not 
yet  done,  but  which  otherwise  would  permit  his  death,  even  though 
he  were  surrounded  by  soldiers.  His  words  were  prophetic.  He 
spoke  better  than  he  knew.  His  work — the  work  of  personal  gov- 
ernment— was  over;  the  era  of  representative  government  had  begun. 
The  next  morning,  while  on  his  way  to  the  mikado's  palace,  unarmed, 
he  was  murdered  by  six  assassins,  who  were  said  to  have  been  runa- 
ways from  the  Satsuma  rebellion.  The  mikado  immediately  con- 
ferred upon  his  dead  servant  the  highest  rank,  and  elevated  his  sons 
to  the  nobility.  The  funeral  cortege,  in  which  princes,  nobles,  and 
the  foreign  diplomatic  corps  joined,  was  the  most  imposing  ever  seen 
in  Tokio.f 

*  I  remember,  while  present  at  a  dinner  given  by  the  junior  Prime  Minister, 
Iwakura,  at  his  house  in  Tokio  (July  16th,  1874),  an  American  lady  asked  him 
what  had  impressed  him  most  while  in  America,  and  especially  at  Washington. 
He  answered  at  once,  "The  strength  of  the  central  Government,  which  for  a 
republic  seemed  incredible  to  me." 

t  Okubo's  tall,  arrowy  form,  luxuriant  side-whiskers,  large,  expressive  eyes, 
and  eager,  expectant  bearing,  gave  him  the  appearance  of  a  European  rather  than 
an  Asiatic.  When  in  Tokio  I  enjoyed  frequent  conversations  with  this  distin- 
guished statesman,  the  last  of  which  was  on  the  eve  of  leaving  Japan  for  Ameri- 
ca (July  16th,  1874),  during  which  Okuko  asked  many  questions  about  American 
politics.  When  about  to  leave  I  informed  him  of  my  intention  to  write  a  work 
on  Japan,  explaining  as  best  I  could  the  recent  revolutions,  that  Americans 
might  understand  their  true  nature.  Okubo's  piercing  black  eyes  shone  with 
pleasure  for  a  moment,  but  immediately  a  shadow  passed  over  his  handsome 
face,  and  he  said,  "  Your  purpose  is  au  excellent  one.    I  am  glad,  and  even  grate- 


JAPAN  IN  1883.  589 

The  long  step  forward  toward  representative  institutions  was  taken 
July  22d,  by  the  proclamation  for  the  calling  of  Provincial  Parlia- 
ments, or  Local  Assemblies,  composed  of  one  delegate  from  each 
district  [kori),  which  were  to  sit  once  a  year  in  each  ken.  Under  the 
supervision  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  these  bodies  are  empow- 
ered to  discuss  questions  of  local  taxation,  and  to  petition  the  central 
government  on  other  matters  of  local  interest.  The  qualifications  for 
members  and  electors  are  limited  by  ability  to  read  and  write,  and 
the  payment  of  an  annual  land-tax  of  at  least  five  dollars.  Each  reg- 
istered voter,  who  must  be  twenty  years  of  age,  must  himself  write 
his  own  name  and  the  name  of  the  candidate  voted  for  on  a  ballot. 
In  this  one  respect  the  Japanese  excels  the  American  method.  The 
foundations  for  further  improvements  were  now  broadly  based. 

To  anticipate,  and  pass  over  details,  except  to  notice  the  constant 
agitation  kept  np  by  new  engines  in  Japanese  politics — the  press,  the 
lecture  platform,  and  the  debating  club — the  mikado,  yielding  to  the 
irresistible  pressure  of  public  opinion,  expanded  and  confirmed  his 
oath  of  1868,  in  the  famous  proclamation  of  October  12th,  1881  : 
"  We  therefore  hereby  declare,  that  We  shall  in  the  23d  year  of  Meiji 
(1890)  establish  a  Parliarhent,  in  order  to  carry  into  full  effect  the 
determination  We  have  announced  ["  gradually  to  establish  a  consti- 
tutional form  of  government "],  and  We  charge  our  faithful  subjects 
bearing  our  commissions  to  make,  in  the  mean  time,  all  necessary 
preparations  to  that  end.  With  regard  to  the  limitations  upon  the 
Imperial  Prerogative,  and  the  constitution  of  the  Parliament,  We  shall 
decide  hereafter,  and  shall  make  proclamation  in  due  time." 

Three  political  parties  in  Japan  are  now  distinctly  organized,  each 
with  its  newspapers,  clubs,  mass  meetings,  and  peripatetic  lecturers,  or 
"  stump-speakers."  They  are  the  Constitutional  Monarchists,  Liber- 
als, and  Constitutional  Reformers,  with  minor  cliques  representing  va- 
rious phases  of  radicalism  or  conservatism.  Local  societies  cherishing 
socialistic,  communistic,  and  even  nihilist  principles  add  to  the  varie- 
ty of  opinions  now  distinguishable  in  a  once  hei'rait  nation,  whose 
entire  stock  of  political  knowledge,  a  generation  ago,  consisted  of  the 
two  ideas  of  personal  loyalty  and  hatred  of  foreigners.  As  a  Japa- 
nese writer  remarked  in  the  Jiyu  Shimbun — the  organ  of  the  liber- 
als—  "The  impulse  of  progress  and  innovation  has  invaded  the  na- 

ful,  that  you  intend  to  explain  our  affairs  to  your  countrymen,  but  I  wish  that 
some  one  would  write  an  instantly  popular  book  explaining  to  our  own  people 
the  intentions  of  the  Government.     Too  many  of  them  refuse  to  understand." 

38 


590  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

tion  with  the  strength  of  a  rushing  torrent.     A  totally  new  Japanese 
empire  is  in  process  of  establishment." 

Let  us  now  glance  at  Japan's  foreign  policy  and  state-craft.  With 
the  Restoration  of  1868  was  born  the  desire  to  thoroughly  consolidate 
the  empire,  and  bring  its  outlying  portions  into  closer  relations  to  the 
throne.  Some  students  of  history  will  also  say  that  the  long-slum- 
bering lust  of  conquest  awoke  to  new  vigor.  A  school  of  Japanese 
thinkers  claimed  that  the  fullest  expression  of  nationality  would  in- 
clude not  only  Riu  Kiu,  Yezo,  Saghalin,  and  the  Bonin  Islands,  as 
constituent  portions,  but  also  Corea  and  Eastern  Formosa,  as  tributary 
dependencies — the  last  claim  being  based  on  Japanese  settlement,  as 
well  as  lack  of  Chinese  jurisdiction.  The  solution  of  the  Formosan 
and  Corean  problems  was,  as  we  have  seen,  soon  reached.  The  Bonin 
Islands,  first  held  in  fief  by  Ogasawara,  a  daimio,  in  1593,  and  visited 
by  a  party  of  explorers  from  Nagasaki  in  16V5,  who  gave  the  name 
Munin,  or  Bonin  (no  man's),  had  been  neglected  by  the  Japanese  for 
centuries,  though  long  a  noted  resort  of  whalers.  In  1823  the  Amer- 
ican Captain  Coffin,  and  in  1827  Captain  Beechy,  an  Englishman,  vis- 
ited the  islands;  and  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry,  in  1854,  stocked  them 
with  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle.  In  1877  there  were  on  the  islands 
a  motley  company  of  seventy  persons,  chiefly  sailors  from  whaling- 
ships,  Americans,  Englishmen,  and  Hawaiians.  In  1878  the  islands 
were  formally  taken  possession  of  in  the  name  of  the  mikado,  and  a 
local  government  established  by  Japanese  ofiicers.  Coffin  Island  will 
probably  be  the  terminus  of  the  proposed  trans -Pacific  submarine 
cable  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama. 

Saghalin  and  the  Kurile  Islands  had  been  the  debatable  ground  be- 
tween the  Japanese  and  Russians  since  1790,  the  subject  of  confer- 
ences and  mutual  remonstrances,  and  the  scene  of  some  border-ruffian- 
ism and  bloodshed.  In  1875  Admiral  Enomoto,  at  St.  Petersburg, 
concluded  a  convention  by  which  Japan  received  all  the  Kurile  Islands, 
or  Chi-shima,  and  Russia  the  whole  of  Saghalin.  The  Kuriles  are 
rich  sealing  and  fishing  grounds,  and  Saghalin  is  now  a  flourishing 
penal  settlement.  The  empire  of  Japan,  as  seen  on  the  map  of  the 
world,  now  swings,  by  a  long  chain  of  islands  at  either  end,  between 
Kamschatka  and  Formosa. 

The  island  of  Yezo  was  placed  under  the  care  of  a  special  ministry 
— the  Kai  Taku  Shi,  or  Department  for  the  Development  of  Yezo — 
and  so  administered  until  the  year  1882.  Its  mineral  and  agricultural 
wealth,  as  exploited  by  American  scientific  men,  is  noted  in  the  Ap- 


JAPAN  IN  1883.  591 

pendix  to  this  work.  Many  millions  of  dollars  were  spent  in  devel- 
oping Yezo,  under  the  oversight  of  Kuroda  Kiyotaku — the  negotiator 
of  the  Corean  treaty,  and  a  military  leader  of  no  mean  abilities,  as 
shown  in  the  civil  wars  of  1868  and  1877.  On  January  11th,  1882, 
General  Kuroda  was  appointed  Cabinet  Adviser,  and  the  property  and 
industrial  undertakings  of  the  department  were  sold — a  proceeding 
which  provoked  a  furious  controversy  among  the  political  societies. 
On  the  8th  of  February,  Yezo  was  divided  into  the  three  ken,  or  pre- 
fectures, of  Hakodate,  Nemuro,  and  Sapporo,  and  governed  like  the 
rest  of  the  empire. 

Before  examining  into  the  matter  of  Riu  Kiu  let  us  glance  at 
Corea,  with  which  a  more  vigorous  policy  was  determined  upon  im- 
mediately after  the  Satsuma  rebellion.  A  legation  was  established  in 
Seoul,  and  Hanabusa,  one  of  the  ablest  of  Japan's  rising  young  men, 
appointed  minister.  In  the  Coreans  the  Japanese  saw  themselves  as 
they  had  been — hermits  in  the  market-place — and  many  of  the  for- 
eigners' experiences  with  them  before  the  opening  of  their  ports  were 
repeated  in  Corea,  the  Japanese  in  this  case  being  the  aliens  and  re- 
puted aggressors.  A  fresh  treaty  opened  Gensan  (Corean,  Wonsan), 
on  the  north-east  coast,  May  1st,  1880,  and  three  months  later  a  sec- 
ond embassy  of  portly  Corean  men,  in  red,  pink,  green,  violet,  and 
azure,  visited  Tokio,  to  pray  that  the  opening  of  the  port  of  In-chiun, 
near  Seoul,  be  postponed.  The  Japanese  refused  their  request.  The 
Coreans  were  now  divided  into  conservatives  and  radicals,  or  progress- 
ives and  reactionists.  Even  among  the  liberals  some  favored  friend- 
ship with  and  imitation  of  Japan,  while  others  looked  to  China  as 
ally  and  model.  One  view  of  the  Japanese  which  gained  ground  in 
Corea,  especially  in  1881,  was,  that  the  Japanese  were  arbitrary  and 
high-handed  in  their  dealing,  and  an  Exclusion-of-the-Japanese  Party 
began  to  form.  Evidently  the  same  state  of  feeling  characteristic  of 
Old  Japan  existed  in  Corea,  in  which  all  the  elements  of  a  political 
explosion  lay  ready.  To  blind  hatred  of  all  foreigners  there  was 
added  a  conservative  bigotry  willing  to  fan  popular  passions  and  su- 
perstition into  a  flame,  while  of  two  great  feudal  houses  in  bitter 
hostility  to  each  other,  one  was  in,  and  the  other  out  of  power. 

A  third  party,  or  embassy,  composed  of  Corean  liberals  anxious  to 
study  civilization  and  progress  in  the  neighbor-country,  came  to  Japan 
in  1881.  At  this  time  it  was  uncertain  whether  the  reactionists  or 
progressives  would  sway  the  policy  of  the  Seoul  government.  The 
young  king,  who  had  come  to  the  throne   in  1873,  was  backed  in 


592  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

his  enlightened  policy  by  his  consort  and  her  relatives,  the  king's 
ministers ;  but  arrayed  against  them  were  the  Tai-wen  Kun,  the  late 
regent,  and  father  of  the  king,  with  his  feudal  retainers,  and  the  con- 
servative and  reactionary  literati  who  looked  to  him  as  their  exponent 
and  guide.  As  this  old  man  bad  persecuted  the  Christians  and 
driven  off  the  French  in  1866,  and  the  Americans  in  1871,  and  was 
still  full  of  physical  and  mental  vigor,  he  was  a  hopeful  leader.  The 
jealousy  and  bitterness  between  his  family  (Ni)  and  that  of  the 
queen's  (Min)  kept  increasing  daily,  (See  "  Corea,  the  Hermit  Na- 
tion.") 

The  treaty  wdth  the  United  States  was  made  May  9th,  1882,  at  In- 
chiun,  and  soon  after  conventions  were  signed  with  Great  Britain  and 
other  European  nations.  Drought  prevailed  throughout  the  country, 
and  the  bigoted  conservatives  wrought  upon  the  superstitions  of  the 
masses  by  ascribing  the  lack  of  rain  to  the  anger  of  the  spirits,  be- 
cause treaties  had  been  made  with  foreigners.  The  soldiery  of  the 
capital,  led  chiefly  by  officers  of  the  house  of  Ni,  were  on  the  verge 
of  mutiny  because  of  arrears  of  pay.  They  were  further  exasperated 
because,  while  their  rations  of  rice  were  stopped,  or  at  least  curtailed, 
the  foreigners  (Japanese)  had  plenty.  These  apparently  trifling 
causes,  acting  at  a  time  when  the  relations  of  the  two  noble  houses 
of  Min  and  Ni  (the  queen's  and  the  ex-regent's,  respectively)  were  so 
strained,  provoked  a  bloody  riot  at  Seoul,  July  23d,  1882.  The  pop- 
ulace and  soldiery  attacked  the  rice-granaries,  the  Japanese  legation, 
the  royal  palace,  and  the  barracks,  at  which  a  picked  force  of  native 
military  were  being  drilled  by  a  Japanese  lieutenant.  Four  of  the 
court  ministers  and  a  number  of  minor  Corean  officers  were  slain. 
The  Japanese,  after  holding  the  mob  at  bay  for  over  seven  hours, 
rushed  out  of  their  burning  quarters,  charged  the  crowd,  and  made  a 
dash  for  the  royal  palace.  Finding  no  help  there,  they  crossed  the 
river  and  marched  to  In-chiiin.  While  asleep  in  the  governor's  house 
they  were  again  attacked,  and  started  for  the  sea-shore.  After  some 
hours  spent  on  the  water  they  were  rescued  by  the  British  survey- 
ship  Flying  Fish.  There  were  but  twenty-six  survivors  out  of  about 
forty  persons.  Seoul  and  the  Corean  Government  were  now  under 
the  control  of  the  Tai-wen  Kun  and  his  mob. 

Immediate  and  thorough  preparations  for  war  were  made  in  Japan, 
and  Hanabusa,  after  audience  with  the  mikado  in  Tokio,  was  sent 
back  to  Seoul,  which  he  entered  August  16th,  with  an  escort  of  five 
hundred  men.     After  delays  and  a  menace  of  war  ample  apologies 


JAPAN  IN  1883.  593 

were  made,  and  the  demands  of  Japan  were  acceded  to.  Corea 
agreed  to  pay  $50,000  to  the  families  of  the  slain  and  $500,000  to 
the  Japanese  government,  to  dispatch  an  embassy  to  Tdkio  to  offer 
apologies,  to  allow  an  armed  escort  in  Seoul,  and  to  extend  farther 
privileges  to  Japanese  officers  and  residents  in  Corea.  Hanabusa  was 
soon  after  promoted  to  be  minister  to  Russia.  A  large  deputation  of 
Coreans  visited  Tokio  in  October,  making  a  long  stay,  and  receiving 
much  attention  from  foreigners  as  well  as  natives. 

China's  action  after  the  Corean  riot  and  usurpation  of  Tai-wen 
Kun  was  remarkable  and  unjustifiable.  Dispatching  a  large  fleet, 
with  several  thousand  soldiers,  to  the  peninsula,  the  capital  was  oc- 
cupied, and  the  king  restored  to  power.  Tai-wen  Kun,  entrapped  on 
board  a  Chinese  gun-boat,  was  kidnapped  and  taken  to  China,  to  live 
imprisoned  as  an  exile.  This  object  of  high-handed  assumption  of 
power  in  a  really  independent  state,  and  only  nominally  tributary,  was 
evidently  to  checkmate  the  suspected  designs  of  Japan,  to  assert  Chi- 
nese supremacy,  and  to  warn  her  ambitious  neighbor  that  a  third 
affair,  like  those  of  Formosa  and  Riu  Kin,  was  no  longer  possible. 

This  warlike  policy  of  China  is  but  an  indication  of  the  state  of 
feeling  between  the  rival  nations,  which  must  at  some  future  day 
eventuate  in  war.  Ever  since  Japan's  full  assumption  of  sovereignty 
over  Riu  Kiu,  the  relations  between  China  and  Japan  have  been 
strained.  At  this  little  island-kingdom,  noted  alike  for  its  sugar 
and  its  peaceful  character,  let  us  now  glance. 

On  a  Mercator  map  of  the  Western  Pacific,  looked  at  from  the  east, 
the  mikado's  empire  (cutting  off  Yezo)  resembles  a  silk-worm  erect, 
and  spinning  from  its  head  (Kiushiu)  a  thread  of  islands  which  are 
strung  along  southwardly  to  Formosa.  To  this  lengthened  cord  the 
name  Okinawa  (long  rope)  was  very  anciently  given.  The  name — 
which  the  Japanese  pronounce  Riu  Kiu,  the  Chinese  Liu  Kiu,  and  the 
islanders  Loo  Choo,  which  means  sleeping  dragon — well  describes  this 
land  of  perpetual  afternoon.  The  people,  numbering  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand — of  whom  as  many  as  one-tenth  lived  on  the 
public  treasury — are  true  Japanese  in  origin,  language,  and  dynasty, 
their  first  historical  ruiers  having  been  descendants  of  the  renowned 
Tametorao.  As,  however,  the  Riu  Kiuans — calling  China  their  father, 
and  Japan  their  mother — sent  tribute  in  junks  to  both  countries,  cul- 
tivated religious,  literary,  and  friendly  relations  with  either,  both  rival 
empires  claimed  the  little  kingdom.  So  long  as  neither  nation  as- 
serted supreme  right  all  was  well.     The  Ming  dynasty  had  given  the 


594  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Riu  Kiu  king  a  silver  seal,  and  to  his  kingdom  a  name  signifying 
"  hanging-balls,"  intimating  that  the  thirty-six  islands  of  his  petty 
domain  were  a  fringe  of  tassels  upon  the  skirts  of  China's  robe. 
Hideyoshi  once  demanded  that  the  islanders  should  pay  tribute  only 
to  Japan ;  but  the  Corean  war  coming  on,  he  had  never  enforced  his 
demand.  In  1609  lyehisa,  the  daimio  of  Satsuma,  conquered  the 
Uslands,  and  secured  their  tributary  allegiance  to  his  house  and  to  the 
shogun.  China,  however,  knew  nothing  of  this  act  of  Japan  until 
after  it  was  over;  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  does  any  restriction  seem 
to  have  been  laid  on  the  Riu  Kiuans  sending  an  annual  tribute  junk 
to  Ningpo,  China.  Fifteen  embassies  from  Riu  Kiu  visited  Yedo,  for 
investiture  of  the  island-king,  or  to  congratulate  the  shoguns  upon 
their  accession  to  power,  between  1611  and  1850;  but  the  same  pol- 
icy was  pursued  toward  China  also.  Both  Corea  and  Riu  Kiu  were 
political  Issachars  bowing  down  between  two  burdens  and  two  mas- 
ters. After  the  revolution  of  1868  Riu  Kiu  was  made  a  han  of  the 
Japanese  empire,  and  the  king  acknowledged  the  mikado  as  his  suze- 
rain. "When,  for  the  sake  of  the  Riu  Kiuans  wrecked  and  murdered 
on  Formosa,  the  Japanese  sent  an  expedition  to  chastise  the  Botan 
savages,  they  took  a  step  forward,  and  reducing  the  king  to  the  status 
of  a  retired  daimio,  erected  Riu  Kiu  into  a  ken,  or  prefecture,  like 
the  other  parts  of  the  empire.  To  this  the  Riu  Kiuans  did  not  all 
agree,  and  continuing  to  send  a  junk  to  Ningpo,  acted  as  suppliants 
for  China's  mercy;  while  the  Peking  government  considered  that 
Japan  was  feloniously  cutting  off  the  fringes  of  China's  robe. 

Under  Japan's  rule  the  sleepy  dragon  is  waking  up.  Trade  with 
Corea  has  begun,  and  with  the  other  ports  of  Japan  increased ;  and 
old  customs  are  giving  way  to  more  enlightened  methods  of  life.  Yet 
still  the  irritation  between  Japan  and  China  continues.  China  having 
already  a  large  naval  force  and  a  numerous  soldiery,  the  questions  of 
increasing  the  number  of  costly  iron-clad  war  vessels,  of  building  new 
forts,  of  enlarging  the  army,  and  of  levying  taxes  in  order  to  pro- 
vide the  sinews  of  war,  have  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Cabinet  in 
Tokio  during  the  past  year.  A  hundred  vessels  of  war  and, a  stand- 
ing army  of  one  hundred  thousand  men  are  not  considered  too  many 
in  case  of  war  with  China ;  but  to  provide  and  maintain  such  a  force 
would  require  vastly  augmented  resources,  such  as  Japan,  in  this  cen- 
tury at  least,  will  never  possess,  her  estimated  total  revenue  for  1883 
being  but  $66,814,122,  of  which  every  dollar  is  required.  Forty  ships 
and  forty  thousand  soldiers  are  thought  to  be  the  minimum  for  safety 


JAPAN  IN  1883.  595 

in  defense.  Such  enlargement  of  war  material  means,  unfortunately, 
curtailment  in  the  amount  devoted  to  education.  A  national  debt  of 
$349,V7l,lV6  (May  31st,  1882)  acts  as  a  wholesome  check  upon  too 
rapid  expenditure.  A  revision  of  the  treaties  with  foreign  nations 
which  will  secure  to  Japan  the  rights  of  a  sovereign  state,  especially 
the  power,  now  wrongfully  denied  her,  of  regulating  her  own  tariff, 
may  enable  her  to  swell  her  revenue,  and  thus  in  some  measure  pro- 
vide for  that  collision  with  her  giant  neighbor  which  seems  inevitable. 

Christianity  in  three  forms,  Greek,  Roman,  and  Reformed,  is  now 
a  potent  factor  in  the  development  of  the  nation.  At  the  opening 
of  the  ports,  in  1859,  the  Roman  Catholics,  with  the  advantage  of  his- 
toric continuity,  began  their  labors  at  Yokohama  and  Nagasaki,  The 
Holy  Synod  of  Russia,  five  Protestant  missionary  societies  —  four 
American  and  one  English  —  sent  their  agents  to  Japan.  For  ten 
years  they  were  unable  to  make  many  disciples,  and  none  openly,  on 
account  of  the  jealous  hostility  of  the  Japanese  Government.  The 
old  anti-Christian  edicts  were  enforced,  and  a  native  became  a  disciple 
of  Jesus  at  the  risk  of  his  life.  Some  of  the  first  teachers  of  the  for- 
eigners were  thrown  into  prison,  and  several  thousand  villagers  from 
Urakami,  near  Nagasaki,  were  deported  to  northern  provinces,  away 
from  the  influence  of  their  French  teachers.  Meanwhile  the  language 
was  being  mastered,  and  the  work  of  healing,  teaching,  and  transla- 
tion engaged  in.  The  first  Protestant  church  in  Japan  was  organized 
in  Japan  by  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Ballagh,  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America,  March  10th,  1872;  the  edifice,  costing  $6000,  standing  on 
part  of  the  Perry  treaty  ground.  Other  churches  were  soon  organ- 
ized, the  first  in  Tokio,  and  the  fourth  in  Japan,  being  on  the  3d  of 
September,  1873.  During  this  year  the  anti-Christian  edicts  were 
removed,  and  Christian  churches  established  in  the  interior,  since 
■which  time  the  Christians  have  worshiped  unmolested.  Most  of  the 
important  evangelical  societies  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
are  now  represented  in  the  missionary  work  in  Japan,  and  Sunday- 
schools,  theological  seminaries,  native  Christian  associations,  the  press. 
Christian  literature,  Bible  and  tract  distribution,  public  discussions, 
and  open-air  meetings  are  among  the  varied  means  used  for  the  diffu- 
sion of  Gospel  truths. 

To  Protestant  missionaries  belongs  the  honor  of  having  translated 
the  Bible  into  Japanese.  Eighty  years  of  Roman  Christianity  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  failed  to  give  the  people  of  Japan 
the  Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue.     Gutzlaff,  in  1838,  and  S.  Wells 


596  THE  MI E ABO'S  EMFIRB. 

Williams,  in  1839,  at  Singapore,  made  the  first  attempts,  which,  after 
several  tentative  translations  by  Brown,  Verbeck,  Hepburn,  Green, 
and  others,  ripened  in  the  fruit  of  a  complete  Japanese  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  high  middle  style  of  the  language.  This  event  of  na- 
tional importance  was  celebrated  by  a  public  meeting  of  the  mission- 
aries and  native  pastors  in  Tokio,  April  19th,  1880.  Many  thousands 
of  copies  have  been  sold  throughout  the  empire,  and  the  Bible  has 
now  millions  of  readers.  There  are  now  probably  forty  thousand 
nominal  Christians  among  the  mikado's  subjects.  Shinto  does  not 
seem  to  flourish  in  the  air  of  the  nineteenth  century,  though  Bud- 
dhism, especially  the  "  Reformed  "  or  Shin-shiu  sect,  which  claims  ten 
millions  of  adherents,  is  vigorously  contesting  with  Christianity  the 
possession  of  Japan. 

The  wondrous  assimilation  of  the  salient  features  of  modern  civil- 
ization by  the  Japanese  has  smoothed  the  path  for  success  in  Chris- 
tian missionary  labor  which  is  marvelous.  The  literary  hostility 
to  Christianity  was  not  at  first  great,  nor  is  it  yet  of  a  character  to 
inspire  respect  for  the  Japanese  intellect.  Nearly  all  the  ammuni- 
tion of  the  priests,  pagans,  and  opponents  of  the  new  faith  is  fur- 
nished by  translation  from  Occidental  sources.  The  literary,  med- 
ical, and  pedagogic  work  of  the  missionaries  has  borne  a  mighty 
harvest  of  good  to  the  nation  at  large,  while  the  friendly  rivalry 
between  the  common  schools  and  the  missionary  educational  insti- 
tutions is  most  wholesome.  The  influences  of  the  religion  of  Jesus 
are  penetrating  deeply  into  the  social  life  of  the  people,  and  rooting 
themselves  into  heart  and  intellect  alike.  Licentiousness,  intemper- 
ance, and  lying  are  the  moral  cancers  of  the  national  character;  but 
the  ideals  of  Jesus  are  seen  by  an  increasing  number  of  the  people  to 
be  the  best  inspiration  to  individual  and  national  progress. 


JAPAN  IN  1886.  597 


11. 

JAPAN  IN  1886. 

The  year  of  our  Lord  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-six,  the  nine- 
teenth of  the  Restoration,  and  of  the  reign  of  Mutsuhito,  the  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-third  mikado  of  Japan,  finds  the  empire  at  peace,  and 
in  full  career  of  progress.  The  emperor,  now  thirty -three  years  of  age, 
is  surrounded  with  a  new  generation  of  advisers.  The  old  heroes  and 
counsellors  of  '68  have  mostly  passed  away.  The  old  nobilities — of 
court  and  of  land — have  shrunk  to  a  status  almost  wholly  non-polit- 
ical.    With  new  men  and  times  come  new  measures  and  problems. 

Notable  among  those  of  national  fame  who  have  "  changed  their 
■world"  have  been  the  junior  premier  Iwakura  Tomomi,  a  noble  of 
highest  rank,  and  the  elder  prince  Arisugawa.  At  an  age  still 
counted  as  mid-life  by  European  statesmen,  Iwakura  sank  in  the 
plenitude  of  his  influence,  dying  of  an  hereditary  disease  July  20, 
1883.  Born  in  Kioto  in  1825,  of  most  illustrious  ancestry,  whose 
blood  flowed  from  imperial  and  Minamoto  stock,  Iwakura  vpas  made 
personal  attendant  upon  the  Mikado  Komei  at  the  age  of  twenty.  Ed- 
ucated in  traditions  of  antagonism  to  the  Yedo  system,  he  was,  in 
1861,  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  the  marriage  of  an  imperial 
princess  to  a  Tokugawa,  forced  into  exile.  Living  in  retirement  and 
with  shorn  head  during  several  years,  he  was  yet  in  active  communi- 
cation with  the  leaders  of  the  impending  crisis;  and  in  1868,  to  the 
surprise  of  the  Yedo  authorities,  he  emerged  at  the  head  and  front  of 
the  new  movement.  Until  the  age  of  forty-three  he  had  never  seen 
foreigners,  but  on  his  first  interview  with  Sir  Harry  Parkes  was  con- 
verted to  belief  in  their  equality,  humanity,  and  abilities.  Heartily 
accepting  the  principles  of  western  civilization,  he  sent  his  three  sons 
to  study  under  Guido  F.  Verbeck,  at  Nagasaki,  and  thence  to  the 
United  States.  For  fifteen  years  he  was  the  close  counsellor  of  the 
young  mikado,  who  in  1871  personally  visited  his  subject,  and  said, 
"  It  is  to  you,  under  the  favor  of  the  gods,  that  we  owe  the  flourish- 
ing condition  of  the  empire."  It  was  Iwakura  who,  when  opportunity 
like  a  flame  softened  the  national  heart  as  wax,  bade  the  mikado  with 
his  divine  prestige  stamp  it,  and  give  to  the  fusing  mass  the  express 


598  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

image  of  a  nation  by  the  abolition  of  feudalism.  Utterly  fearless  of 
all  personal  consequences,  this  foremost  man  among  the  nobility 
pressed  to  their  conclusion  the  results  of  the  revolution  during  his 
twelve  years  of  incessant  toil.  Emerging  scathless  from  repeated  at- 
tempts upon  his  life,  he  died  quietly  in  his  bed.  Buried  with  all  pos- 
sible funereal  pomp,  he  received  from  the  mikado  the  posthumous  title 
of  Dai  Jo  Dai  Jin.  Like  Moses,  having  led  a  nation  from  narrow  hori- 
zons to  a  higher  outlook,  he  died  at  the  right  time.  His  death,  as  we 
shall  see,  paved  the  way  for  a  closer  union  of  the  throne  and  the  peo- 
ple. No  successor  to  Iwakura — well  named  "  Rock-throne" — could  be 
found,  while  from  below  the  new  man  for  the  new  work  was  at  hand. 

Arisugawa  Takahito  no  Miya,  a  prince  of  the  blood  and  of  the  high- 
est rank,  father  of  the  military  leader  who  bore  the  imperial  brocade 
banner  in  1868,  died  January  24,  1886.  Among  others  who  have 
bowed  to  the  harvest  of  death  were  many  of  the  old  daimios,  the 
illustrious  merchant  Godai,  of  Ozaka,  several  female  children  of  the 
mikado,  and  so  many  promising  young  men  who  had  entered  or  were 
anticipating  public  life,  as  to  suggest  painfully  the  weakness  of  the 
Japanese  physique.  The  percentage  of  deaths  among  the  students 
abroad  and  at  home  is  a  constant  source  of  sorrow  and  disappoint- 
ment. Of  one  hundred  youths  who  begin  their  preparatory  studies 
in  the  foreign  language  schools,  not  over  five  win  their  degrees  at  the 
Tokio  University,  over  forty  dropping  out  on  account  of  disease  or 
weakness.* 

Other  causes  than  the  knock  of  Pallida  Mors  have  operated  in  the 
retirement  from  public  view  of  men  once  prominent.  The  tendency 
of  Japanese  politics,  in  its  evolution  towards  the  goal  of  1890,  has 
been  to  eliminate  entirely  the  old  nobility,  and  to  advance  to  power 
men  for  the  time  bred  in  the  lower  social  ranks.  The  composite  gov- 
ernment which  rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  dual  system  in  1868  was 
founded  on  the  theory  of  a  union  of  the  throne  with  the  people,  the 
only  intermediary  being  the  kuge,  or  court  nobles.  This  took  the 
form  of  a  triple  premiership  of  Dai-jins ;  Sanjo  and  Iwakura  filling 
two  of  the  three  highest  offices,  while  the  details  of  administration 
were  carried  on  by  the  ministers,  who  were  men  of  the  samurai  class. 
Gradually  the  forces  of  intellect,  of  natural  ability,  and  of  education 

*  K^iki,  "the  last  tycoon,"  was  reported  to  have  died  in  1884.  This  was  a 
mistake.  In  1890  we  read  of  his  visiting  the  hot  springs  of  Itami.  On  the  14th 
of  April,  1889,  a  monument  to  his  retainers  slain  in  the  civil  war  of  1868-70  wa» 
unveiled  at  Uyeno,  Tokio. 


JAPAN  IN  1886.  599 

manifested  themselves,  driving  out  inferior  men,  unable  to  cope  with 
the  new  problems  of  statecraft  or  to  resist  the  pressure  from  be- 
low, and  elevating  to  influential  position  the  able  men  of  low  rank. 
These  demanded  not  only  office  and  hearing,  but  tangible  recognition, 
in  the  form  of  social  advancement,  from  the  throne  itself.  In  response 
to  public  opinion  the  mikado  issued  an  edict  dated  June  6,  1884, 
which  readjusted  the  system  of  nobility.  In  the  newly-created  orders 
of  princes,  marquises,  counts,  viscounts,  and  barons,  were  found  many 
men  once  in  the  class  of  gentry  only,  who  had  performed  distin- 
guished services  on  behalf  of  their  country.  Nearly  three  hundred 
persons  in  the  aristocracy  of  intellect  were  thus  ennobled  on  the  basis 
of  merit.  Orders  and  decorations  have  also  been  distributed  with  lav- 
ish hand  to  both  natives  and  foreigners.  It  is  expected  that  the 
nobles  will  furnish  the  personnel  of  the  Upper  House  of  Lords  or 
Notables  for  the  Parliament  of  1890. 

To  this  goal  the  forces  of  Japanese  politics  have  kept  steadily  mov- 
ing, though  with  many  fluctuations  and  vicissitudes,  among  which 
have  been  the  rise  and  fall  of  parties,  plottings,  riots,  dynamite,  sus- 
picion, imprisonments,  trials,  release  or  executions.  For  various  rea- 
sons the  Liberal  party  was  dissolved  in  October,  1884. 

Within  the  Government  circles  there  had  been  occasional  shiftino-s 
of  ofiice  without  radical  change ;  but  a  movement  of  almost  revolu- 
tionary import  took  place  at  the  end  of  1885.  The  death  of  Iwakura, 
and  the  apparently  approaching  senility  of  San  jo,  gave  the  opportu- 
nity ;  while  necessity,  in  view  of  the  strides  of  time  that  wait  for  no 
man,  forced  the  issue.  With  the  unexpected  suddenness  of  an  earth- 
quake shock,  every  member  of  the  old  court  party  was  retired  from 
active  office,  while  young  men  educated  abroad — Ito,  Inouye,  Mori, 
Enomoto — stepped  into  the  highest  offices. 

By  recommendation  (on  paper  at  least)  of  Sanjo,  and  by  decree  of 
the  mikado,  December  22,  1885,  the  triple  premiership,  the  privy 
council,  and  the  ministries  as  then  constituted  were  abolished.  In 
their  place  a  cabinet  was  established,  at  the  head  of  which  was  a  min- 
ister-president of  state.  The  old  boards  of  government,  with  a  new 
one  of  communications  (railways,  telegraphs,  mails),  were  reorgan- 
ized in  such  a  way  as  to  discharge  from  public  employ  about  eight 
thousand  office-holders.  The  new  crystallization  of  political  forces  is 
in  the  interest  of  democracy  and  economy,  as  well  as  of  executive  uni- 
formity and  vigor.  All  in  the  new  cabinet  are  men  of  modern  ideas, 
culture,  and  conviction,  while  the  Asiatic  features  of  the  Government 


600  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

have  retired  into  shadow.  The  Mikado  Mutsuhito  now  raeets  his 
ministers  in  council,  deliberates  with  them,  and  must  share  personal  re- 
sponsibility. The  throne,  by  having  sevei-al  courses  of  intermediaries 
quietly  and  safely  removed,  is  more  nearly  "  broad-based  upon  the 
people's  will."  It  may  be  that  the  future  parliament  will  check  any 
undue  tendency  in  the  ministry  to  bureauocracy.  As  yet  it  is  uncer- 
tain whether  the  form  of  representative  government  in  Japan  will 
most  closely  approach  the  British  or  the  Prussian  model.  It  will  be 
a  bitter  disappointment  to  the  liberal  patriots  if  the  ministry  is  to  be 
made  responsible  to  the  sovereign  and  not  to  the  parliament. 

The  temptations  which  beset  Asiatic  nations  in  adopting  the  salient 
features  of  modern  civilization  to  embark  upon  costly  schemes  of  re- 
form and  equipment  are  great,  and  the  possible  dangers  are  greater. 
The  Japanese  Government  seems  wisely  anxious  to  study  economy  and 
avoid  undue  expenditure.  Besides  reducing  the  once  abnormal  force 
of  office-holders,  western  methods  of  book-keeping  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  public  service,  and  the  financial  estimates  for  each 
year  are  reduced  to  the  lowest  point.  The  total  national  revenue 
for  the  nineteenth  fiscal  year  of  Meiji  was  $74,695,415,  and  the 
expenditure  was  $74,689,014.  About  $20,000,000  is  applied  year- 
ly to  the  extinguishing  of  the  national  debt,  which  in  1885  was 
$245,427,329. 

The  customs  returns  of  trade  since  1868,  published  in  July,  1886, 
shows  that  the  foreign  commerce  of  Japan  is  healthfully  developing. 
In  1869  the  exports  were  less  than  $13,000,000,  but  during  each  of 
the  last  five  years  they  have  not  fallen  below  $30,000,000.  The  im- 
ports in  1868  were  valued  at  ten  and  a  half,  in  1880  at  thirty-six,  and 
in  1885  at  twenty-eight  millions  of  dollars.  The  excess  of  imports 
over  exports  during  eighteen  years  of  foreign  trade  amounts  to  fifty- 
one  millions.  Great  Britain  has  been  the  largest  importer,  but  her 
imports  have  fallen  from  nineteen  millions  in  1880  to  twelve  millions 
in  1885.  The  United  States  takes  most  of  the  silk  and  tea  of  Japan, 
and  returns  machinery  and  oil,  two-thirds  of  the  exports  to  Japan  being 
in  petroleum,  Japan's  silk  crop,  in  all  its  products,  is  valued  at  eigh- 
teen and  a  half  millions  of  dollars,  and  her  tea  crop  at  over  thirty-five 
millions  of  pounds.  While  the  yield  of  tea  has  increased  threefold 
since  1868,  the  price  has  fallen  one-half.  In  the  manufacture  and 
export  of  art- products  there  has  been  a  marked  increase.  This  is 
manifested  not  only  in  the  customs  returns,  but  in  the  houses,  gar- 
dens, and  museums  of  Europe  and  America.     Japan  is  already  recog- 


JAPAN  IN  1886.  601 

nizcd  as  "  the  land  of  dainty  decoration,"  and  her  art  has  added  new 
elements  of  delight  and  surprise  to  the  world's  store. 

The  social  revolution  which  has  affected  all  classes  in  the  mikado's 
empire  has  given  rise  to  new  industries  and  handicrafts.  The  concen- 
tration of  capital,  the  improvement  of  labor,  and  the  elevation  of  the 
working-classes  through  the  influence  of  schools  and  the  cheapening 
of  justice,  have  changed  the  entire  industrial  system.  The  pitiful  tales 
of  the  laborer's  wrongs,  as  told  in  Mitford's  "  Tales  of  Old  Japan," 
seem  now  mythical.  The  introduction  of  machinery  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  large  arsenals,  founderies,  mills,  steamship  and  railway 
companies,  seem  to  prove  that  Japan  is  not  only  providing  for  her 
own  needs,  but  is  developing  her  resources  in  order  to  enter  as  a  com- 
petitor for  the  manufacturing  supremacy  among  Asiatic  nations. 
Fully  equipped  railroads,  men-of-war,  steam  and  sailing  vessels,  houses 
in  European  style,  the  product  of  native  brain  and  muscle,  are  no 
longer  curiosities.  Patents  are  issued,  inventions  are  encouraged,  and 
museums  are  established  in  most  of  the  large  cities.  In  exhibitions 
of  industry  held  in  the  provinces  and  capital,  art,  mechanical  ingenu- 
ity, trades,  and  business  are  stimulated  to  higher  excellence.  In  the 
expositions  held  in  Europe,  America,  Australia,  and  India,  the  artistic 
ability,  manual  dexterity,  and  inventive  genius  of  the  Japanese  have 
won  abundant  recognition.  An  exhibition  of  Asiatic  products  is  to 
be  held  at  Uyeno,  in  T5ki5,  in  1890. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  opening  of  Japan  to  the  world  was 
coincident  with  the  age  of  iron,  steel,  steam,  and  electricity.  The  tel- 
egraph, introduced  in  1869,  has  become  a  net-work  of  fifteen  thousand 
miles  of  wire.  Four  cables  connect  the  island  empire  to  the  Asian 
main-land,  two  making  landfall  at  Vladivostok,  one  at  Fusan  in  Corea, 
and  one  at  Shanghai  in  China.  The  telephone  and  the  electric  light 
are  seen  in  the  large  cities.  Of  railways  there  were,  in  the  summer  of 
1885,  265  miles  open,  2Vl  miles  in  course  of  construction,  and  543 
miles  in  contemplation.  Except  the  railway  from  Sapporo  to  Poronai 
in  Yezo,  these  roads  are  constructed  and  equipped  on  the  British 
model.  Most  of  the  survey,  engineering,  and  constructive  work,  and 
all  of  the  mechanical  labor  on  the  new  roads,  are  done  by  natives.  The 
trains,  engines,  and  ofl[ices  are  worked  by  Japanese,  and  the  wood  and 
lighter  metal  portions  are  made  at  home,  the  heavy  castings,  engines, 
and  rails  being  brought  from  Great  Britam.  The  Japan  Mail  Shipping 
Company  employs  a  large  fleet  of  steamships  and  sailing-vessels  in 
their  coasting  trade  and  passenger  lines  to  China,  Corea,  and  the  island 


602  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

portions  of  the  empire.  In  1885  the  postal  department  forwarded 
nearly  one  hundred  million  letters  and  packages. 

The  return,  in  1884,  of  the  principal  of  the  Shimonoseki  Indemnity, 
so  long  unjustly  withheld  by  the  United  States  from  Japan,  has  been 
of  some  assistance  in  carrying  out  her  schemes  of  national  improve- 
ment. Besides  postal  and  money-order  arrangement  with  the  United 
States,  a  treaty  of  extradition  was  ratified  by  the  Senate  June  21, 
1886.  This  important  diplomatic  action  places  Japan,  so  far  as  the 
American  Government  is  concerned,  upon  the  same  footing  as  that  of 
the  most  enlightened  nations  in  Europe.  In  these  two  acts  the  Unit- 
ed States  leads  the  way  in  encouragement  and  recognition  of  Japan's 
purpose  to  assimilate  her  civilization  to  that  of  Christendom. 

Ever  since  the  American  flag  was  first  carried  round  the  world  by 
Major  Shaw,  of  the  United  States  First  Artillery,  the  part  played  by 
our  country  towards  Asiatic  nations  has  been  in  the  main  kindly, 
honorable,  and  unselfish.  In  the  renovation  of  Japan  this  disposition 
to  assist  and  not  to  retard  her  progress  has  been  manifest.  In  1878, 
in  Tokio,  the  Japanese  themselves,  in  their  own  language  and  way, 
celebrated,  with  congratulations  and  rejoicing,  the  quarter-century  of 
the  arrival  of  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry  in  Yedo  bay.*  Our  American 
teachers,  missionaries,  and  scientific  men  in  active  labors  on  the  soil ; 
our  ministers  in  their  diplomacy  ;  our  hospitable  schools,  homes,  and 
friends  in  need  welcoming  the  students  ;f  our  Government  in  treaties, 
have  all  shown  a  desire  to  assist  Japan  which  is  as  sincere  as  it  is 
morally  beautiful.  The  standard  political  literature  of  the  United 
States,  translated  and  widely  read,  has  done  much  to  educate  Japanese 


*  See  the  "Life  of  Matthew  Calbraith  Perry,  a  Typical  American  Naval  OflB- 
cer,"  by  the  author  of  this  work. 

+  The  subject  of  the  Japanese  students  abroad,  how  they  came  first  to  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  with  personal  notes,  statistics,  etc.,  has  been  treated  by  the  au- 
thor in  a  pamphlet  published  in  1886  by  the  Rutgers  College  Alumni  Association. 
During  the  civil  war  in  Japan  the  Japanese  students  were  unable  to  receive  any 
remittances.  A  company  of  gentlemen  and  ladies  in  the  Reformed  [Dutch] 
Church  was  formed  to  loan  them  money  without  regard  to  future  repayment. 
This  generous  behavior  was  warmly  appreciated  by  the  mikado's  government. 
On  the  eve  of  their  departure  from  the  United  States,  in  1872,  the  ambassadors 
Iwakura  and  Okubo,  in  a  letter  to  the  Rev.  John  Mason  Ferris,  D.D.,  wrote: 
"The  generous  conduct  exhibited  by  yourself  and  other  gentlemen  in  this  in- 
stance, as  well  as  in  all  matters  of  educational  interest  pertaining  to  the  Japanese 
youth,  will  do  more  to  correct  this  impression  [that  "foreign  nations  did  not  en- 
tertain kindly  feelings  toward  our  people"],  and  will  do  more  to  cement  the 
friendly  relations  of  the  two  countries,  than  all  other  influences  combined." 


JAPAN  IN  1886.  603 

opinion,  and  to  show  how  liberty  may  exist  under  law.  Science,  relig- 
ion, the  press,  and  public-schools  are  now  training  the  Japanese  peo- 
ple for  their  coming  responsibilities.  Nearly  six  hundred  young  men 
have,  since  the  first  exodus  in  I860,  been  educated  abroad  at  the  pub- 
lic expense,  most  of  them  in  the  United  States.  An  equal  or  greater 
number  have  attended  foreign  schools  at  their  own  charges,  while  the 
number  of  travellers  and  those  who  have  intelligently  studied  western 
civilization  cannot  fall  short  of  three  thousand.  The  Japanese  have 
now  their  legation,  consulates,  bank,  clubs,  and  a  Christian  church  in 
the  United  States.  At  least  three  thousand  in  various  industrial 
capacities  are  living  in  Europe,  China,  Hawaii,  and  other  countries. 
No  year  passes  without  seeing  delegations  of  public  inspectors  or  pri- 
vate students  abroad,  all  restlessly  eager  to  know  the  secrets  of  power 
possessed  by  the  western  nations. 

Though  the  Japanese  long  ago  accepted  the  axiom  that  "education 
is  the  basis  of  all  progress,"  yet  their  efforts  in  intellectual  advance- 
ment have  been  impeded  by  their  long  use  of  the  Chinese  graphic 
system.  The  best  years  of  a  student's  life  must  be  devoted  to  learn- 
ing thousands  of  arbitrary  characters  in  order  to  know  how  to  read. 
To  be  a  learned  man  in  the  Japan  of  to-day  one  must  know,  besides 
his  own  language,  the  cumbrous  Chinese  system  of  writing,  with  much 
of  its  body  of  learning,  and,  in  addition,  the  English  or  some  other 
modern  European  language.  No  youth  are  more  burdened  in  ob- 
taining an  education  than  are  the  Japanese.  Hence  the  vast  sac- 
rifice of  health  and  life  among  them,  and  their  early  intellectual 
decay. 

Fully  realizing  these  indisputable  facts,  the  thinking  men  of  this 
generation  have  resolved  to  break  the  yoke,  to  cast  off  the  incubus, 
and  to  free  the  intellect  of  the  future.  In  1884  the  Roma-ji  Kai,  or 
Eoman-letter  Association,  was  formed  in  Tokio,  and  has  now  six  thon- 
sand  members,  native  and  foreign,  among  whom  are  all  the  mission- 
aries. Their  purpose  is  to  supplant  the  Chinese  character  and  native 
syllabary  by  the  Roman  alphabet  as  the  vehicle  of  Japanese  thought. 
They  have  demonstrated  that  all  possible  sounds  and  vocal  combinations 
can  be  expressed  by  using  twenty-two  letters.  They  print  a  newspa- 
per, edit  text-books,  and  will  transliterate  popular  and  classic  texts  in 
the  chosen  letters  of  the  alphabet  now  most  widely  used  over  all  the 
earth.  It  has  been  proved  that  a  child  can  learn  to  read  the  colloquial 
and  book  language  in  one-tenth  of  the  time  formerly  required.  The 
reform  is  making  rapid  progress ;  and  if,  as  seems  very  probable,  the 


604  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

natives  universally  adopt  the  system,  the  gain  to  mind  and  body  will 
be  like  that  of  adding  youth  and  years  to  a  nation's  life. 

By  an  imperial  decree,  issued  November  29,  1884,  the  English  lan- 
guage was  made  part  of  the  order  of  studies  in  the  common-schools. 
Over  three  million  children  and  youth  now  attend  daily  the  public 
institutions  of  learning.  Education  is  both  conipulsory  and  free. 
EngMsh  seems  destined  to  become  the  speech  of  the  educated  and  the 
vehicle  of  knowledge  for  all  the  mikado's  subjects. 

The  progress  of  Christianity  shows  no  sign  of  check  or  halt.  To 
all  three  forms  of  the  faith  converts  are  flocking,  but  indications  seem 
to  show  at  present  (1886)  a  greater  relative  gain  to  the  churches  of 
Reformed  Christianity.  The  majority  of  the  two  hundred  Protestant 
missionaries  now  working  in  the  white  harvest  -  field  of  Japan  are 
Americans.  The  writer  saw  the  organization  of  the  first  Protestant 
Christian  church  in  Japan  in  1872.  There  are  now  nearly  two  hun- 
dred organized  churches  (about  half  of  which  are  self-supporting), 
with  a  membership  of  over  thirteen  thousand.  In  1885  the  adult 
converts  baptized  numbered  3115.  Native  Christian  helpers,  assisting 
the  foreign  teachers,  number  about  two  hundred  and  fifty,  of  whom 
seventy  are  ordained  ministers.  The  native  Christians  contributed 
in  1885  over  twenty  thousand  dollars.  The  systems  of  heathenism 
are  waning,  and  the  chief  supporters  of  Buddhism  are  now  old  men 
and  women.  The  shaven-pated  priests  no  longer  hold  the  monopoly 
of  fees  for  the  performance  of  burial  rites.  Both  belief  and  burial 
are  now  free.  Religious  liberty  has  become  a  fact.  The  attitude 
of  the  intelligent  people  is  that  of  friendliness  towards  what  they  be- 
lieve to  be  the  best  religion  and  the  one  which  Japan  ought  to  have. 

Japan's  opportunity  seems  unique  in  history.  Under  Divine  Prov- 
idence she  began  renascence  at  a  time  coincident  with  the  highest  de- 
velopment of  the  forces — spiritual,  mental,  and  material — that  control 
human  society.  Christianity,  the  press,  and  steam  are  transforming 
the  nation.  Under  such  continuing  auspices  people  and  rulers  con- 
front the  twentieth  year  of  Meiji  (Enlightened  Peace),  the  twenty-five 
hundred  and  forty-seventh  "  from  the  foundation  of  the  empire,"  and 
the  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-seventh  of  the  Christian  era. 


JAPAN  IN  1890.  605 


III. 

JAPAN  IN  1890. 

Taking  our  survey  of  Japan  in  1890,  and  writing  in  mid-August 
with  the  election  returns  before  us,  it  seems  that  the  one  event  which 
dwarfs  all  others  since  the  year  1886,  if  not  indeed  since  the  Japanese 
became  a  nation,  is  the  proclamation  of  the  Constitution  of  February 
11,  1889.  In  accordance  with  this  instrument,  the  emperor  shares 
with  his  people  the  work  and  responsibilities  of  government. 

The  possibility  of  an  Asiatic  nation's  becoming  constitutional  and 
representative  in  government  excites  surprise  and  even  incredulity  in 
the  minds  of  Western  people.  Since  the  solidity  and  permanence  of 
any  form  of  political  organization  must  depend  upon  how  far  it  is 
rooted  in  the  past,  and  is  in  accord  with  the  genius  and  necessities  of 
a  people,  let  us  examine  the  process  by  which  the  present  status  of 
Japan  has  been  attained.  Is  the  Constitution  of  1889  a  manufacture 
or  a  growth  ? 

A  rapid  view  shows  us  that  in  all  Japanese  history  the  central  force 
has  been  the  reverence  of  the  people  for  the  throne,  while  the  actual 
administration  has  always  been  in  the  hands  of  some  one  family,  clan, 
or  clan  combination.  Passing  over  the  "ages  eternal"  of  mythology, 
and  reckoning  that  the  traditions  of  the  house  or  tribe  of  Yamato  are 
trustworthy  from  the  fourth  century,  then  the  imperial  line  of  Japan 
has  been  in  existence,  by  blood  and  adoption,  nearly  sixteen  hundred 
years.  Yet,  excepting  the  individuals  Nobunaga  and  Hideyoshi,  the 
actual  rulers  of  the  empire  have  been  men  of  the  Fujiwara,  Taira, 
Minamoto,  Hojo,  Ashikaga,  and  Tokugawa  families;  and,  since  1868, 
of  the  "  Sa-cho-to,"  or  the  Satsuma,  Choshiu,  and  Tosa  clan  combi- 
nation. For  the  first  time  in  Japanese  history  the  intermediary  of 
family  or  clan  control  of  the  throne  is  now  to  be  abolished.  The 
meaning  of  the  Constitution  of  1889 — the  expansion  of  the  oath  of 
1868 — is  that  the  emperor  invites  his  people  to  share  with  him  the 
duties  of  government.  This  time  it  is  not  a  family,  a  clan,  or  a  com- 
bination, but  the  nobles,  gentry,  and  people;  but  who  are  the  people? 

As  there  has  been  no  true  history  of  Japan  yet  written — that  is,  one 
which  sifts  utterly  the  truth  from  early  and  late  fable  and  mythology — 

39 


606  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

so  there  exists  no  accurate  history  of  the  Japanese  people.  Wliat 
passes  for  history  in  the  bald  and  dry  native  annals  is  the  story  of 
their  conquerors,  masters,  and  tax-collectors.  We  see  clearly  outlined, 
however,  the  separation  of  classes.  At  first  there  were  only  tribes 
and  chiefs,  the  subjugators  and  the  subjugated,  agriculturists  and  no- 
mads. Then,  in  a  long  course  of  war,  the  soldiers,  finding  nearly  per- 
manent employment,  keep  sword,  spear,  and  armor,  while  the  farm- 
ers clinging  to  hoe  and  hook,  two  classes  are  formed  out  of  the  mass 
of  inhabitants  beyond  the  court  and  beneath  the  nobles.  Those  men, 
whose  business  it  was  to  samurai  the  mikado — that  is,  to  serve  or  at- 
tend upon  the  orders  of  the  emperor,  made  up  the  military  class; 
the  farmers,  as  being  next  below,  forming  the  most  ancient  and  hon- 
orable of  the  lower  classes.  Among  the  social  grades,  formed  by 
gradual  evolution  and  isolation  during  the  intervals  of  peace,  may  be 
named  the  merchant,  artisan,  and  people  of  other  occupations,  even 
to  the  outcast  eta  and  hinin.  Since  1868  all  the  grades  below  the  sam- 
urai, or  gentry,  have  been  fused  into  one  class,  the  hei-min,  or  people. 

The  chief  feature  in  the  old  Japanese  political  system  was  its  ten- 
dency to  dualism.  The  division  of  the  people  into  soldiers  and  farm- 
ers, and  of  officers  into  civil  and  military,  or  kuge  and  buke,  was  a 
process  which,  in  the  absence  of  foreign  pressure  or  enemies,  ended 
in  a  division  of  the  functions  of  government  into  those  of  the  throne 
and  the  camp,  with  two  rulers  and  two  capitals.  Gradually  this 
process  of  dualism  became  one  of  disintegration.  Authority  slipped 
from  the  centres,  and  was  held  locally  by  province  lords,  or  daimios, 
each  striving  for  himself;  until,  duarchy  having  degenerated  into 
feudalism,  Japan  had  no  unity,  but  was  a  mass  of  warring  fac- 
tions. Politically  or  socially,  the  comminution  could  no  further  go. 
Even  when  "  the  man  on  horseback "  by  military  force  was  able  to 
clamp  together  some  sort  of  a  political  edifice,  the  order  thus  kept 
was  only  of  the  sort  possible  when  there  was  no  pressure  from  the 
outside,  and  when  no  foreign  enemy  threatened.  For  over  two  cen- 
turies the  military  despotism  of  Tokugawa  held  in  peace  by  a  most 
elaborate  and  complicated  system  an  empire  which  consisted  of  about 
three  hundred  petty  kingdoms,  within  each  of  which  was  a  social  con- 
glomeration of  a  dozen  or  more  different  classes. 

Old  Japan  was  a  museum  of  political  curiosities,  while  on  the 
graded  shelves  of  the  social  classification  was  catalogued  every  speci- 
men, from  a  god  to  the  creatures  labelled  "  not  human."  Under  out- 
ward splendor  and  picturesqueness,  only  a  few  far-seeing  men  saw 


JAPAX  IN  1890.  607 

that,  first  of  all,  Japan  needed  unity ;  fewer  discerned  that  the  coun- 
try must  have  government  by  men  and  not  by  cnstoni ;  fewest  yet 
that  to  be  a  great  nation  Japan  must  have  a  people. 

Heretofore  "public  opinion"  has  been  the  exclusive  property  of 
the  samurai.  "  The  people,"  in  the  modern,  not  to  say  the  American, 
sense,  have  not  yet  grown  to  consciousness,  though  the  11th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1889,  was  the  day  of  birth.  Nineteen-twentieths  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  Japan  have  been  simply  burden -bearers  and  tax -payers; 
now  they  are  becoming  "the  people."  Japan,  having  cast  otf  dual- 
ism, feudalism,  and  other  divisive  elements,  has  entered  upon  a  higher 
process  of  unity.     The  people  are  now  learning  who  and  what  they  are. 

Glancing  now  at  the  various  forms  of  government,  we  discern  in 
the  early  ages  a  rudimentary  feudalism,  probably  brought  by  the 
Yamato  conquerors  from  the  Amoor  or  Sungari  valleys.  After  this 
follow  in  order  centralized  monarchy,  duarchy,  elaborate  feudalism, 
and  then,  in  1868,  a  composite  government  formed  on  the  theory  of  a 
union  of  the  throne  and  "the  people" — that  is,  the  samurai.  In  this 
government,  the  chief  intermediaries  being  the  triple  premiership  and 
other  various  minor  and  temporary  political  expedients,  the  actual  ad- 
ministration was  carried  on  by  able  samurai,  formerly  men  of  low 
social  rank,  but  well  fitted  for  the  vi'ork  in  hand.  In  a  survey  of  the 
twenty-one  years  of  the  government  of  Meiji  several  facts  stand  out 
prominently ;  the  first  is  that  the  former  ruling  class  of  daimios  and 
other  nobles,  and  the  people,  have  had  very  little,  if  any,  political 
power;  second,  that  the  Meiji  statesmen  have  shown  in  their  actions 
a  curious,  perhaps  admirable,  combination  of  opportunism  and  far- 
sighted  statecraft ;  third,  that  natural  force,  ability,  and  education  have 
driven  out  incompetency  ;  fourth,  that  despite  all  obstacles,  they  have 
led  the  nation  steadily  forward  to  the  goal  set  before  them  at  the 
Restoration,  and  far  beyond  it ;  fifth,  that  Japan  is  to-day  vastly  less 
the  land  of  lies  and  sham  than  in  the  old  days  of  seclusion,  and  is 
more  and  more  the  country  of  reality  and  truth. 

In  brief.  Old  Japan  was  the  result  of  certain  conditions,  chief  of 
which  was  isolation  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  So  long  as  no  leaven 
from  without  was  dropped  into  the  mass,  the  old  constitution  of  soci- 
ety and  government  could  remain  stable.  When,  however,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  movements  in  the  minds  of  scholars  and  thinkers  previous 
to  A.D.  1853,  which  of  themselves  would  have  precipitated  revolution 
and  compelled  reconstruction,  there  was  poured  into  Japan  the  fer- 
ment of  Christian  civilization,  the  entire  striioturc  was  doomed.     A 


608  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

new  society,  as  well  as  a  new  government,  must  arise.  Despotism, 
division,  and  sectionalism  had  to  give  way  in  order  that  national  unity 
should  emerge.  The  old  society,  split  up  by  feudalism,  priestcraft, 
and  ignorance,  must  be  first  simplified,  and  by  education,  enlighten- 
ment, and  freedom  the  nation  be  strengthened  and  uplifted.  Public 
opinion,  as  the  basis  of  national  action,  must  be  the  real,  though  regu- 
lated, feeling  of  all,  from  emperor  to  eta.  In  the  attainable  ideal  sys- 
tem the  humblest  member  of  the  body  politic  is  a  man,  and  the  high- 
est nothing  more. 

That  there  were  men  who  before  1853,  the  year  of  Perry's  arrival 
at  Uraga,  thus  thought  and  felt,  and  to  this  end  devoted  their  lives,  is 
manifest  from  tradition,  history,  and  the  writings  of  such  men  as  Ta- 
keno  Choye,  Watanabe  Kuazan,  Hashimoto  Sanai,  Fujita  Seinoshin, 
Sakama  Shuri,  Yoshida  Toraijiro,  Yokoi  Heishiro,  Matsudaira  Yoshi- 
naga,  daimio  of  Echizen,  and  many  other  noble  morning-stars  of  refor- 
mation. Under  various  pretexts,  whether  of  opposition  to  foreigners 
or  to  the  Bakufu,  these  far-sighted  patriots  "  veiled  their  larger  pur- 
pose." Highest  in  rank  and  influence,  and  most  eager  for  national 
unity  and  representative  government,  the  pupil  of  Yokoi  Heishiro,  and 
probably  the  ablest  of  all  the  daimios,  was  Matsudaira,  lord  of  Echi- 
zen, who  had  already  begun  to  form,  in  his  own  dominions,  before 
Perry's  arrival,  a  miniature  of  the  New  Japan  of  the  Meiji  era.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  propose  to  the  Yedo  Government  the  calling  of 
a  council  of  daimios  to  deliberate  upon  the  American  proposal  to  en- 
ter into  treaty  relations.  In  thus  seeking  the  "  public  opinion  "  of 
the  country  as  represented  by  the  feudal  clans,  and  in  the  holding, 
during  many  days  and  nights  in  1854,  of  the  great  council  of  both 
active  and  retired  daimios,  in  Yedo,  we  see  the  first  step  towards  the 
national  parliament  of  1890. 

Yet  this  very  step  revealed  the  weakness  of  the  despotism  of  Yedo 
thus  called  to  confront  a  new  problem.  To  behold  the  Yedo  auto- 
crats, who  had  hitherto  by  force  required  only  instant  obedience  of 
their  vassals,  humbly  inviting  them  to  conference  was  a  startling 
revelation  to  men  who  watched  every  movement  of  the  Bakufu.  The 
samurai  were  aroused  at  once,  but  finding  few  or  no  leaders  among 
their  masters,  the  daimios,  who,  with  the  noteworthy  exceptions  of 
Echizen,  Mito,  Hizen,  Tosa,  and  Uwajima,  formed  a  Sahara  of  medi- 
ocrity, the  thinking  men  turned  for  leadership  to  the  court  nobles  in 
Kioto,  and  then  strove  to  win  their  feudal  masters  to  their  side. 

When  confronted  by  Townsend  Harris,  and  by  the  envoys  of  Eu- 


JAPAN  IN  1890.  609 

rope  who  followed  after,  who  demanded  residence  and  trade,  there 
was  a  choice,  to  the  bakufu,  between  two  methods  of  policy.  One 
was  represented  by  li  Kamon  no  Kami,  who,  with  probably  a  noble 
motive,  chose  the  method  of  the  autocrat,  increasing  despotism  un- 
der the  plea  of  necessity.  The  other  method  was  represented  in  the 
person  of  Matsudaira,  daimio  of  Echizen,*  who  had  national  modern  and 
Western  ideas,  and  believed  that  all  acts  of  government  should  be  upon 
the  basis  of  public  opinion.  The  one  was  destined  to  illustrate  the 
truth  that  government  in  Old  Japan  was  "despotism  tempered  by  as- 
sassination." The  other  lived  to  see  grandly  illustrated  the  capacity 
of  the  nation  for  representative  and  constitutional  government,  dying 
in  1890.  Heartily  trusting  the  wisdom  and  abilities  of  the  enlight- 
ened men  of  the  southern  and  western  clans,  he,  when  Supreme  Direc- 
tor of  Affairs,  in  1862,  released  them  and  the  daimiosfrom  Yedo,  made 
Kioto  the  real  capital,  and  there  opened  the  then  possible  avenues  for 
the  expression  of  opinion. 

Largely  through  the  influence  of  Echizen,  while  resident  at  the  palace 
during  several  months,  the  acts  of  the  court  were  done  in  accordance 
with  the  policy  suggested  by  the  clans.  In  the  deliberations  of  the 
men  who  formed  the  Government  proclaimed  January  3,1868,  Echizen, 
with  his  troops,  being  then  guardian  of  the  palace,  this  enlightened 
daimio,  besides  pleading  for  union  of  all  the  political  forces,  old  and  new, 
without  civil  war  or  estrangement,  urged  above  all  things  the  necessity 
of  a  national  parliament.  Though  the  outbreak  of  war  and  the  shedding 
of  blood  were  keen  disappointments  to  him,  he  persevered  in  the  work 
of  national  unity  and  reconstruction.  By  an  oath  of  the  mikado  (p.  318) 


*  The  Marquis  Matsudaira  Yoshinaga,  or  Shungaku,  whose  portrait  is  on  page 
308,  was  born  in  Yedo,  a.d.  1827,  and  died  in  Tokio,  June  2,  1890.  In  1838  he 
was  adopted  as  a  son  by  the  daimio  of  Echizen,  and  in  1843  became  active  ruler 
in  Fukui.  He  introduced  various  reforms  in  the  arts  of  development  and  de- 
fence. He  built  a  gun  factory,  cannon  foundery,  and  powder-mill;  introduced 
vaccination,  Dutch  medical  practice  and  military  tactics,  the  study  of  Dutch, 
and  the  translation  of  Dutch  books ;  organized  a  hospital,  a  medical  school,  a 
college  of  literature,  invited  Yokoi  Heishiro,  the  renowned  Higo  teacher,  to  be 
his  counsellor,  and  made  Fukui  a  hospitable  place  for  scholars  and  far-sighted 
patriots.  All  this  was  done  before  1854.  At  first  opposed  to  foreign  intercourse 
on  account  of  the  weakness  of  Japan,  and  the  opponent  of  li  Kamon  no  Kami, 
he  became,  in  1862,  one  of  the  most  progressive  men  in  Japan.  After  holding 
many  oflBces  of  high  honor  under  the  government  of  Meiji,  including  the  presi- 
dency of  the  university  and  head  of  the  revenue  department,  he  received  from 
the  mikado  the  highest  honors  possible  to  a  living  subject,  rising  to  the  second 
degree  of  the  first  rank. 


610  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

tlie  five  principles  of  the  new  government  which  form  this  Constitu- 
tion of  1868  and  the  basis  of  New  Japan — expressed  in  their  verbal  form 
by  Yuri  Kinmasa,  a  samurai  of  Echizen,  and  pupil  of  Yokoi  Heishiro 
— were  published  and  established.  In  accordance  with  the  promise 
that  "  a  deliberative  assembly  should  be  formed,  and  all  measures  be 
decided  by  public  opinion,"  the  first  parliament  was  opened  in  Kioto 
in  1868,  the  representation  being  in  the  persons  of  samurai  only,  each 
clan,  according  to  its  numbers,  sending  one,  two,  or  three  members. 
When  Yedo  was  made  the  A:2o,  or  capital,  and  named  Tokio,  a  second 
parliament  of  two  hundred  and  seventy-six  members,  two  hundred  of 
whom  were  present,  convened  April  18,  1869.  This  new  body  was 
named  Shiugi-In,  or  House  of  Commons.  After  discussing  various 
questions,  especially  that  of  a  new  Constitution,  and  rejecting  the 
proposition  to  relinquish  the  wearing  of  swords  (p.  400),  this  assem- 
bly died  a  natural  death.  It  was,  in  the  temper  of  its  members,  so  far 
behind  the  needs  of  the  time,  and  of  the  ideas  of  the  progressive 
leaders  in  the  Government,  that  it  was  likely  to  defeat  the  very  ends 
proposed  in  its  creation. 

Although  the  petition  of  Goto,  Yuri,  and  others,  in  1874  (p.  574), 
was  rejected,  and  substitutes  for  a  national  assembly  were  supposed  to 
exist  in  the  Sa-In,  or  Senate  so  called,  formed  in  187l,its  members  being 
nominated  by  the  premier,  and  in  its  successor  the  Genro-In,  also  called 
a  Senate,  yet  no  decisive  movement  towards  national  representation  was 
made  until  1873,  when  a  meeting  of  the  governors  of  the  prefectures 
was  called  in  Tokio  (p.  587).  Nevertheless,  in  the  creation,  in  April, 
1875,  of  the  Genro-In,  or  Senate,  and  the  Dai  Shin-In,  or  Supreme 
Court  of  Appeals,  and  the  promise  in  the  same  decree  to  "gradually 
confer  upon  the  nation  a  constitutional  form  of  government,"  we  see 
the  first  clear  step  towards  the  modern  division  of  government  into  the 
executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  branches.  In  July,  1875,  the  promise 
to  call  a  council  of  provincial  officials  "  so  that  the  feelings  of  the 
people  may  be  made  known,  and  the  public  welfare  attained,"  was 
fulfilled.  The  seventy  province-governors  were  addressed  by  the  em- 
peror, and  Kido  was  made  president.  Actually  more  influential  upon 
the  people,  however,  than  this  too  conservative  body  was  the  action  of 
certain  advisers  of  the  governors  coming  up  with  them,  who  met  in 
Tokio,  and  petitioned  the  Government  for  a  national  assembly  based  on 
popular  suffrage.  Adjourned  in  1877  (p.  589),  it  was  not  m  1878  ac- 
cepted as  the  boon  desired  by  the  nation,  even  though  the  foundations 
of  local  government  by  popular  representation  (p.  589)  were  laid  in  the 


JAPAy  IN  1890. 


611 


decree  of  the  emperor.  Then  followed  two  years  of  amazing  activity 
in  agitation  for  the  long-desired  parliament.  Led  by  Itagaki,  Okuma, 
Goto,  Soyejima,  and  others,  public  opinion,  to  which  nobles,  gentry,  and 
commoners  contributed,  compelled  the  proclamation  of  October  12, 
1887,  naming  1890  as  the  year  of  the  national  assembly. 

While  thus,  on  the  one  hand,  the  political  education  of  the  people  in 
local  affairs  was  provided  for,  so  that  the  nation  should  have  at  least 
eight  years  of  preparatory  training  in  representative  government. 
Count  Ito  Hirobumi  was  sent  to  Europe  to  study  and  compare  the  con- 
stitutions and  laws  of  Western  nations.  Shortly  after  his  return,  in 
1884,  it  became  increasingly  evident  that  the  Constitution  of  1890 
would  approach  the  German  rather  than  the  British  model.  In  De- 
cember, 1885  (p.  599),  a  long  step  forward  was  taken  in  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  cabinet.  During  the  next  four  years  Ito  and  Inouye  were 
able  guardians  of  the  national  policy.  Especially  were  their  abilities 
manifest  during  the  protracted  treaty  negotiations,  and  the  intense 
political  excitement  consequent  upon  the  desire  of  the  liberal  agitators 
that  English  rather  than  Prussian  principles  should  be  emphasized  in 
the  new  Constitution.  The  fears  of  the  liberals  led  by  Count  Itagaki 
of  Tosa  were,  however,  confirmed  by  the  remarkable  imperial  rescript 
of  December  25,  1887,  by  which  several  hundred  persons  were  ordered 
away  from  the  capital.* 

In  April,  1888,  a  new  body  called  the  Privy  Council  was  formed,  of 
which  Ito  became  president,  while  Kuroda  filled  the  position  of  pre- 
mier. In  this  body  active  debate  upon  the  new  Constitution  began  in 
May,  and  proceeded  until  February  11,  1889,  when  the  long-awaited 
itfstrument  was  proclaimed. 

Exactly  to  the  day,  almost  to  the  very  hour,  thirty-five  years  after 
the  American  treaty-ships  were  in  sight  of  Idzu,  the  emperor  Mutsu- 
hito  took  oath  to  maintain  inviolate  the  government  according  to  the 
Constitution,  the  documents  attesting  which  he,  before  the  assembled 
audience  of  nobles,  officers,  and  foreign  envoys,  banded  to  Kuroda, 
the  Minister-president  of  State.     Extraordinary  popular  demonstra- 


*A  discussion  of  "Coercion  in  Japan,"  in  The  Nation  of  February  16,  1888, 
precipitated  a  violent  newspaper  controversy  on  botli  sides  of  the  Pacific.  Among 
ottier  protests  it  was  declared  that  the  article  had  "a  curious  air  of  anachronism 
about  it."  Yet  within  two  years,  besides  several  futile  attempts  at  violence  or 
assassination,  the  lives  of  two  cabinet  ministers  (Mori  and  Okuma)  were  assailed, 
the  one  by  knife  and  the  other  by  bomb ;  the  ministry  then  in  power  was  replaced 
by  one  more  radical,  while  a  strong  reaction  in  public  sentiment  followed. 


612  .  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

tions  of  joy  and  approval  followed  in  the  capital  and  provinces.  For 
the  first  time  in  Japanese  history  the  emperor  rode  beside  the  em- 
press in  public.  Posthumous  titles  of  nobility  granted  to  the  dead, 
illustrious  rewards  to  the  living,  amnesty  to  prisoners,  and  other  marks 
of  imperial  favor  carried  joy  to  many  hearts.  The  horrible  blot  on 
the  day's  beautiful  record  was  the  assassination  of  the  Minister  of 
Education,  Arinori  Mori,  by  a  Shintoist  fanatic. 

The  Constitution  proper  consists  of  sixty-six  articles,*  treating  of 
the  emperor,  the  rights  and  duties  of  subjects,  the  Imperial  Diet,  the 
ministers  of  state  and  the  Privy  Council,  the  judicature  and  finance, 
with  supplementary  rules.  With  the  laws  proclaimed  at  the  same 
time,  the  articles  number  three  hundred  and  thirty-two.  In  the  first 
chapter  relating  to  the  emperor  the  foundation-principle  of  the  whole 
past  of  the  nation  is  reaflBrmed.  "  The  mikado's  person  is  sacred  and 
inviolable.  He  combines  in  himself  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  and  ex- 
ercises them  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  present  Constitution." 
Japan  is  still  "the  mikado's  empire." 

Hitherto  the  rights  of  the  common  people  have  never  been  acknowl- 
edged, defined,  or  guaranteed.  Chapter  II.  is  of  immediate  interest 
to  thirty-eight  out  of  the  forty  millions  of  Japanese  people.  Their 
status  is  to  be  determined  by  law.  They  have  the  right  of  abode  and 
of  changing  the  same.  Except  according  to  law,  they  are  not  to  be 
arrested,  detained,  tried,  or  punished.  Trial  is  always  to  be  by  judges 
determined  by  law.  The  right  of  domicile  and  freedom  from  search, 
the  secrecy  and  inviolability  of  letters,  the  freedom  of  religious  belief, 
and  the  liberty  of  speech,  writing,  publishing,  public  meeting,  associa- 
tion, and  petition  within  the  limits  of  law,  are  guaranteed  to  every 
subject.     Under  the  sun  of  Japan  these  are  indeed  new  things. 

The  Diet  assembles  once  a  year,  and  is  opened,  closed,  prorogued, 
and  dissolved  by  the  emperor,  to  whom  the  initiative  of  amendments 
to  the  Constitution  belongs.  Deliberations  are  public.  The  ministers 
of  state  may  take  seats  and  speak  in  either  House,  but  are  responsible 

*  See  the  writer's  article  in  The  Forum  of  April,  1889,  entitled  "  Representative 
Government  in  Japan";  the  pamphlet  containing  the  text  of  the  Constitution 
(Kelly  &  Walsh,  Yokohama);  "  Commentaries  on  the  Constitution  of  the  Empire 
of  Japan,"  by  Count  Ito  Hirobumi,  translated  into  English  by  Miyoji  Ito,  Tokio, 
1889;  and  Prof.  Basil  Hall  Chamberlain's  "Things  Japanese,"  Tokio  and  Lon- 
don, 1890.  This  latter  work  is  a  mirror  of  contemporary  Japan,  and  an  encyclo- 
paedia of  valuable  information.  Also,  the  letters  of  J.  H.  Wigmore  in  The  Na- 
tion, July,  and  passim,  1890 ;  and  "  Constitution  of  the  Empire  of  Japan,"  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. 


JAPAN  IN  1890.  613 

to  the  emperor  and  not  to  the  Diet.  In  the  judicature  exercised  by 
courts  of  law  in  the  name  of  the  emperor  the  trials  are  public,  and 
the  judges  are  persons  properly  qualified,  and  irremovable  except  for 
offence.  Expenses  and  revenue  of  the  State  require  the  consent  of  tlu; 
Imperial  Diet,  but  the  fixed  expenditures  based  by  the  Constitution 
upon  the  powers  appertaining  to  the  emperor,  the  organization  of  the 
different  branches  of  the  administration,  and  the  salaries  of  all  civil 
and  military  officers,  such  expenditures  as  may  have  arisen  by  effect 
of  law,  or  that  relate  to  the  legal  obligations  of  "  the  Government," 
shall  neither  be  rejected  nor  reduced  by  the  Diet  without  the  concur- 
rence of  the  Government.  Expenses  of  the  Imperial  House  do  not  re- 
quire the  consent  of  the  Diet  except  for  increase.  The  chief  weapon 
of  a  hostile  majority — the  stoppage  of  supplies  to  the  ministry  in 
power — is  thus  removed. 

The  government  of  Japan,  then,  is  organized  on  the  basis  of  imme- 
morial tradition,  with  modern  features  that  follow  the  German  rather 
than  the  English  model.  A  definite  amount  of  executive  power  is 
reserved  to  the  emperor  and  the  ministers  who  are  responsible  to 
him.  Under  the  written  lines  of  the  Constitution  are  the  watermarks 
of  compromise,  and  the  party  lines  are  marked  out  by  the  instru- 
ment itself.  Against  the  rushing  stream  of  democracy,  like  their 
own  mountain  torrents,  the  conservatives  will  be  the  dikes  (or  ja-kago, 
p.  531)  to  keep  hard  and  fast  the  imperial  prerogative.  The  pro- 
gressives will  at  once  begin  to  demand  greater  powers  for  the  Diet,  a 
broader  electoral  base,  and  greater  control  of  tae  finances.  Kevolu- 
tions  move  but  in  one  direction. 

The  Upper  House,  or  (mixed)  House  of  Peers,  consists  partly  of  he- 
reditary, partly  of  elected,  and  partly  of  nominated  members.  Mem- 
bers of  the  imperial  family,  princes,  and  marquises  sit  for  life.  A  cer- 
tain number  of  counts,  viscounts,  and  barons,  elected  by  the  members  of 
their  respective  orders,  serve  for  seven  years.  Men  of  ability  and  learn- 
ing nominated  by  the  emperor  are  life  members.  A  novel  and  interest- 
ing feature  is  that  from  each  of  the  imperial  cities  and  prefectures  a 
member  (noble,  gentleman,  or  commoner)  elected  by  the  fifteen  highest 
tax-payers  may  serve  for  seven  years.  The  combined  number  of  nomi- 
nated and  elected  men  is  not  to  exceed  the  number  of  members  hold- 
ing titles  of  nobility. 

The  House  of  Representatives  consists  of  about  three  hundred  mem- 
bers, at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  who  pay  national  taxes  to  the  amount 
of  fifteen  ye?i,  or  dollars,  and  serve  four  years.    Electors  must  be  twenty- 


(314  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

five  years  old,  and  pay  national  taxes  to  the  amount  of  fifteen  dol- 
lars. The  average  number  of  representatives  from  each  prefecture  is 
not  quite  seven,  the  larger  having  from  ten  to  thirteen  members,  and 
three  cities  (Tokio,  Ozaka,  and  Kioto)  twelve,  ten,  and  seven,  respective- 
ly. In  1887  there  were  1,581,726  persons  in  the  empire  paying  taxes 
to  the  amount  of  over  five  yen,  of  whom  1,488,700  had  the  right  of 
votino-  for  members  of  local  assemblies.  Of  those  paying  over  ten 
dollars  in  taxes  there  were  882,517,  of  whom  802,975  were  eligible 
to  vote,  or  sit  after  election  in  the  local  assemblies.  In  these  local 
legislatures  2172  members  sat,  the  number  of  standing  committees 
being  292.  The  electorate  of  the  National  Diet  numbers  probably 
300,000. 

With  quietness  and  order  the  threefold  election  passed  off  in  July, 
1890,  and  we  are  now  able  to  see  the  general  complexion  of  the  first 
Imperial  Diet,  and  to  form  some  idea  of  the  eagerness  of  the  Japanese 
to  avail  themselves  of  their  new  privileges.  About  eighty-five  per  cent, 
of  eligible  voters  availed  themselves  of  the  franchise,  and  the  number 
of  candidates  in  each  district  varied  from  two  to  fifteen,  there  being 
in  Tokio  ninety-two  applicants  for  the  twelve  seats,  and  in  eighty 
other  districts  three  hundred  and  thirteen. 

For  the  House  of  Peers,  so  called,  besides  the  nine  members  of  the 
imperial  family,  ten  princes,  and  twenty-one  marquises,  who  sit  by  he- 
reditary right,  fifteen  counts,  seventy  viscounts,  and  twenty  barons, 
elected  by  members  of  their  own  orders  (the  nobles  numbering  nearly 
six  hundred,  and  one-fifth  of  these  electives  being  chosen),  there  were 
chosen  out  of  the  forty-five  fully  organized  divisions  of  the  empire,  by 
the  fifteen  highest  tax-payers  in  each,  forty-five  members,  of  whom 
thirty-three  were  hei-min,  or  commoners,  eleven  were  of  the  gentry,  and 
one  was  a  noble.    Other  members  are  to  be  nominated  by  the  emperor. 

Among  the  successful  candidates  for  the  House  of  Representatives, 
a  rough  classification  shows  as  great  variety  of  political  opinions  as  of 
occupations.  In  a  word,  all  of  the  existing  classes  of  the  people  are  well 
represented.  Without  space  to  analyze  the  political  parties,  we  may 
say  that  at  present,  far  more  than  in  Western  countries,  the  so-called 
national  parties  are  moulded  by  local  and  personal  influences  rather  than 
by  abstract  questions  of  policy.  "The  Government"  must  confront  a 
majority  hostile  in  form,  the  election  showing  conclusively  that  the 
voting  of  the  people  is  an  expression  of  their  own  will,  and  not  that 
either  of  the  ministers  in  office  or  of  the  higher  powers  in  authority. 
To  be  in  any  way  connected  with  governmental  employ  was,  in  almost 


JAPAN  IN  1890.  615 

every  case,  to  invite  certain  defeat ;  while  on  the  other  hand  few  of  the 
old  parly  leaders  were  chosen  as  standard-bearers  in  the  new  field.  All 
things  considered,  the  issue  is  most  hopeful  to  the  lover  of  humanity 
and  well-wisher  of  the  Japanese  people. 

In  the  reconstruction  of  her  foreign  policy  Japan  has  endeavored  to 
have  the  treaties  revised  in  the  interests  of  mutual  justice,  to  secure  the 
removal  of  the  extra-territorial ity  clauses,  and  her  treatment  by  the  na- 
tions of  Christendom  as  their  equal.  The  long  and  weary  question 
cannot  here  be  discussed,  but  is  probably  not  now  far  from  solution. 
Since  1881  the  new  Criminal  Code,  based  on  the  best  principles  of  West- 
ern jurisprudence,  has  been  in  successful  operation  ;  and  on  the  22d  of 
April,  1890,  the  new  Code  of  Civil  Procedure,  and  the  first  portion  of 
the  Civil  Code,  were  promulgated.  The  fruit  of  fifteen  years'  labor  of 
foreign  and  native  experts  in  law  are  thus  set  forth.  In  both  the  let- 
ter of  the  documents  and  the  spirit  of  their  execution  the  sincerity  of 
the  Japanese  in  thus  preparing  to  live  up  to  what  is  expected  of  them 
by  the  world  is  clearly  manifest.  Contrariwise,  the  confidence  of 
foreign  nations  is  equally  shaken  when  such  relapses,  on  the  part  of 
"  the  Government,"  into  the  vices  of  despotism  and  feudalism  as  the 
issue  of  the  so-called  Peace  Regulations  of  December  25, 1887,  or  when 
the  excesses  of  the  so-shi,  such  as  the  assassination  of  Arinori  Mori,  and 
the  attempt  by  dynamite  on  the  life  of  Okuma,  October  18,  1889,  chill 
the  hopes  of  those  who  believe  in  the  right  of  Japan  to  claim  equality 
with  Western  nations. 

For  a  solid  basis  to  our  hope  in  Japan's  future  we  look  to  the  large 
Christian  community  now  increasing  daily.  In  June,  1890,  the  churches 
of  reformed  Christianity  had  34,000  members  enrolled  ;  those  of  the 
Roman  form  of  the  faith  over  50,000  souls  under  their  care ;  while 
17,000  or  more  receive  spiritual  nurture  according  to  the  Greek  meth- 
od. These  subjects  of  the  mikado  make  in  all  a  nominal  household  of 
a  half -million  who  hold  the  promise  of  this  life  and  of  that  which  is 
to  come  through  Jesus  Christ.  The  celebration  of  the  complete  Bible 
in  Japanese  took  place  in  Tokio,  February  3,  1888.  Already  the  fer- 
tilization of  the  native  intellect  by  Christianity  and  the  Bible  is  mani- 
fest in  the  new  literature.  Qualities  utterly  absent  from  the  older 
writings  are  discerned  in  the  essays,  philosophy,  history,  fiction,  and 
journalism.  Christian  men  are  leaders  in  thought  and  letters.  The 
Japanese  are  even  beginning  to  write  critical  history. 

Daring  these  exciting  years  of  1889  and  1890,  amid  the  ferment  of 
politics,  and  the  fierce  discussion  of  treaty  revision  which  has  wrecked 


616  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

more  than  one  ministry,  a  strong  movement  to  preserve  what  is  best 
in  the  national  life,  in  language,  art,  government,  and  every  depart- 
ment of  achievement  has  been  in  progress.  Such  a  movement  natu- 
rally exhibited  some  phases  interpreted  by  foreigners  to  mean  reac- 
tion ;  but  underneath  much  that  is  condemned  by  the  best  men  of  the 
nation  there  is  a  larger  purpose  that  will  command  the  sympathy  and 
admiration  of  the  world.  No  nation  can  be  great  that  merely  imi- 
tates and  borrows.  With  wise  selection  the  Japanese  nationalistic 
movement  means,  we  think,  the  proving  of  all  things,  the  holding  fast 
that  which  is  good. 

Strong  in  faith  and  hope  of  the  prosperous  future  of  this  most  in- 
teresting of  Asiatic  nations,  and  in  undisguised  sympathy  with  her 
noble  purpose,  we  leave  our  inspiring  theme  of  representative  Japan. 
From  no  nation  of  Christendom  will  Japan  receive  more  hearty  good 
wishes  than  from  that  in  which  Matthew  Calbraith  Perry  was  born, 
and  which  of  modern  States  first  began  its  life  and  has  longest  lived 
under  a  written  Constitution. 


JAPAN  IN  1894.  617 


IV. 

JAFAN  IN  1894. 

Forty  years  ago  the  whistle  of  the  American  steamers  awoke  Old 
Japan  out  of  her  hermit  sleep.  On  the  8th  day  of  July,  1853,  the 
four  men-of-war  arrived  at  Uraga.  The  signal  rockets  from  the  forts 
were  answered  by  tlie  rattle  of  cables  and  the  splash  of  anchors,  and 
Japan's  new  era  began. 

That  8th  day  of  July  prefigured  the  forty  years  of  history  which 
we  now  survey.  The  day  was  ushered  in  with  fog  so  thick  that  the 
land  was  hidden.  Only  at  intervals  could  the  rocky  outlines  of  the 
coast  be  discerned.  Gradually  through  the  sun-rent  curtains  of  mist 
the  mountains  became  visible.  At  meridian  Fuji's  glorious  form 
loomed  into  view,  and  by  mid-afternoon  the  whole  panorama  of  the 
landscape  and  blue  waters  greeted  the  eye.  At  sunset  the  peerless 
mountain  wore  a  crown  of  glory.  From  midnight  until  four  o'clock 
A.M.  appeared  from  the  south-west  a  meteoric  sphere  of  light  that 
moved  towards  the  north-east,  illuminating  the  whole  atmosphere, 
finally  falling  towards  the  sea  and  vanishing.  The  next  day  was  one 
of  sunny  splendor. 

So  has  it  been  with  Japan,  political  and  social.  Foreigners  in  the 
morning  of  their  life  on  the  soil  found  themselves  in  a  fog  of  igno- 
rance. Everything  Japanese  seemed  veiled  in  mystery.  Hiding  the 
real  facts  was  "a  vague  embodiment  of  something  which  was  called 
'The  Law';  but  what  that  'Law'  was,  by  whom  enacted,  and  under 
what  sanctions  enforced,  no  one  could  tell,  though  all  seemed  to  stand 
in  awe  of  it  as  something  of  superhuman  efficacy ;  its  mysteriousness 
was  only  equalled  by  the  abject  submission  it  received."  No  country 
was  then  less  worthy  of  its  numerous  names,  all  making  boast  of  the 
sun,  of  light,  of  radiancy.     Japan  was  then  the  Land  of  Darkness. 

Gradually  the  dawn  broke,  the  fogs  of  mystery  were  riven,  and  the 
real  Japan  was  discovered.  Yet  before  the  cloudless  day  was  ushered 
in,  that  great  meteoric  movement  from  the  south-west  towards  the 
north-east— the  uprising  of  the  great  clans  which  made  New  Japan 
and  seated  the  Emperor  in  Tokio  —  took  place.  Like  the  coming  of 
the  Sun  -  goddess  out  of  her  cave  was  the  emergence  of  the  mikado 


618  THE' MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

into  the  white  light  of  public  duty.  The  mystery-play  was  over.  To- 
day Japan  is  worthy  of  her  name — Sunrise.     It  is  the  9th  of  July. 

Now,  inforaiation  on  a  thousand  subjects  is  freely  furnished  by  the 
Government.  Foreign  scholars  have  penetrated  the  arcana  of  litera- 
ture, liHve  challenged  and  dissected  tradition,  chronology,  and  claims 
even  of  the  Heaven-descended  dynasty.  The  Japanese  themselves,  ap- 
plying Western  methods  of  collection,  comparison,  classification,  and 
research  to  their  national  treasures,  land,  language,  and  history,  are 
coming  to  self-revelation  as  never  before.  They  are  seeing  themselves 
as  they  are.  The  process  is  not  wholly  safe  to  individuals,  and  free- 
dom of  speech  and  of  the  press  are  not  yet  what  we  count  freedom. 
Yet  there  is  at  present  probably  as  much  liberty  as  can  safely  be  en- 
joyed. One  signal  proof  of  the  willingness  of  the  Government  to  let 
light  shine  on  what  was  once  hidden,  is  its  annual  publication,  "i?e- 
sume  Statistique  de  V  Empire  du  JaponP  * 

Japan  as  wonder-land  is  as  surprising  in  things  vanished  as  in  things 
created  during  these  forty  years.  Gone  are  Tycoon,  the  duarchy, 
feudalism,  the  old  codes,  customs,  ideals,  personalities.  In  their  places 
has  come  one  government  differentiated  in  three  functions — executive, 
legislative,  and  judicial — with  all  the  outward  appliances  of  modern 
civilization.  New  social,  industrial,  and  ethical  systems  are  in  proc- 
ess of  formation.  With  much  of  the  ancient  and  picturesque  igno- 
rance and  superstition  have  disappeared  some  things  that  were  worth 
keeping,  yet  in  New  Japan  the  new  codes,  ideals,  and  ambitions  are 
vast  improvements  on  those  of  the  old  days.  The  Japanese  have  de- 
termined to  take  their  place  not  only  among  the  nations  of  the  world, 
but  of  Christendom,  and  to  be  found  in  the  front  rank.  Nothing  less 
than  this  will  satisfy  them.  Already,  the  record  of  forty  years  is 
amazing,  and  the  surprises  are  not  all  over. 

Yet  who  have  been  the  creators  of  New  Japan  ?     The  natives  or  the 


*  This  manual  for  1893,  packed  with  figures  skilfully  tabulated,  maps,  diagrams,  tables  of 
weights  and  measures,  comparatives,  averages,  totals,  and  other  requisites  for  the  student's 
eye,  tells  an  eloquent  story  of  Japan's  progress.  Area,  population,  agriculture  and  indus- 
try, commerce  and  pnblic  improvements,  facilities  of  transportation  by  land  and  sea,  pri- 
vate and  public  finances,  education,  religion,  hygiene,  charities,  with  details  of  justice,  po- 
lice administration,  array  and  navy,  and  civil  service  at  home  and  abroad,  make  a  statistical 
appendix  to  this  work  of  ours  no  longer  necessary.  This  invaluable  publication  has  for 
Beven  years  been  compiled  and  edited  by  Mr.  Ishibaahi,  chief  of  the  Imperial  Bureau  of 
Statistics  in  TOkiO,  author  with  Mr.  B.  Satow  of  a  pocket  dictionary  of  English-Japanese. 
I  had  the  pleasure  of  first  meeting  Mr.  Ishibashi  when  he  was  chief  interpreter  at  the  For- 
eign Office,  in  1871,  Mr.  Terashima  Muu6nori  being  then  Vice-minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
(pp.  399,  402). 


JAPAN  LV  189^.  G19 

foreigners?  Would  the  Japanese  of  themselves  have  attained  to  the 
status  already  reached  in  this  twenty-seventh  year  of  Meiji?  Are 
there  not,  apart  from  exterior  influences,  a  power  and  a  personality  on 
the  soil  of  the  New  that  were  not  in  the  Old  Japan  ?  As  secret,  as 
concealed  as  leaven,  were  they  not  as  potent? 

Japan  is  not  unique  in  history,  not  a  case  of  entire  self-reformation. 
Without  the  leaven  from  Christendom  this  oriental  lump  would  not 
be  as  it  is  seen  and  felt  to-day.  The  aliens  employed  by  the  Japanese 
have  not  told  their  story,  yet,  as  Professor  Basil  Hall  Chamberlain,  in 
his  "Things  Japanese,"  says,  "The  foreign  employe  is  the  creator  of 
New  Japan."  As  certainly  as  on  the  foundation-stones  of  the  Japan 
of  the  Meiji  era  belong  the  names  of  Rai,  Sakuma,  Yoshida,  Yokoi, 
Fukuzawa,  and  a  host  of  others  who,  while  living,  were  unrewarded 
non-ofBceholders,  so  also  should  be  inscribed  those  of  the  Vatoi  To-jin, 
or  "hired  foreigners."  Whether  in  Japanese  pay  or  not,  as  hirelings, 
or  as  guests,  or  as  forces  healthfully  stimulating,  who  from  their  own 
governments  or  societies  received  stipend,  or  self-impelled  wrought 
for  Japan's  good,  their  work  abides.  The  world  may  forget  the  singer, 
but  the  song  is  still  heard. 

For  over  a  century  the  earnest  thinkers  of  Japan  went  to  school  to 
the  Dutch  at  Nagasaki.  These  Europeans,  professing  to  be  neither 
benefactors  nor  missionaries,  but  only  merchants  and  physicians,  gave 
their  pupils  a  long  object-lesson  in  civilization.  Pilgrims  thirsting 
for  knowledge  came  from  all  over  the  empire  to  learn  of  the  Holland- 
ers, and  dispersing  homeward  filled  the  country  with  centres  of  light. 
Maligned  by  their  enemies  in  faith  and  by  their  rivals  in  commerce, 
the  work  of  the  Dutchmen  for  a  century  in  supplying  a  hermit  nation 
with  books,  science,  and  medicine,  has  been  unknown  or  underrated. 
The  Dutch  laid  the  foundations  of  scientific  knowledge  of  the  Japanese 
and  their  country,  secured  the  abolition  of  the  insults  to  Christianity, 
and  made  the  way  easy  for  Commodore  Perry  and  Townsend  Harris. 
It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  single  native  pioneer  of  progress  in  the 
early  years  of  Meiji — statesman,  diplomatist,  military  leader,  physician, 
man  of  science,  interpreter,  author,  preacher — who  was  not  directly  in- 
debted to  the  Dutch. 

Not,  however,  until  the  decade  following  the  apparition  of  Perry 
did  foreign  influence  become  an  overwhelming  force  and  the  foreign 
employe  a  permanent  figure.  Beginning  probably  with  the  American 
Professor  Pumpelly,  who  wrote  "Across  America  and  Asia,"  the  Japan- 
ese Government  and  individuals  enlisted  a  great  armv  of  auxiliaries 


620  THE  3IIKAD0'S  EMPIKE. 

from  abroad.  In  what  branch  of  science  or  friendly  service  are  the 
makers  of  New  Japan  not  indebted?  English  scholarship  as  repre- 
sented by  Satow,  Aston,  Chamberlain,  McClatchie,  Gubbins,  and  others, 
first  rent  the  veil  from  ancient  Japan,  and  gave  to  native  .students  the 
impetus  to  that  critical  and  comparative  study  of  their  own  language 
and  traditions  which  they  are  now  beginning  bravely  to  pursue. 
British  experts  organized  the  navy  and  trained  the  lads  that  are  now 
officers  and  the  junk-sailors  that  are  now  smart  marines  and  skilful 
artillerists,  created  and  equipped  the  Osaka  mint,  struck  the  coin- 
age of  which  no  Japanese  is  ashamed,  and  established  the  vernacular 
newspaper,  now  the  mighty  power  that  even  prime-ministers  and  Em- 
peror must  reckon  with.  Frenchmen  reorganized  the  army,  codified  the 
law,  and  built  the  Yokoska  dockyard.  The  Germans  have  directed  the 
higher  medical  education  of  the  country.  "  Not  less  a  feat  than  the 
reform  of  the  entire  educational  system  was  chiefly  the  work  of  a 
handful  of  Americans."  The  posts,  the  telegraphs,  the  railways,  the 
light  -  houses ;  the  trigonometrical,  geological,  and  geodetic  surveys; 
improved  mining  methods,  prison  reform,  sanitary  reform,  cotton  and 
paper  mills;  manufactories  of  many  kinds,  chemical  laboratories,  water- 
works and  harbor-works,  and  a  hundred  other  improvements  which 
have  enriched  the  country,  and  which  strike  the  eye  and  excite  the  ad- 
miration of  the  tourist — "  all  are  the  creation  of  the  foreign  employes 
of  the  Japanese  Government."  * 

True  type  of  the  foreigners  who  not  merely  advised  or  inspected, 
but  who  wrought  by  example  and  precept,  patiently  teaching  technical 
details,  was  the  German  Dr.  Gottfried  von  Wagener,  whose  personal 
friendship  the  writer  enjoyed  while  a  fellow  -  worker  in  the  Imperial 
University  from  1871   to  1874.     Dr.  Wagener,  born  in  Germany  in 


*  It  is  not  probable  that  the  future  Japanese  historian  will  deign  to  use  as  important  ma- 
terial for  his  narrative  any  of  the  little  accordeon-like  publications  entitled  Yatoi  To-jin 
such  as  we  have  before  us.  While  the  throne  and  the  figure-heads  and  a  multitude  of 
names  such  as  already  clog  the  pages  of  the  Japanese  annals  will  doubtless  occupy  vast 
space  on  the  historian's  page,  yet  a  glance  at  the  little  brochure  giving  names,  salaries,  and 
occupation  of  the  "hired  foreigners,"  is  like  a  visit  to  the  power-house  of  an  electric  rail- 
way. Here  are  the  generating  forces,  and  the  wheels,  belts,  and  motors,  while  to  the  out- 
side world  the  brilliancy  and  speed  of  the  moving  trains  astonish  the  spectator.  Here  are 
some  of  the  names  picked  out  at  random:  Pumpelly,  Tracey,  Hawes,  Douglas,  Cargill, 
Savatier,  Verbeck,  Brinkley,  Brnnton,  Knippiug,  Capron,  Antisell,  Eldredge,  Scott,  Wil- 
son, Simmons,  Geerts,  Wagener,  House,  Divers,  Gower,  Lyman,  Murray,  Smith,  Boisson- 
nade.  Palmer,  Chamberlain,  Miiller,  Hoffman,  McCartee,  Gowlaiid,  Milne,  Mason,  Clark, 
Clarke,  Ingalls,  Baelz,  Conder,  Miguel,  Berlin,  etc.,  etc.,  with  scores  of  others  who  have 
during  longer  or  shorter  periods  of  time  imparted  the  secrets  of  Western  science,  learning, 
or  technical  skill,  and  patiently  shown  the  Japanese  how  to  do  likewise. 


JAPAN  IN  1894.  621 

1831,  was  a  master  of  applied  science  when,  in  1870,  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  daiinio  of  Hizen  to  improve  the  methods  of  porcelain 
manufacture  at  Arita,  in  which  he  happily  succeeded  so  far  as  the  re- 
sources of  that  province  would  then  admit.  One  of  his  notable  tri- 
umphs was  in  the  introduction  of  coal  as  fuel.  Besides  his  services  in 
education  at  Tokio  and  Kioto,  he  assisted  materially  in  preparing 
the  art  exhibits  of  the  Japanese  at  Vienna  and  Philadelphia.  He 
established  the  Artisan's  School  in  Tokio,  revolutionized  the  cloisonne- 
enamel  industry,  and  invented  the  famous  Asahi  yaki  (Morning-sun 
faience),  or  pottery  with  varied  colors  under  the  glaze.  The  writer 
has  never  known  a  man  who  combined  more  nobly  for  the  benefit  of 
his  fellow-men  self-absorption  in  science  with  absolute  self-effacement 
in  disposition.  He  died  at  Suruga  Dai  in  Tokio,  November  8,  1892. 
In  the  higher  work  of  moral  education  and  reform,  the  Christian 
missionary  is  a  noble  figure.  The  first  teachers  of  language,  literature, 
science,  and  philosophy  ;  the  first  dispensers  of  medicine  and  healing, 
active  in  charitable  relief,  constantly  stimulating  to  the  Government 
and  people  by  their  hospitals,  schools,  colleges,  preaching  and  advo- 
cacy of  moral  reforms ;  training  tens  of  thousands  of  natives  in  the 
arts  of  self-government  and  parliamentary  procedure;  supplanting  the 
old  Confucian  and  Chinese  codes  of  ethics  with  nobler  ideals  and 
practice,  the  teachers  of  Christianity  have  prepared  the  nation  for 
the  adoption  of  a  higher  form  of  civilization.  Greater  even  than  the 
wants  of  modern  material  forces  and  appliances,  by  the  confessions  of 
her  own  most  thoughtful  men,  is  Japan's  need  of  moral  power. 

True  types  of  the  servant  of  servants,  for  Christ's  sake,  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Japan,  are  Mr.  and  Mrs.  J.  C.  Hepburn,  who  have  done  so  much 
to  break  down  the  barriers  between  natives  and  foreigners.  After 
thirty-three  years  of  service  in  school,  dispensary,  home,  and  study,  Dr. 
Hepburn  left  Yokohama  for  the  United  States  in  October,  1892.  The 
story  of  the  "American  Missionary  in  Japan,"  of  influences  and  results, 
and  of  native  appreciation,  has  been  modestly  told  in  part  by  Dr.  M. 
L.  Gordon.*  Since  the  reaction  against  everything  foreign,  which 
began  in  1888,  the  Christian  churches  and  schools  have  suffered.  Yet 
the  loss,  or  rather  the  retarded  acceleration  af  progress,  signifies  "  no 
real  change  of  purpose  in  the  national  mind."  "  Japan  for  the  Japan- 
ese "does  not  mean  more  than  healthy  patriotism.  Digestion  and  as- 
similation are  as  necessary  as  reception.     Christianity,  now  rooted  in 

•  "  An  American  Missionary  in  Japan."    Boston.    1892. 
40 


622  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

the  soil  and  no  longer  a  mere  exotic,  can  live  its  own  life  in  the  hearts 
and  the  minds  of  the  people.  Christian  theology  can  live  and  grow 
expressed  in  terms  of  far-oriental  as  well  as  in  Greek  or  Latin  termi- 
nology. The  Japanese  Christians  will  create  their  own  theology  and 
adapt  it  to  the  national  consciousness  more  healthfully,  truthfully, 
and  spiritually  than  can  foreigners.  In  treating  of  "  The  Theological 
Movement  in  Japan,"*  we  have  summed  up  our  impressions  as  fol- 
lows :  "  The  Japanese  genius,  as  vitalized  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  tends 
to  assimilation  rather  than  to  mere  acceptance.  Vigorously  has  the 
Christian  consciousness  of  Japan  cast  off  the  sectarian  and  provincial 
creeds  of  merely  English-speaking  Christendom.  Refusing  the  swad- 
dling-bands of  the  Scotch,  Yankee,  and  Anglican  phases  of  the  faith, 
it  has  sought  the  simplicity  that  is  Christ.  .  .  .  They,  with  the  Bible 
in  hand,  sought  the  shortest  path  to  Christ."  Already  the  record  of 
independent  native  Christian  life,  work,  and  literature  is  a  noble  one. 
It  shows  clearly  that  the  believers  in  Christ  in  Japan  want  the  Chris- 
tianity of  Christ  not  in  non-essential  and  accidental  alien  forms,  but  in 
its  reality  and  purity  as  far  as  it  can  be  apprehended  and  assimilated 
by  them. 

The  statistics  for  the  year  ending  March  31,  1893,  furnished  by 
Rev.  Henry  Loomis  of  Yokohama,  show  that  the  Christians  of  the  Ro- 
man order  number  44,812  in  244  congregations;  those  of  the  Greek 
order  number  20,235  in  219  congregations;  those  of  the  Reformed 
order  number  35,534  in  365  local  churches.  Baptisms  for  1892  were : 
for  the  Roman,  Greek,  and  Reformed  phases  of  the  one  faith,  5324, 
952,  and  3731,  respectively.  Thirty-one  organizations,  usually  called 
"  Protestant,"  illustrate  more  of  Christian  unity  than  diversity,  since 
five  of  these  divisions  comprise  33,390  Christians,  all  the  self-support- 
ing native  churches  being  aflSliated  with  these  groups.  At  present, 
the  religion  of  Jesus  in  Japan  is  better  represented  by  the  parable  of 
the  leaven  than  by  that  of  the  mustard-seed.  It  is  influencing  the 
national  life  deeply,  while  not  phenomenally  increasing  its  superficial 
area.  Buddhism,  still  the  religion  of  the  majority  of  the  mikado's 
subjects,  is  being  quickened  into  wholesome  activity.  It  has  yet  to 
show  whether  it  can  hold  the  heart  and  intellect  of  New  Japan. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  a  survey  of  political  history  and  see  what  has 
been  the  root  and  the  offspring  of  the  forty-years'  movement.  We 
shall  inquire  what  is  down  at  the  bottom  of  the  ceaseless  unrest  in 

•  "The  Outlook"  IThe  Christian  Union},  April  1, 1893. 


JAPAN  IN  1894.  623 

national  politics,  especially  in  the  long  conflict,  not  between  the  peo- 
ple and  the  Throne,  but  between  the  people  and  the  Government. 

The  meteoric  phenomenon  of  the  night  of  July  8,  1853,*  prefigured 
in  its  brilliancy,  direction  of  movement,  and  apparent  end  the  uprising 
of  the  two  (or  three)  great  clans  which,  since  1868,  under  every  form 
of  government,  have  ruled  the  mikado's  empire.  "It  made  its  appear- 
ance in  the  southward  and  westward,  and  illuminated  the  whole  atmos- 
phere. ...  It  pursued  a  north-eastwardly  course  in  a  direct  line  for  a 
long  distance,  when  it  fell  gradually  towards  the  sea  and  disappeared." 

So  might  a  prophet  have  foretold  the  course  of  the  coalition  headed 
by  the  great  Satsuma  and  Choshiu  clans,  which  we  have  described  in 
Book  I.,  Chapter  XXVIII.  Fifteen  years  after  the  meteor  seen  from 
the  Susquehanna  s  deck,  the  "  Sat-cho^^  captured  Kioto  and  inaugurat- 
ed New  Japan.  Twenty-one  years  more  had  to  pass  before  the  prom- 
ise in  the  imperial  oath  to  summon  a  parliament  was  fulfilled.  To- 
day we  write  of  the  fifth  session  of  the  Imperial  Diet — that  august 
assembly  representing  the  nobles,  gentry,  and  people  of  the  country 
ruled  since  1868  by  the  Sat-cho.  The  story  of  the  two  elections  and 
of  the  five  sessions  is  that  of  a  fierce  and  not  wholly  bloodless  strug- 
gle between  the  Liberal  parties  and  the  Government,  or,  more  exactly, 
of  the  people  against  the  two  mighty  clans  intrenched  behind  the 
throne. 

The  net  results  of  four  sessions  seem  at  first  almost  trivial,  and  the 
story  is  soon  told.  In  the  first  session  of  1890-91,  the  hostility  of 
the  Opposition  was  against  the  cabinet  led  by  Count  Masagata.  A  re- 
duction of  the  Budget  to  the  extent  of  six  and  a  half  millions  of  yen 
was  secured,  and  a  collision  on  the  very  threshold  of  representative 
government  was  happily  averted.  The  second  session  of  1891-92 
opened  even  less  hopefully  for  the  Government,  and,  after  a  severe 
struggle,  ended  in  dissolution.  The  Kai-shin  and  Jiyu  parties  were  so 
joined  in  implacable  opposition  that  the  cabinet  ministers  soon  found 
that  the  situation  was  beyond  their  control ;  and  so  invoking  the  Em- 
peror's executive  interference,  they  appealed  to  the  country  through 
fresh  elections.  How  far  active  government  influence  was  brought  to 
bear  unfairly  to  secure  a  more  tractable  temper  in  the  Diet  cannot  be 
stated,  yet  it  is  evident  not  only  that  the  estrangement  between  the  pop- 
ular and  the  official  classes  was  increased,  but  that  the  Government  was 
bitterly  disappointed  in  results.     The  new  Diet  opened  May  6th,  1892. 

*  "  Perry's  Narrative. "    Appleton's  N.  Y.  edition,  p.  272. 


624  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

Although  in  this  third  session  the  Budget  was  not  considered,  yet  the 
Government  escaped  a  formal,  by  receiving  indirect,  but  real,  censure. 
A  new  and  eclectic  cabinet,  not  yet  the  creation  of  the  Diet,  but 
chosen  by  the  Emperor  and  made  up  of  "all  the  talents,"  was  now 
formed.  It  was  led  by  the  veteran  Ito,  "  father  of  the  constitution," 
and  author  of  the  best  written  commentary  upon  it,  while  Inouye  be- 
came minister  of  the  Home  Department.  In  the  fourth  session,  the 
Jiyu-to,  or  Radical  party,  whose  favorite  measure — the  reduction  of  the 
land  tax — had  been  accepted,  manifested  a  desire  to  work  with  the  cab- 
inet. For  months,  however,  so  great  were  the  forces  of  opposition, 
that  the  problem  was  one  of  either  dissolution  or  compromise.  A  re- 
duction in  the  Budget  of  nearly  nine  millions,  or  a  grand  total  of  less 
than  eighty -four  millions,  was  insisted  upon.  The  Opposition  ap- 
pealed to  the  Emperor,  who  answered  in  a  state  paper  of  notable  abil- 
ity, in  which  party  strife  and  politics  were  ignored,  and  the  "  fixed 
expenditures"  reduced  by  three  and  a  half  millions,  his  Majesty 
ordering  that  one-tenth  of  his  own  income  should  be  appropriated  to 
secure  the  results  desired.  Peace  came  through  the  Throne,  but  the 
Kai-shin  party  is  still  implacable  and  continues  agitation. 

The  battle  ostensibly  rages  round  the  Budget,  but  the  real  ques- 
tions at  issue  are  these:  Shall  the  government  of  the  country  be  by 
party  after  the  British  model,  or  according  to  the  Prussian  method? 
Shall  the  Government  be  really  responsible  to  the  Diet,  or  nominally  to 
the  sovereign?  Shall  the  power  be  in  the  hands  of  an  oligarchy  con- 
sisting largely  of  two  clans,  or  shall  the  clan  spirit  be  banished,  and 
sovereign  and  people  rule  ? 

The  roots  of  this  diflBculty  go  back  to  the  days  of  the  Taiko  and 
lyeyasu,  to  which  rulers  the  great  clans  of  Satsuma  and  Choshiu  never 
gave  more  than  nominal  submission.  Proudly  and  sullenly  they  main- 
tained their  semi-independence,  and  waited  over  two  centuries  and  a 
half  for  revenge.  The  coming  of  the  alien  in  1853  was  the  awaited 
signal  to  begin  their  work.  While  individuals  were  unselfishly  conse- 
crated to  patriotism,  the  clans  masked  self-interest  under  the  plea  of 
loyalty  to  the  mikado,  overthrowing  in  1868  the  shogunate.  If  in 
Kioto  they  devoured  the  prey,  in  Tokio  they  divided  the  spoil.  No 
Benjamin  or  Saul  in  ancient  Israel,  no  Fujiwara  in  mediseval  Nippon, 
no  American  politician,  ever  so  held  their  grip  on  the  treasury,  or  ex- 
celled the  Sat-cho  in  distributing  offices  to  clansmen.  The  inside  view 
as  eye-witness  which  the  writer  enjoyed  in  Tokio  during  three  years, 
over  two   decades   ago,  showed   him  how  grandly  the  Japanese   ex- 


JAPAN  IN  1894.  625 

ceeded  the  American  spoilsmen  in  nepotism.  In  this  year  of  Meiji 
the  27tb,  the  lists  of  government  oflScers  and  employes  show  that  the 
men  of  only  two  clans,  Satsuma  and  Choshiu,  still  fill  a  majority  of  the 
most  desirable  offices.  In  the  many  changes  of  ministries,  it  is  "  the 
mats  and  not  the  floor"  that  are  rearranged.  The  Japanese  political 
edifice  for  twenty-five  years  past  has  been  an  oligarchy  cemented  by 
clan  spirit.  This  is  the  real  meaning  of  the  long  struggle  of  the  peo- 
ple against  the  Government,  of  the  Lower  House  of  the  Diet  against 
the  Ministry.  During  the  year  1893  the  eflEort  has  been  especially  to 
reform  the  navy,  which  in  personnel,  declare  the  Kai-shin  politicians, 
is  virtually  an  organization  of  Satsuma  men.  Great  as  have  been 
the  services  of  the  illustrious  statesmen  of  the  Meiji  periods,  it  is  evi- 
dently the  deeply  settled  belief  of  the  people  that  new  times  and  prob- 
lems demand  new  men,  and  that  clan  spirit  is  now  an  anachronism  not 
to  be  tolerated  or  excused.  It  is  time  for  the  meteor  of  July  to  fall 
into  the  sea,  so  that  the  new  morning  of  true  national  life  may  dawn. 
The  men  of  the  Meiji  era  are  now  aging  fast  and  passing  away. 
Sanjo  Saneyoshi,  General  Yamada,  Yoshida  Kiyonari,  and  Terashima 
Munenori  have  "  changed  their  worlds  "  since  our  last  chapter  was 
written.  Of  some  of  those  still  in  power  and  influence,  like  Ito  and 
Inouye,  it  can  be  said  that  they  have  opposed  the  clan  spirit,  served 
country  and  sovereign  with  pre-eminent  ability  and  faithfulness,  and 
foreseen  the  needs  of  the  nation.  To  such  patriots,  in  and  out  of 
oflace,  belongs  much  of  the  credit  of  Japan's  notable  progress  in  wealth, 
population,  and  prestige.  For,  despite  all  commotions,  dangers,  and 
calamities,  the  increase  is  notably  great.  Whereas  in  1872  the 
population  of  the  empire  was  but  33,110,000,  the  census  of  1892 
shows  a  total  of  41,089,940  souls.  There  has  been  hopeful  increase 
also  of  food  supply,  savings,  manufactures,  mines,  commerce  and  in- 
dustry of  all  sorts.  The  national  wealth  has  doubled  in  ten  years. 
Once  Japan  was  reckoned  by  Europeans  as  "  hardly  worth  trading 
with."  In  1892,  the  total  of  exports  (91,102,753  yen)  and  imports 
(71,326,079  yen)  amounted  to  162,428,832  yen,  the  increase  in  one 
decade  being  one  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent.  The  United  States, 
once  having  the  least  of  the  trade  with  Japan,  now  leads  every  other 
nation  as  a  buyer  and  seller,  her  business  aggregating  in  1892  44,- 
663,024  yen.  Five-eighths  of  Japanese  trade  is  with  English-speaking 
nations.  It  is  from  Anglo-Saxondom  that  the  leaders  of  thought  and 
action  derive  their  chief  inspiration.  Resisting,  for  want  of  space,  the 
temptation  to  prove  and  illustrate  this  assertion,  and  to  show  the  in- 


626  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

fluence  on  religion,  science,  philosophy,  and  literature,  as  well  as  upon 
politics  and  national  development,  of  the  nations  using  English  speech, 
we  make  passing  reference  to  her  representation  at  the  World's  Co- 
lumbian Exposition. 

It  was  wholly  fitting  that  Xipangu,  the  country  which  the  Genoese, 
in  his  Spanish  caravels  in  1492,  was  seeking,  should  join  with  the 
world  in  honoring  his  exploit.  The  first  Asian  nation  to  send  ships  to 
America  across  the  Pacific — a  sailer  to  Mexico  in  1573,  and  a  steamer 
to  California  in  1860 — was  Japan.  In  the  generosity  of  her  fiuancial 
appropriation,  and  the  variety  and  interest  of  her  contribution  to  the 
Chicago  Exhibition,  the  mikado's  empire  was  exceeded  by  only  two 
other  countries,  while  in  the  permanency  and  value  of  her  gifts  to  Chi- 
cago she  leads  the  world.  Her  total  space  occupied — falling  far  short 
of  the  desire  of  intending  exhibitors — was  about  150,000  square  feet. 
Under  the  roofs  of  the  halls  of  Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts,  of  Agri- 
culture, Fine  Arts,  Horticulture,  Forestry,  Mining,  Fisheries,  and  in  the 
street  devoted  to  entertainments,  in  bazaar  and  tea-house,  her  portable 
products  of  native  industry  and  genius  were  visible.  Yet,  strange  as  it 
seems,  the  only  permanent  edifices,  except  the  Art  Exhibition  building, 
that  remain  in  Jackson  Park  after  the  White  City  has  vanished,  are 
the  specimens  of  Japanese  historical  architecture  on  Wooded  Island. 
Of  the  three  separate  buildings  united  so  as  to  form  to  the  uncritical 
eye  a  single  structure,  called  the  Ho-den,  or  Phoenix  Palace,  the  centre 
and  right  and  left  wings  represent  three  epochs.  On  the  right  the  Fu- 
jiwara  style  (a.d.  1000-1200),  before  the  days  of  nails,  metal  hinges, 
sliding  partitions,  but  of  silken  corded  and  tasselled  curtains,  such  as 
Sei  Shonagon  could  easily  raise  (p.  211),  may  be  studied.  On  the 
left  stands  the  house  typical  of  the  Ashikaga  era  (a.d.  1333-15*79), 
when  matted  floors,  papered  walls  and  partitions,  elaborate  metal-work, 
and  other  luxuries  came  into  vogue.  The  main  edifice,  with  its  greater 
number  of  roof-timbers  and  detail  of  decoration,  follows  the  fashion 
prevalent  in  Tokugawa  times  (1604-1868).  In  its  general  ground 
plan  the  edifice  follows  the  lines  of  the  Phoenix  Temple  built  in  Uji 
in  the  year  1050. 

While  the  United  States  has  celebrated  its  first  centennial  of  po- 
litical union,  and  the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus,  Tei  Koku  Nippon  proposes  in  1895  to  com- 
memorate the  millennial  of  Kioto.  A  thousand  years  ago,  in  the  castle 
of  Hei-an,  the  mikado  fixed  his  residence,  and  around  him,  as  the  foun- 
tain of  authority,  grew  up  the  Kio,  or  "  Blossom  Capital." 


JAPAN  IN  1894.  627 

The  year  1894  opens  in  tumult  and  with  portents  that  disturb  the 
warmest  friends  of  Japan,  shaking  their  faith  in  the  capacity  of  an 
Asiatic  race  for  constitutional  government  or  for  participation  in  the 
comity  of  nations.  The  Diet  opened  November  25,  1893.  The  Bud- 
get, in  six  books,  containing  altogether  1438  pages,  estimated  the 
revenue  at  90,675,196  yen  and  the  expenditures  at  85,472,159  yen. 
The  House  of  Representatives,  in  a  spasm  of  political  animosity,  first 
proceeded  to  expel  its  speaker,  Mr.  Hoshi  Torn,  without  any  known 
charge  against  him  as  a  presiding  officer,  and  then  attacked  the 
Budget,  hoping  to  compel  a  resignation  of  the  Cabinet  ministers.  On 
the  19th  of  December  the  Government  suspended  the  sittings  of  the 
House  for  ten  days,  apparently  in  order  to  consult  what  should  be 
done — whether  the  Diet  should  be  dissolved,  or  the  Ministry  either 
resign  or  set  about  reconstruction.  Meeting  again  on  December  29th, 
the  House  was,  after  a  turbulent  session,  suspended  for  another  ten 
days.     On  the  next  day  the  Diet  was  dissolved. 

Thus  far  the  people,  as  represented  in  the  Diet,  have  steadily  gained. 
The  "  military  party  "  in  the  Government,  that  wants  the  reign  of  force 
continued,  the  Diet  defied,  and  the  Constitution  rescinded,  has  been 
beaten.  Men  of  moderate  counsels  have  held  control.  With  them  a 
section  of  the  Jiyu  party,  led  by  Count  Itagaki,  the  unfaltering  pa- 
triot and  leader  of  a  twenty  years'  campaign — peaceful  campaign — is 
disposed  to  co-operate.  They  are  willing  still  to  wait  and  not  precipi- 
tate a  crisis.  The  Kai-shin  party  demands  instant  overthrow  of  clan 
government.  The  ten  political  coteries  or  groups  in  the  House,  dif- 
fering seriously  on  minor  points,  are  united  in  opposition  to  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  in  hearty  hatred  of  that  clan  rule  which,  whatever  be 
the  political  issue,  seems  doomed. 

Meanwhile,  awaiting  with  intense  interest  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lems of  State  and  of  Church,  we  note,  in  closing,  the  advent  of  the 
new  book  in  New  Japan  and  the  literary  movement  so  full  of  prom- 
ise.* Now  that  the  old  literature  based  on  feudalism  and  Chinese 
ethics  no  longer  feeds  the  mind,  it  is  cheering  to  see  that  fresh  pens 
respond  to  the  needs  of  the  new  age.  After  Bakin  and  Ikku  have 
come  Yamada,  Tsubouchi,  and  Kotaro  Han,  in  fiction  ;  after  Rai  Sanyo 
appears  Shiraada  Saburo  in  history  ;  after  Motoori  is  Kume  ;  while  in 
the  other  paths  of  thought  and  inquiry  still  walks  many  an  earnest 


*  "The  New  Book  in  New  Japan,"  The  Literary  World,  May  6,  1893.     "The  Literary 
Movement  in  New  Japan,"  The  Outlook,  January  27,  1S94. 


628  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

pilgrim.  Besides  embroidering  the  old  annals  with  romance,  there  is 
a  prodigious  activity  among  native  scholars,  who  now  write  their 
country's  story  on  critical  principles  and  in  attractive  literary  form 
for  the  people.  On  the  granite  front  of  the  Boston  Public  Library, 
in  company  with  the  hundreds  of  names  of  the  literary  torch-bearers 
of  every  age  and  country,  stand  those  of  Sugawara  Michizane  and 
Rai  Sanyo.  Recognizing  the  genius  of  the  Japan  that  is  past, 
Americans  welcome  gladly  the  dawn  of  a  day  so  full  of  literary 
promise.  Even  in  the  morning  of  her  life,  Nippon  was  called  Hi-no- 
moto  (the  day's  beginning);  to-day,  in  her  larger  and  richer  life, 
may  Japan  be  the  Land  Where  the  Day  Begins  for  all  Asia. 


THE  WAR   WITH  CHINA.  629 


V. 

THE  WAR   WITH  CHINA. 

To  most  of  the  people  of  the  three  countries — China,  Corea,  and 
Japan — as  well  as  to  the  world  at  large,  the  war  of  1894,  between 
Dai  Nippon,  a  unit,  and  some  fractions  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  came 
like  a  lightning-bolt  out  of  blue  sky.  To  the  rulers  of  the  Middle 
and  Sunrise  kingdoms  it  was  not  altogether  unexpected,  for  the 
relations  between  the  governments  of  the  two  empires  had  become 
strained  over  the  debatable  ground  of  Corea.  In  attempting  to 
explain  the  origin  of  the  war,  and  in  recounting  the  military  and 
diplomatic  movements,  we  shall  endeavor  to  be  impartial. 

As  we  view  the  situation,  China  stood  like  a  great  giant,  impos- 
ing to  the  world  because  of  size,  numbers,  and  claims  rather 
than  by  inherent  strength  and  simple  truth.  Trusting  in  antiquity, 
impervious  to  new  ideas,  contemptuous  of  every  civilization  except 
their  own — never,  indeed,  dreaming  that  there  was  any  other — the 
Chinese  were  in  a  chronic  state  of  unreadiness.  Japan,  like  an  athlete, 
having  all  available  powers  in  hand,  was  alert,  vigilant,  and  pre- 
pared. Corea,  like  a  pygmy,  and  without  a  government  worthy  of 
the  name,  stood  between  the  jealous  rivals  soon  to  become  hostile 
and  combatant. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  war  was  provoked  by  a  very  few  manda- 
rins. The  congeries  of  peoples  called  the  Chinese  Empire  form  in 
reality  only  a  patriarchal  state  which  has  no  real,  but  only  a  nom- 
inal, unity.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  China  considered  as  a  polit- 
ical entity,  but  there  are  various  provinces,  each  having  its  own 
local  government.  There  are  also  powerful  viceroys,  and  a  great 
central  figure-head  of  parental  authority  in  Peking,  under  whom  is 
a  bureaucratic  administration.  One  of  these  powerful  viceroys,  Li 
Hung  Chang,  with  patriotic  motives,  and  desirous  of  stirring  up  the 
authorities  at  Peking  to  arm  and  equip  for  modern  defence,  to  open 
the  mines  of  coal  and  iron,  to  lay  the  railroad  from  the  heart  of 
China  to  its  farthest  frontier,  to  forestall  Russian  aggression,  pro- 
voked the  war  of  1894.     He  and  those  who  thought  with  him  ex- 


630  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

pected,with  their  superior  ships  to  overpower  the  Japanese  navy, 
and  with  his  private,  or  at  least  provincial,  army  drilled  by  German 
oflBcers,  to  beat  back  the  troops  of  Japan  from  Corea.  Thus  would 
the  two  objects — of  retaining  Corea  as  a  buffer  state,  and  of  excit- 
ing the  Peking  authorities  sufficiently  to  secure  appropriations — be 
secured.  In  Japan's  intestine  quarrels,  the  coveted  opportunity 
seemed  at  hand.  Deceived  by  surface  indications,  and  not  know- 
ing the  temper  of  the  Japanese,  China  forced  the  war. 

Those  who  during  the  past  eight  years  have  studied  the  behav- 
ior and  aggressive  advances  of  Yuan — China's,  or,  rather,  Li  Hung 
Chang's,  envoy  in  Corea — know  how  well  the  servant  obeyed  his 
master,  giving  abundant  excuse  and  justification  to  Japan,  the 
United  States,  or  some  other  power  to  interfere.  The  Japanese, 
having  opened  the  once  Hermit  Nation  to  the  diplomacy  and  com- 
merce of  the  world,  having  created  her  modern  trade  and  incipient 
industries,  having  interests  outweighing  and  outnumbering  those  of 
all  other  foreigners  within  her  borders,  resented  the  action  of  China 
in  virtually  outlawing  the  treaties  which  Corea  had  made,  and  in 
practically  keeping  her  subject  and  vassal  to  the  Middle  Kingdom. 

On  the  other  hand,  Japan  was  internally  nearing  a  political  crisis 
in  the  virtual  deadlock  between  the  emperor's  ministers  and  the 
lower  and  more  important  house  of  the  Imperial  Diet.  It  seemed 
as  though  something  must  be  done  to  divert  the  attention  of  the 
people  and  of  the  too  rapidly  growing  class  of  active  politicians  from 
intestine  quarrels  to  some  great  national  enterprise  abroad.  Fur- 
ther, the  pressure  of  a  population  increasing  at  the  rate  of  half  a 
million  a  year  has  forced  a  colonizing  nation  like  the  Japanese  to 
look  longingly  afield  for  expansion.  A  magnificent  army  and  navy, 
superbly  organized,  drilled,  officered,  and  ready  for  the  severest  trial 
of  powers  and  patriotism,  were  awaiting  only  a  signal.  For  twenty- 
five  years  the  Japanese,  oppressed  by  treaty,  powerless  under  a 
diplomacy  which  they  looked  upon  as  galling  and  unjust,  had  ap- 
parently yielded  only  with  and  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  victor 
in  the  end.  Whether  in  time,  had  the  provocation  still  remained, 
Japan  would  have  outlawed  the  treaties  made  in  her  political  child- 
hood cannot  be  certainly  affirmed ;  but  of  her  desire  to  impress  the 
world  at  large  with  her  abilities  as  a  military  power,  which  her  intel- 
ligent friends  already  knew  she  possessed,  there  can  be  no  question. 

Nevertheless,  patiently  biding  the  favorable  time,  knowing  that 
China  considered  her  as  a   traitor   to  Asia  and  to  Confucianism, 


THE   WAR    WITH   CHINA.  631 

Japan  kept  herself  ready  to  draw  instantly  the  sharp  line  whenever 
and  wherever  patience  should  cease  to  be  a  virtue.  Caring  not  a  jot 
for  the  size,  the  numbers,  or  the  reputed  colossal  resources  and  en- 
during powers  of  her  giant  rival,  the  athlete  watched  and  waited. 
Jack  and  the  Ogre,  or  rather  Momotaro  and  the  Oni's  Castle,  was  to 
the  Japanese  an  unforgotten  childhood's  tale. 

In  modern  times,  whatever  forces  have  upheaved  the  Asiatic  na- 
tions, stagnating  in  the  dreaminess  of  Buddhism  or  the  savagery  of 
Confucian  conceit,  have  been  born  of  Christianity.  In  Corea  the 
old  elements  and  institutions  of  a  society  founded  upon  patriarchal 
and  Confucian  ideas  had  already  been  shaken.  As  far  back  as 
1777  the  first  wind-wafted  seeds  of  the  Roman  form  of  the  faith 
began  to  germinate  in  Corean  soil.  By  the  year  1859  the  wide- 
spreading  and  deeply  rooted  tree  was  able  to  survive  a  prolonged 
storm  of  persecutions,  the  cruelty  of  which  could  be  matched  only 
in  the  annals  of  the  Inquisition.  The  bigotry  that  banned  and  the 
tortures  that  followed  were  the  direct  result  of  a  narrow  Confucian- 
ism. A  Corean  scholar,  Choi,  impressed  with  the  convictions,  zeal, 
and  consecration  of  the  foreign  priests  and  native  Christians,  withal 
astonished  at  their  tremendous  success,  pondered  deeply  as  to 
whether  theirs  might  not  be  the  true  religion.  While  thinking  long 
upon  the  subject,  he  became  ill  even  to  the  point  of  death.  In  a 
trance  he  received  a  revelation  from  God,  whom  he  himself  named, 
after  the  Roman  Catholic  title.  Lord  of  Heaven.  Called,  as  he  be- 
lieved, to  found  a  new  religion,  Choi  forthwith  proceeded,  from  the 
elements  of  the  three  systems  of  Confucius,  Buddha,  and  Lao  Tsze, 
to  compose  a  sacred  book,  and  to  write  the  prayer  which  his  follow- 
ers still  daily  repeat.  Thus  began  a  great  movement  which,  origi- 
nating in  religion,  ended  in  politics,  in  time  degenerating  into  law- 
lessness. It  caused  a  great  uprising  of  the  most  oppressed  people 
on  the  face  of  the  earth,  which  the  feeble  government  at  Seoul 
could  not  suppress.  It  inflamed  Japan  and  China  in  war.  Only  by 
that  new  force  in  modern  history,  the  Japanese  soldier,  was  the 
revolt  quelled. 

The  name  of  this  new  sect  or  party  is  Tong  Hak,  or  Eastern 
Culture.  Its  Great  Sacred  Scripture,  penned  by  Choi,  combines 
w  hat  he  deemed  best  in  the  three  religions  already  known  to  Chinese 
Asia.  In  its  literary  features  this  cultus  bears  likeness  at  many 
points  to  the  Shin  Gaku,  or  Heart-Learning  movement,  which,  in 
Japan  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  was  started  to 


632  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

cleanse  the  abysses  of  Japanese  immorality  and  irreligion.  Eclecti- 
cism in  doctrine,  earnestness  of  conviction,  intensity  of  purpose, 
and  practicality  in  benevolence  marked  both  movements.  The 
Tong  Haks  took  from  the  Chinese  classics  the  idea  of  the  five 
relations  governing  human  duty,  from  the  sutras  and  shastras  the 
law  of  purity  of  life,  and  from  the  Tao  the  rules  for  cleansing 
the  body  from  lust  and  filth.  One  term  for  the  so-called  Tong  Hak 
Bible  combines  the  names  of  the  three  old  religions,  while  in  the 
title  used  for  the  Deity  in  the  daily  prayer  we  see  the  debt  to 
Roman  Christianity.  The  founder  intended  his  scripture  and  work 
to  be  set  over  against  So  Hak,  or  "Western  Culture.  In  Japan  the 
coming  of  Perry  and  the  foreigners  from  Christendom  paled  the 
Shin  Gaku  as  the  sun  drowns  the  taper's  beams  in  daylight.  To 
the  hermits  of  Corea  no  such  morning  dawned. 

Within  six  years  persecution  broke  out,  and  the  founder,  Choi, 
was  charged  with  being  "  a  foreign-Corean  "  and  "  follower  of  the 
Lord  of  Heaven" — that  is,  a  Roman  Catholic  Christian.  After  trial 
and  torture  he  was  beheaded,  and  his  doctrines  outlawed.  Never- 
theless, the  new  religion  grew  through  a  whole  human  generation, 
winning  many  followers.  At  a  time  of  oppression  and  rapacity, 
extraordinary  even  in  Corea,  it  was  not  astonishing  that  poor 
peasants  should  be  goaded  to  rebellion.  Nerved  by  their  new  zeal, 
they  struck  even  against  authority,  though  abominably  misused,  for 
enough  freedom  to  make  life  tolerable.  Early  in  1893  fifty  fol- 
lowers of  the  Tong  Hak  creed  entered  the  Corean  capital.  On  a 
table  before  the  palace  gate  they  spread  a  red  cloth,  and  laid 
thereon  a  petition,  praying  that  their  martyred  founder  might 
be  declared  innocent,  receive  posthumous  rank,  be  allowed  a 
monument  in  his  honor,  that  the  ban  on  their  religion  be  re- 
moved, and  that  they  be  put  on  a  political  equality  with  the 
Roman  Catholics.  The  alternative,  if  their  petition  were  rejected, 
was  expressed  in  a  threat  to  expel  all  foreigners  from  the  country. 
The  king  refused  their  prayer.  They  were  driven  away,  and  some  of 
their  local  leaders  arrested. 

No  sooner  had  the  snow  of  the  next  winter  vanished  than  a  wide- 
spread uprising  in  the  southern  provinces  of  Corea  took  place. 
The  military  sent  from  Seoul  in  April  melted  before  the  Tong 
Haks  like  frost  in  the  sun.  The  civil  magistrates  were  driven  from 
their  offices,  swift  vengeance  in  many  cases  following  their  horri- 
ble cruelties  in  the  past.     Instead  of  a  few  hundred  zealots  there 


THE  WAR   WITH  CHINA.  633 

were  myriads  of  people  in  wild  insurrection,  bent  only  on  destroying 
their  oppressors.  The  May  danger  seemed  to  threaten  the  whole 
kingdom.     The  June  moment  was  critical. 

In  Seoul  the  pro-Chinese  faction  at  court,  then  vastly  out- 
numbering their  moderately  pro-Japanese  rivals,  sent  to  Peking 
for  a  Chinese  force  to  put  down  the  Tong  Hak  rebels.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Chino-Japanese  treaty  of  1885  negotiated  by  Li  and 
Ito,  neither  power  was  to  send  armed  men  into  Corea  without  first 
notifying  the  other.  In  violation  of  this  convention,  the  Chinese  sol- 
diers were  first  sent,  and  then  the  Government  at  Tokio  was  notified. 
On  June  7th  China  sent  a  despatch  vphich  compromised  not  only 
Japan,  but  all  the  treaty  powers  which  had  acknowledged  the 
sovereignty  of  Corea,  by  declaring  her  a  subject  country.  "  It  is 
in  harmony  with  our  constant  practice,"  declared  this  document, 
"to  protect  our  tributary  statea  by  sending  our  troops  to  assist 
them,  .  .  .  General  Yeh  has  been  ordered  to  proceed  at  once  to 
Zenra  ...  in  order  to  restore  the  peace  of  our  tributary  stated 
Thus  China,  against  the  world,  reasserted  her  ancient  claim  of 
suzerain  over  Corea  as  a  vassal  state,  and  flung  down  the  gauntlet 
to  Japan,  virtually  bidding  her  to  maintain  her  rights  if  she  could. 
Treaties  being  usually  held  as  sacred,  the  smaller  country  gained, 
even  as  the  larger  forfeited,  the  sympathies  of  the  civilized  world. 

The  Tong  Hak  match  had  fallen  between  two  petroleum  tanks 
that  were  already  leaking.  The  whole  Japanese  people,  through  an 
extraordinary  incident,  which  we  shall  recount,  were  at  this  mo- 
ment on  the  point  of  combustion  and  explosion.  The  Chinese 
despatch  fired  both  rulers  and  people  of  Japan  to  national  con- 
flagration. 

Nine  years  before,  the  attempt  of  the  Corean  Liberals  return- 
ing from  America,  Europe,  and  Japan,  to  effect  a  revolution  in  the 
Government  in  favor  of  modern  civilization  had  failed.  One  of 
them,  Kim  Ok  Kiun,  fleeing  to  Japan,  received  the  same  protection 
which,  under  the  treaties,  would  have  been  granted  to  any  for- 
eigner. During  his  long  residence  he  made  himself  extraordinarily 
popular,  contriving,  also,  to  elude  his  assassins.  At  last,  in  April, 
1894,  when  lured  to  Shanghai  by  a  false  telegram  and  a  forged 
bank  draft,  he  was  promptly  murdered  by  a  Corean  emissary. 
With  indecent  haste,  and  with  a  barbarism  that  reveals  the  Chinese 
official  character,  the  body  of  the  murdered  man  was  packed  on 
board  of  a  man-of-war  to  be  delivered  up  to  his  real  destroyers 


634  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

in  Seoul,  for  public  mincing,  distribution,  and  exposure.  The  car- 
rion was  duly  displayed  at  the  capital  and  in  the  provinces,  while 
the  assassin  gained  gold  and  won  official  honor. 

The  news  of  this  union  of  Chinese  and  Corean  barbarism  pro- 
duced an  extraordinary  excitement  in  Japan.  To  Government  and 
people  it  seemed  as  if  China  and  her  pupils  in  Corea  had,  with 
unnecessary  ostentation,  flouted  and  insulted  the  newly  adopted 
civilization  of  Japan,  It  is  not  strange  that  the  emperor  and  his 
ministers  decided  that,  with  China's  forcible  reiteration  of  her 
claim  upon  Corea,  following  a  fresh  outbreak  of  barbarism,  and 
backed  as  it  was  by  military  force,  the  line  of  forbearance  had 
been  reached.  The  time  for  the  wager  of  battle  between  two  in- 
compatible civilizations  had  come. 

Down  at  the  bottom  this  Chino-Japanese  war  meant,  in  its 
provocation  and  origin,  the  right  of  a  nation  to  change  its  civil- 
ization. It  is  difficult  for  people  in  the  Occident  to  understand 
the  depth  of  pedantic  polemic  that  underlies  the  estrangement 
between  New  Japan  and  unawakened  China.  For  years  the  idea 
in  Peking  had  been  that  Japan  was  not  only  a  "  neighbor-disturb- 
ing nation,"  but  had  been  colossally  wicked  in  discarding  the 
Chinese  calendar,  and  in  turning  away  from  Confucius  and  the 
civilization  of  the  sages  to  adopt  and  assimilate  that  of  Christen- 
dom. What  the  Chinese  residents  of  Yokohama  did  in  1872 — 
tumultuously  engaging  in  public  protest  against  that  change  of 
chronology,  which  in  far-eastern  Asia  means  also  change  in  mental 
attitude,  with  repudiation  of  every  suggestion  of  intellectual  or 
political  vassalage — the  Chinese  Government  has  been  doing  tacitly 
ever  since.  When,  in  1879,  Japan  and  China  were  on  the  verge 
of  war  over  the  question  of  the  ownership  of  the  Riu  Kiu  islands, 
the  two  governments,  at  the  suggestion  of  General  U.  S.  Grant, 
agreed  to  settle  the  matter  by  reference  to  a  joint  High  Com- 
mission. Prince  Kung,  with  colleagues,  and  Mr.  Shishido  were  ap- 
pointed as  plenipotentiaries,  and  the  conference  began  at  Peking 
August  15th,  1880.  On  the  21st  of  October,  by  Chinese  official 
notice,  the  Articles  of  Agreement  were  ready  for  signature.  The 
commissioners  indulged  in  mutual  congratulations,  and  agreed  to 
sign  the  instruments  ten  days  later,  when  lo !  on  the  l7th  of 
November,  sixteen  days  after  the  date  fixed,  the  Emperor  of  China 
turned  the  whole  affair  into  a  burlesque.  In  a  word,  his  majesty 
virtually  cancelled  the  commission  of  the  plenipotentiaries,  trans- 


THE  WAR   WITH  CHINA.  635 

ferring  their  function  in  a  modified  and  incomplete  form  to  "  the 
Northern  and  Southern  Superintendents  of  Trade."  The  profes- 
sion which  the  Chinese  Government  made  in  conferring  full 
powers  upon  any  one  but  the  emperor  was  an  empty  farce. 

After  such  an  experience,  the  Japanese  statesmen  were  not  likely 
to  be  lured  into  another  similar  humiliation.  Furthermore,  since 
in  the  unhappy  Corean  affair  of  1885,  in  which  the  Japanese  Lega- 
tion guard  of  ninescore  men  had  been  attacked  by  fifteen  hun- 
dred Chinese  troops  —  one-half  of  the  three  thousand  which  had 
been  encamped  near  Seoul  —  the  mikado's  ministers  were  fore- 
warned by  experience  not  again  to  be  caught  napping.  Hence,  on 
the  12th  of  June,  1894,  Japan,  asserting  her  treaty  rights,  replied 
to  China,  announcing  the  despatch  of  a  body  of  troops  under  strict- 
est discipline  to  Corea. 

The  next  step,  five  days  later,  was  highly  creditable  to  the  gov- 
ernment which  had  made  the  first  treaty  with  Corea.  It  was  an 
invitation  from  Japan  to  China  to  undertake  jointly  some  needed 
reforms,  financial  and  administrative,  in  the  peninsular  state,  in 
order  to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  East.  This  offer  was  curtly 
refused,  China  demanding  the  immediate  withdrawal  of  the  Jap- 
anese troops,  Japan's  reply  was  that,  pending  an  amicable  settle- 
ment of  the  questions  in  dispute,  any  further  despatch  of  Chi- 
nese troops  into  Corea  would  mean  war.  China,  having  already 
chartered  the  Koiv-Shing,  a  British  transport,  filled  it  with  soldiers 
and  despatched  it  to  A-San,  a  well-fortified  camp  in  a  peninsula 
formed  by  two  rivers  flowing  into  Prince  Jerome  Gulf,  some  forty 
miles  southwest  of  Seoul.  At  the  same  time  the  Tartar  forces  in 
Manchuria  began  the  march  overland  to  Corea. 

All  this,  through  their  spies,  regular  servants,  and  the  telegraph, 
the  Tokio  Government  knew  well.  Resolving  once  for  all  to  settle 
the  long  string  of  questions  inherited  from  the  past;  to  break  the 
power  of  Chinese  insolence,  and  if  possible  shatter  the  old  Chinese 
world  of  ideas,  with  its  perpetual  menace  of  implied  or  explicit 
claim  of  supremacy  ;  to  compel  the  elimination  of  Corea  as  a  factor 
of  disturbance  in  the  affairs  of  the  Far  East ;  to  assert  her  imper- 
illed rights  and  dignity  ;  to  make  proof  of  her  duty  and  power  to 
graduate  from  foreign  tutelage  and  dependence  ;  to  reveal  to  her 
own  people  their  power  in  union,  and  to  impress  the  world  with  her 
ability  to  hold  and  maintain  her  place  as  equal  among  the  great 
nations  of  the  world,   Japan   called  forth  her  military  strength. 


036  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

With  a  secrecy,  order,  precision,  celerity,  and  punctuality  incredi- 
ble, except  to  those  who,  as  helpers  and  friends,  had  lived  inside 
the  country,  away  from  the  seaports,  Japan  landed  first  a  brigade 
and  then  an  army  corps  at  Chemulpo.  Her  engineers  completed,  in 
twenty  minutes,  a  pontoon  -  bridge  over  the  Han  River.  Within 
twelve  days  after  orders  received  in  camp  in  Japan  a  military  cor- 
don had  been  drawn  around  Seoul,  in  Corea.  On  the  23d  of  July, 
after  a  skirmish  in  front  of  the  palace  between  the  military  escort 
of  the  Japanese  minister,  Mr.  Hoshi  Torn,  and  some  pro-Chinese 
native  troops,  the  question  of  Corea's  independence  and  willingness 
to  stand  by  her  treaty  was  answered  by  the  king  in  the  affirmative. 

On  the  water  the  Chinese  were  the  first  aggressors,  the  Chen- 
yuen  firing  on  the  Naniwa.  The  Chinese  troops  on  the  transport 
Kow-Shing,  not  knowing  or  unwilling  to  believe  that  the  Japanese 
had  adopted  civilized  rules  of  warfare,  refused  to  surrender.  After 
keeping  his  signals  flying  four  hours,  and  these  armed  men  refusing 
to  surrender,  the  captain  of  the  Naniiva  quickly  sank  the  transport. 
This  was  on  July  25th.  Four  days  later  General  Oshima's  mixed 
brigade  moved  out  from  Seoul,  and  after  a  battle  at  Song-kwan,  in 
which  the  brave  Major  Matsusaki  lost  his  life,  A-San  was  occupied 
July  30th,  and  the  Chinese  driven  back  from  their  stronghold.  The 
declaration  of  war  came  from  the  Japanese  emperor  on  August  1st, 
in  a  document  strikingly  clear  in  phrase  and  temperate  in  tone. 

The  reinforcements  despatched  by  way  of  Gensan,  as  well  as 
Chemulpo,  formed  with  the  pioneer  regiments  the  First  Army.  As 
"geography  is  half  of  war,"  it  was  matter  of  foreordination  and 
necessity  that  the  decisive  battle  should  in  a.d.  1894  be  fought 
just  where  the  decisive  battles  in  Corean  annals  always  had  been 
fought — at  Ping  Yang.  Here,  three  centuries  before,  Konishi  had 
lost  a  battle  and  retreated  southward  before  an  overwhelming  Ming 
and  Tartar  host.  Now  the  pendulum  of  history,  despite  forty  days' 
time  for  defence  and  fortification  by  the  Chinese,  was  to  swing  to 
reverse  effect. 

The  Chinese  declaration  of  war — a  new  thing  in  the  history  of 
the  Middle  Kingdom,  showing  strikingly  the  progress  of  interna- 
tional law — was  also  dated  August  1st,  and  was  characteristic  of 
mandarins  who  were  not  yet  willing  either  to  learn  or  to  forget. 
From  beginning  to  end  the  writing  displayed  utter  ignorance  of 
the  enemy  to  be  fought  and  the  work  to  be  done.  It  was  declared 
that  the  Wo-jen,  or  pygmies  (Japanese),  had,  "  without  any  cause 


THE   \YAli    WITH  CHLYA.  637 

whatever,"  invaded  "  our  small  tributary  ;"  that  Japan  had  "  vio- 
hited  the  treaties,"  and  was  "  running  rampant  with  her  false  and 
treacherous  actions,"  while  "  we  [China]  have  always  followed  the 
paths  of  philanthropy  and  perfect  justice."  The  Chinese  braves 
were  called  upon  to  "  hasten  with  all  speed  to  root  the  Wo-jen  out 
of  their  lairs."  A  comparatively  small  number  of  really  disciplined 
soldiers,  armed  and  drilled  in  the  European  manner,  was,  with  the 
usual  mob  of  native  military,  hurried  forward  to  Ping  Yang,  which, 
aided  by  the  fugitives  from  A-San,  they  began  to  fortify. 

China  actually  went  to  war  without  a  hospital  corps,  or  any  or- 
ganization of  surgeons,  nurses,  or  accommodations  for  the  wounded 
or  sick  worthy  of  the  name.  Except  detachments  from  Li  Hung 
Chang's  private  army,  very  few  of  the  Chinese  officers  or  men  had 
been  educated  in  modern  tactics.  In  their  equipment  all  sorts  of 
prehistoric  accouti'ements — flags,  banners,  umbrellas,  and  fans — 
were  mingled  with  modern  imported  weapons,  in  a  medley  which  re- 
sembled the  diplomacy  of  Peking,  On  the  other  hand,  besides  a 
thoroughly  well-officered,  armed,  drilled,  equipped,  and  provisioned 
army  of  fifty  thousand  young  men,  the  flower  of  the  Japanese  na- 
tion, the  Tokio  Government  was  able  to  call  out  for  service  a  reserve 
of  one  hundred  thousand  strong  and  healthy  patriots,  burning  with 
enthusiasm  and  familiar  with  the  weapons,  machinery,  and  practice 
of  modern  war.  Furthermore,  besides  her  numerous  public  and  pri- 
vate hospitals,  her  splendid  medical  field-corps,  her  four  hundred 
surgeons  and  pharmacists,  and  her  fourteen  hundred  trained  nurses, 
she  had  an  efficient  Red  Cross  society.  Immediately  both  the  nation 
and  the  government  began  the  organization  and  consolidation  of  all 
public  and  private  resources  in  order  to  strike  as  a  unit.  At  home 
and  abroad  all  sons  and  daughters  of  Nippon  vied  in  diligence  and 
sacrifice  for  the  efficient  carrying  on  of  the  war,  and  for  securing 
the  comfort  of  the  soldiers  at  the  front. 

The  secrets  of  -Japanese  success  are  patent  to  the  student.  In 
such  a  time  as  this,  life  for  the  average  man  in  Nippon  is  worth 
living.  With  a  flaming  patriotism  that  surprises  Europeans  who 
have  imagined  the  Japanese  to  be  only  average  Asiatics  and  mere 
imitators,  all  classes,  sexes,  and  ages  rallied  intelligently  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  national  cause.  A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  Japan  was 
the  hot-bed  of  caste,  monopoly,  and  privilege.  These  seemed  to 
crush  out  every  germ  of  popular  liberty  and  ambition.  Even  the 
proverbial  politeness  and  submissiveness  of  the  Japanese  common 

41 


638  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

people  is  in  large  part  the  result  of  ages  of  military  despotism. 
To-day,  with  the  soil  virtually  in  the  hands  of  the  people  who  cul- 
tivate it ;  the  courts  open  to  all  who  seek  even-handed  justice ; 
schools  and  education  free  to  every  one;  military  privilege  no 
longer  the  prerogative  of  a  special  class ;  the  existence  of  pariahs 
no  more  than  a  memory  ;  government  becoming  more  national  and 
representative ;  democracy  making  strides  every  day,  with  little  or 
nothing  to  hinder  the  advance  of  the  individual  in  every  line  of 
human  achievement,  it  is  not  strange  to  see  a  whole  nation  rising 
up  in  an  outburst  of  intensest  energy.  Self-sacrifice,  loyalty,  and 
patriotism,  with  an  unquenchable  ambition  to  humble  China,  to 
impress  the  whole  world,  and  to  make  their  country  great,  char- 
acterize the  Japanese  of  a.d.  1895.  In  this  war  they  have  irrev- 
ocably committed  themselves  to  cosmopolitan  as  against  Chinese 
or  merely  ethnic  principles. 

The  sympathies  of  those  who  began,  even  twenty -five  years  ago, 
to  help  in  making  the  New  Japan  have  been  from  the  first  with 
the  smaller  country.  Their  seat  of  observation  has  not  been  the 
fence,  in  order  to  be  sure,  before  applauding,  which  side  would 
win.  Seeing  so  clearly  that  the  Japanese  were  triply  armed  in  hav- 
ing their  quarrel  just,  and  knowing  their  earnestness,  their  foraner 
teachers  and  helpers  not  only,  but  Americans  in  general,  have  not 
been  surprised  at  the  swift  success  of  the  armies  under  the  sun- 
banner.  They  have  not  wondered  at  the  tenacity  and  staying 
power  of  the  soldier-lads,  or  at  the  sustained  ability  and  serious- 
ness of  statesmen  and  generals,  and  their  power  of  mastering  the 
secrets  and  applying  the  forces  of  Western  civilization.  In  the 
campaign  of  1894  the  Japanese  were  no  longer  pupils.  They 
went  to  war  not  only  without  foreign  aids  or  advisers,  but  in 
clothes,  arms,  and  ships  made  in  large  part  by  themselves. 

Almost  simultaneously  the  supremacy  of  Japan  on  both  sea  and 
land  was  demonstrated.  The  future  historian  will  mark  two  days 
of  September  as  the  dates  of  battles  that  decided  the  future  of 
Eastern  Asia.  On  the  15th,  at  Ping  Yang,  General  Nodzu,  attacking 
in  front,  on  the  flanks,  and  in  the  rear,  broke  up  the  Chinese  army. 
Within  a  fortnight  every  Chinese  soldier  had  been  driven  out  of 
Corea.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu  River,  on  the  iVth,  the  first 
great  conflict  between  fleets  of  steel  -  armored  ships  took  place. 
The  cruisers  of  Japan,  unevenly  matched  against  the  Chinese  battle- 
ships and  men-of-war  from  noon  to  sunset,  so   decided  the  issue 


THE   WAR   WITH  CHINA.  639 

that  the  dragon-flag  was  not  again  mirrored  on  the  deep  in  pres- 
ence of  the  sun-banner.  Then  followed  the  brilliant  Manchurian 
campaign,  in  which  the  First  Army  won  an  almost  unbroken  series 
of  victories,  holding,  in  April,  1895,  Chinese  territory  vastly  greater 
in  area  than  the  Japanese  Empire.  Neither  snow  and  ice  nor 
exposure  and  hardship  seem  in  any  way  to  cool  the  ardor  of  the 
young  Japanese  conscripts. 

The  Second  Army,  under  Field-Marshal  Oyama,  was  despatched 
to  Port  Arthur.  This  vast  fortress  had,  after  twenty  years  of  toil, 
been  fortified  at  a  cost  of  two  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  After 
bombardment  by  the  fleet  on  the  sea -front,  and  attack  by  the 
land  forces  in  the  rear,  beginning  before  the  dawn  on  the  21st  of 
November,  the  town,  forts,  and  ships  were  captured  within  ten 
hours.  The  glory  of  the  victors  was  dimmed  by  an  outbreak  of 
cruelty,  the  reports  of  which,  however,  were  highly  exaggerated  in 
the  newspapers  of  America  and  Europe. 

The  Third  Army  was  despatched  to  Wei-Hai-Wei,  to  reduce  the 
fortress  guarding  the  southern  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Pechili. 
After  brilliant  naval  and  land  operations,  this  stronghold  passed 
under  the  Japanese  flag  January  31st,  1895.  The  remaining  ships 
of  the  Chinese  northern  fleet  were  captured,  sunk,  or  destroyed. 
With  both  sea-gates  defending  the  capital  broken  down,  the  Japan- 
ese fleet  soon  appeared  before  the  Taku  forts.  Another  expedition, 
despatched  to  Formosa,  captured  the  fortifications  in  the  Pesca- 
dores Islands,  bombarded  Tai-wan,  and  made  a  landing  upon  the 
main  island. 

From  the  first  outbreak  of  the  war,  but  especially  after  her  mul- 
tiplying reverses,  China  attempted,  as  suppliant,  to  secure  sym- 
pathy, practical  mediation,  and  direct  help  from  the  governments 
of  Europe.  This  policy  showed  a  vast  change  from  that  of  ancient 
days,  and  a  reverse  of  attitude  that  seems  astounding.  The  inher- 
ent weakness  of  the  geographical  colossus  was  exposed.  In  area 
and  population  immense,  a  venerable  patriarchal  system  but  scarcely 
a  political  entity,  the  sham  collapsed,  and  the  truth  about  China  is 
now  known  to  the  world.  Neither  mere  bulk  nor  blind  numbers, 
however  great,  are  anything,  and  with  her  rhinoceros-crust  of  con- 
ceit pierced  by  the  Murata  rifle,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  China  Avill  be 
the  gainer  because  of  her  bitter  experience.  Slow,  however,  in 
learning  their  lesson,  the  Peking  mandarins  tried  to  gain  time  and 
secure  a  favorable  place  in  the  line  of  indirection.     In  November, 


640  THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

1894,  she  sent  a  foreigner,  Mr.  G.  Dietring,  her  faithful  servant  in 
the  customs  service,  as  peace  envoy  to  Japan.  As  a  matter  of  de- 
cency and  of  course  the  mikado's  ministers  did  not  receive  him. 
Then,  through  offers  of  mediation  from  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  the  Peking  Government  pretended  to  send  two 
plenipotentiaries,  Messrs.  Chang  and  Shao,  who,  despite  lofty  titles, 
were  in  reality  only  very  limited  subordinates.  They  arrived  at 
Hiroshima  January  31st,  1895.  Their  credentials  when  examined 
showed  that  they  had  no  powers  to  settle  terms  of  peace.  After 
her  experience  of  China's  behavior  in  the  diplomacy  of  the  Riu 
Kiu  affair  in  1879,  Japan  resolved  not  again  to  be  duped.  The 
two  Chinese  envoys  with  their  suite  of  twenty-four  other  persons, 
including  one  honored  American  statesman  and  adviser,  were  po- 
litely sent  home  to  their  master.  Throughout,  Japan  acted  upon 
the  principle  expressed  by  Premier  Ito,  "The  usages  peculiar  to 
China  must  give  way  to  and  be  ruled  by  the  canons  of  Inter- 
national Law." 

In  their  third  attempt  to  gain  time,  advantage,  and  peace  the 
Tsung  Li  Yamen  acted  with  honesty.  The  emperor,  recalling  from 
disgrace,  real  or  nominal,  Li  Hung  Chang,  despatched  him  with 
full  powers  to  Japan.  At  the  historic  city  of  Shimonoseki  the 
peace  conference  was  opened  March  21st.  The  first  request  of  Li 
was  for  an  armistice,  which  at  first  was  refused.  On  Sunday,  the  24th 
of  March,  a  fanatical  soshi,  attempting  to  assassinate  the  venerable 
Chinaman,  fired  a  pistol,  the  bullet  of  which  lodged  in  the  cheek  of 
the  envoy.  Thus  again  the  old  murderous  spirit  which  has  so  re- 
peatedly stained  Japan's  record — the  same  spirit  in  which  the 
ruffian  renins  used  to  cut  down  unsuspecting  foreigners  from  be- 
hind, which  has  again  and  again  butchered  ministers  of  the  Govern- 
ment, which  has  disgraced  the  nation  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  by 
the  insult  and  attempted  murder  even  of  the  nation's  guests,  which 
has  made  a  river  of  blood  flow  through  her  history,  which  is  the 
exponent  of  one  of  her  greatest  dangers,  and  which  may  yet 
deluge  her  soil  with  an  inundation  of  sanguinary  anarchy — broke 
forth. 

May  8th,  the  date  appointed  to  exchange  ratifications  of  the  Shi- 
monoseki treaty  at  Chifu,  China,  was  an  auspicious  one.  On  that  day 
in  1853  Perry's  squadron  lay  at  first  morning  anchor  off  Yokohama. 
On  May  8,  1858,  Townsend  Harris  and  the  shogun's  commissioners 
completed  in  Yedo  the   negotiations  that   opened  Jajian  to  light. 


THE  WAR   WITH  CHINA.  641 

science,  and  the  gospel,  introducing  missionaries,  teachers,  physi- 
cians, and  merchants,  and  making  possible  to  Japan  her  new  career. 
On  this  same  day  in  1895,  in  the  era  of  Meiji,  or  enlightened  appro- 
priation of  Western  ideas,  Japan  obtained  from  China,  as  the  results 
of  her  forty  years'  training  and  eight  months'  war : 

The  independence  of  Corea  ; 

Permanent  cession  of  Formosa  ; 

Opening  of  China  to  manufactures  and  commerce  ; 

Cash  indemnity  to  cover  cost  of  the  war. 

The  question  of  the  release  of  Manchurian  territory  occupied  by 
Japanese  troops  was  settled  in  such  a  way  as  to  gain  the  good-will 
of  Europe  and  avert  war  with  Russia  while  satisfying  China. 

Formosa,  first  discovered  and  occupied  by  Japanese  in  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  is  geologically  and  ethnically  a 
part  of  Dai  Nippon.  Under  Japanese  rule,  and  probably  within  a 
generation,  its  interior  will  cease  to  be  a  lair  of  savages  and  its 
coasts  a  haunt  of  pirates,  the  whole  island  being  opened  to  the 
world's  commerce.  Within  four  days  of  the  signed  treaty,  the 
mikado  appointed  the  military  and  civil  administrators  of  Formosa. 
The  island  chain  of  Tei  Koku  Nippon  now  extends  through  nearly 
thirty  degrees  of  latitude.  Fronting  Asia  and  its  conquered  na- 
tions, independent  Japan  now  calls  a  halt  to  European  aggression. 
Amid  Spanish,  British,  French,  Russian,  and  Chinese  neighbors, 
she  means  to  hold  her  own.     Can  she  do  it  ? 

Aside  from  the  extraordinary  manifestations  of  popular  joy  called 
forth  on  account  of  the  "  silver  wedding  "  of  their  imperial  majes- 
ties the  emperor  and  empress,  the  year  1894  will  stand  in  history 
as  that  in  which  Japan  received  justice  at  the  hands  of  Western 
powers.  All  the  treaties  allowing  foreign  trade  and  residence, 
except  the  one  negotiated  with  Mexico  in  1890,  have  been  either 
based  on,  or  debased  from,  that  instrument  made  by  Townsend 
Harris  in  1858,  who  expected  revision  to  take  place  in  1872.  He, 
mourning  over  conditions  then  necessary  and  at  first  beneficial,  but 
which  when  perpetuated  became  wrongs,  but  hoping  to  see  justice 
done,  died  without  the  sight.*  After  twenty-two  years  of  agita- 
tion and  the  wreck  of  three  cabinets,  Great  Britain,  in  a  new  treaty 


*  See  the  biography  and  journal  of  his  residence  in  Japan  (1856-1862)  in  the 
book  "  Townsend  Harris,  First  American  Envoy  in  Japan,"  by  William  Elliot 
Griffis:  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston,  1895. 


642  THE  ^IIKADO'S  EMPIRE. 

signed  August  26th  by  Lord  Kimberly  and  Viscount  Mutsu,  virt- 
ually recognized  Japan  as  an  equal.  The  new  American  treaty 
received  the  signatures  of  Secretary  Greshara  and  Minister  Kurino 
November  22d,  and  was  ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate  Decem- 
ber 28th. 

Whatever  be  the  issues  of  the  Chino-Japanese  war  of  1894-'95, 
probably  the  most  significant  in  its  influences  of  the  Asiatic  wars 
of  many  centuries,  it  is  evident  that  after  peace  Japan's  real  difli- 
culties  begin  and  her  greatest  problems  come  up  for  solution. 
The  conflict  between  clan  government  and  the  whole  nation,  and 
between  the  Ministry  and  the  Diet  is  yet  to  be  fought  out.  Further- 
more, the  trend  towards  democracy  is  unmistakable,  and  the  perils 
of  militarism  are  real.  The  impending  revolution  in  industry  is  likely 
not  only  to  modify,  even  to  destruction,  much  of  her  beautiful  land- 
scape, but  threatens  to  annihilate  many  things  that  are  lovely  and 
charming  in  the  life  of  her  people.  The  building  of  the  factory, 
the  introduction  of  machinery,  and  the  rearrangement  of  industrial 
forces  and  combinations  will  sow  seed  for  fresh  crops  of  difficulty 
which  only  great  wisdom  and  vast  increase  of  moral  power  can 
overcome. 

Yet,  despite  all  the  omens  of  evil  and  prognostications  of  gloom, 
there  have  been  many  signs  made  visible,  even  during  the  present 
war,  of  the  increasingly  serious  purpose  of  the  Japanese  to  per- 
severe in  their  career  of  progress,  and  to  seek  to  base  this  prog- 
ress on  education.  Already  earnest  natives  are  raising  warnings 
against  the  dangers  which  are  sure  to  flow  from  excessive  milita- 
rism and  the  intoxication  of  conceit.  That  great  purifying  and 
uplifting  force,  a  belief  in  God,  one  and  personal,  is  the  expulsive 
power  before  which  the  fog  and  dreams  of  Buddhism  and  the  ag- 
nosticism and  paralysis  of  Confucianism  are  surely  passing  away. 
Japan  has  the  great  task  befoi'e  her  of  educating  her  masses  and 
elevating  her  women.  One  thing  seems  certain,  and  that  is  that 
Christianity  has  taken  root  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  people. 
Japan  will  never  be  "  converted  "  in  the  way  that  many  old-fash- 
ioned folk  hoped  a  generation  or  even  a  decade  ago ;  but  in  the 
adoption  and  assimilation  of  the  true  spirit  and  real  teachings  of 
Jesus  the  Japanese  are  making  steady  advance.  Despite  so-called 
"reactions"  and  the  tendency  to  "Japanize  Christianity,"  we  dis- 
cern no  real  retrogression  in  the  steady  movement  towards  a  Japan 
that  knows  but  one  Deity. 


THE  WAR    WITH  CHINA.  643 

In  ages  that  are  past  there  could  be  and  was  a  variety  of  civili- 
zations, narrow,  ethnic,  defective.  Now  there  can  be  but  one  civil- 
ization— that  founded  by  Jesus.  He  fused  the  many  ideals  and 
inheritances  into  one.  To  his  vision  no  one  nation  has  yet  fully 
attained  or  can  attain.  When  all  the  families  of  the  earth  bend 
the  knee  unto  the  Father  whom  the  Christ  revealed,  his  ideas  may 
be  fulfilled  in  human  history.  Japan's  best  hope  is  that  already 
some  of  her  sons  dwell  in  this  open  vision. 


NOTES   AND   APPENDICES. 


ASSOCIATED  IDEAS  IN  ART  AND  POETRY. 

There  are  certain  pairs  of  objects  which  form  the  main  stock  of  the  Japanese 
artist's  designs.  With  many  variations  and  combinations,  they  appear  over  and 
over  again  in  pictures,  on  vases,  lacquer-ware,  trays,  dishes,  embroidery,  bronze, 
and  other  articles  of  use  and  virtu,  and  objects  of  art,  and  form  the  set  of  sym- 
bols oftenest  employed  by  the  poet.  The  pine-tree  and  stork,  emblems  of  longev- 
ity, are  embroidered  on  robes,  presented  to  newly  born  infants.  The  willow  and 
swallow,  and  bamboo  and  sparrow,  indicative  of  gentleness,  are  seen  oftenest  on 
screens,  fans,  and  upright  objects  of  household  adornment.  The  young  moon 
and  cuckoo,  the  bird  flying  across  the  crescent,  is  a  poetic  reference  to  Yorimasa, 
a  renowned  archer,  who  shot  a  hideous  beast,  having  the  head  of  a  monkey,  body 
and  claws  of  a  tiger,  and  the  tail  of  a  dragon.  This  monster,  who  came  at  night 
to  disturb  the  rest  of  the  mikado  Narihito,  1153,  was  hit  in  the  eye  by  Yorimasa's 
arrow,  three  feet  long,  and  finally  dispatched  by  his  trusty  sword.  The  mikado 
rewarded  him  with  a  famous  sword,  Shishi  no  6  (king  of  wild  boars),  by  the  hands 
of  a  kuge  who,  when  about  to  present  it,  heard  a  cuckoo,  and,  catching  the  bird's 
note,  extemporized  seventeen  syllables,  or  the  first  strophe  of  the  thirty-one  syl- 
lable distich  {fionka).  Yorimasa  being  as  good  a  poet  as  he  was  a  brave  soldier, 
immediately  replied  with  the  second  strophe  of  fourteen  syllables.  The  "opea 
secret"  of  the  poem  is  thus  roughly  given  in  English: 

LITERAL.  OOOtlLT. 

Kuge The  cnckoo Like  the  cuckoo, 

Above  the  clouds So  high  to  soar, 

How  does  it  mount  (like  the  archer  to  houor) How  is  it  so? 

yon'rnowa..The  waning  moon  (bent  bow) Only  my  bow  I  bent, 

Sets  not  at  will  (a  sped  shaft) That  only  sent  the  shaft. 

The  neatness  of  the  allusion,  the  skill  of  the  improvisatore,  and  the  liquid  ca- 
dences (utterly  lost  in  translation)  make  the  poem  a  joy  forever  to  the  ear  of  the 
native,  as  the  silver  bow  and  tlie  "  Japanese  nightingale  "  are  things  of  beauty  to 
his  eye. 

The  phoenix  bird  (howo)  and  the  Pauhwnia  imperialis  tree  are  often  together 
as  twin  imperial  emblems  on  the  mikado's  robes,  rugs,  curtains,  and  painted  or 


646 


NOTES  AXD  APPENDICES. 


gilded  on  screens  and  hanging  scrolls.  This  tree,  so  common  in  Japan,  is  an 
emblem  of  rectitude.     Its  leaves  form  the  imperial  mon,  or  crest. 

The  peony  and  Chinese  lion — a  beast  which  never  trod  this  earth,  but  which 
ma}'  be  seen  rampant  on  temple  screens,  j-ashiki  doors,  panels — form  a  couplet, 
with  which  lovers  of  the  huge  and  monstrous  may  regale  their  vision.  Another 
]iair  of  these  Siamese  twins  of  Japanese  art  are  the  sleeping  wild  boar  and  a  clus- 
ter oihagi  (Lcspedeza).  The  mulberry  and  the  goat  are  put  together  by  the  art- 
ist, since  this  animal  has  the  appetite  of  a  silk-worm,  and  feeds  voraciously  on 
mulberry  leaves  or  the  paper  which  is  made  from  its  bark. 

The  hare  peeps  out  of  the  rushes  on  many  a  lacquered  box  or  tray,  or  is 
wrouirht  iu  gold -threaded  embroidery.  Instead  of  seeing  a  man  in  the  moon 
carrying  a  bundle  of  sticks,  Japanese  tancy  beholds  this  leaping  rodent  scouring 
the  face  of  the  silver  luminary,  with  cquisdum,  or  scouring  rush.  This  is  a  favor- 
ite subject  on  the  lacquered  bodies  of  jin-riki-sha. 

The  red  maple  leaves  and  the  stag  are  painted  with  fine  effect  on  screens. 
"In  autumn  the  maples  crimson,  and  the  stag  calls  the  doe."  The  Japanese 
word  iro  means  both  color  and  love;  and  in  this  stanza,  as  in  a  thousand  others, 
the  play  is  on  that  word.  For  a  lover  to  send  his  once  loved  a  sprig  of  autumn 
maple  is  equivalent  to  giving  the  "mitten."  The  leaf  aud  the  heart  have  both 
changed  their  iro  (color). 

The  cherry-blossom  and  pheasant  are  fitly  wedded  together  in  poetry  aud  art. 
The  most  beautiful  bird  {fciji)  is  this  many-tinted  iridescent  queen  of  the  groves 
in  the  Sun-land,  and  the  bloom  of  the  sakura-tree  {Pruniis  pseudo-cerasus),  which 
is  cultivated  solely  for  its  blossoms,  is  the  national  flower  of  the  Land  of  Great 
Place.  "There  are  snow-showers  which  do  not  descend  from  the  skies,"  and  the 
falling  bloom  -  flakes  spread  many  a  white  carpet  on  the  stone  paths  leading  to 
the  temples.  It  is  often  as  large  as  a  rose,  and  as  beautitul.  The  -  plum  tree, 
also  admired  for  its  blossoms,  is  joined  with  the  iiguisu  (nightingale).  The  plum 
is,  by  excellence,  the  poet's  tree,  aud  the  nightingale  is  the  poet  of  birds,  loving 
song  more  than  they  all.  "Send  forth  your  fragrance  upon  the  eastern  winds, 
O  flowers  of  the  plum-tree !  and  do  not  forget  the  spring,  because  of  the  absence 
of  the  sun,"  cries  a  native  poet.  Not  uufrequently  docs  one  see  the  plum-tree 
stand  all  leafless  iu  the  snow,  but  adorned  with  white  blossoms,  like  a  bride  be- 
fore the  altar.  It  bursts  into  clouds  of  fragrance  and  beauty  in  February,  the 
leaves  appearing  later. 

It  is  said  that  geese  in  flying  on  long  journeys  carry  rushes  in  their  bills,  and 
drop  them  before  alighting  on  the  water,  and  then  alight  upon  them.  The  rushes 
and  geese  are  figured  together.  A  comical  couplet  is  the  baboon  and  the  moon's 
reflection  in  the  w-ater.  The  long-armed,  stump-tailed  fool  sees  the  image  of  the 
moon  in  the  water,  and  in  vain  attempts  to  grasp  it. 

The  couplet  of  the  chrysanthemum  and  fox  refers  to  one  of  the  hundreds  of 
the  current  fox  myths  and  stories.  A  fox,  assumiug  the  form  of  a  lovely  woman, 
bewitched  a  certain  prince.  One  day,  happening  to  fall  asleep  on  a  bed  of  chrys- 
anthemums, she  resumed  her  normal  shape.  The  prince  seeing  the  animal,  shot 
at  him,  hitting  the  fox  in  the  forehead.  He  afterward  saw  that  his  concubine  had  a 
wound  in  the  corresponding  part  of  the  head,  and  thus  discovered  her  true  nature. 

The  bamboo  and  tiger  are  often  seen  together  on  large  objects  of  use  or  orna- 
ment :  the  tigers,  being  afraid  of  elephants,  hide  in  the  bamboo  jungle.  The  peach- 
trees  aud  oxen,  a  less  common  design,  had  reference  to  a  line  in  a  Chinese  poem. 
An  canblem  of  success  in  life  is  that  of  the  dragon  crossing  the  summit  of  Fuji  oi> 
the  clouds.  As  the  small  snake  becomes  a  dragon,  so  does  a  man  of  low  estate 
often  rise  by  triumph  over  obstacles  to  exaltation  aud  honor. 


NOTES  AND  APPENDICES.  647 

For  a  number  of  the  facts  here  given  I  am  indebted  to  Captain  E.  Pfoundes, 
whose  "Budget"  of  Japanese  notes,  entitled  Fu  So  Mimi  Bukuro  (Triibner  & 
Co.,  London),  is  a  valuable  thesaurus  of  condensed  information. 


THE  TESTAMENT  OF  IYJEYASU. 

"The  Legacy  of  Iy^*yasii"  is  a  document  whose  authenticity  is  yet  to  be 
proved.  It  purports  to  be  the  testament  of  the  founder  of  the  last  shogunate; 
but  a  thoroughly  critical  examination  of  its  claims  has  not,  I  believe,  been  made. 
It  is  certain  that  it  was  not  popularly  or  generally  known  in  Japan,  nor  ever 
reckoned  as  within  the  body  of  standard  legal  literature.  It  was  translated  into 
English  (thirty -seven  pages  print)  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Lowder,  some  years  before  its 
publication  by  him  in  Yokohama,  in  1874.  The  title  of  the  pamphlet  read  thus: 
"The  Legacy  of  ly^yas  (deified  as  Gongen-sama) :  a  Posthumous  Manuscript,  in 
One  Hundred  Chapters,  translated  from  three  collated  Copies  of  the  Original," 
printed  at  The  Japan  Herald  office. 

Dr.  Walter  Dixon,  also,  in  his  work  on  Japan,  gives  (chapter  vii.)  another  ver- 
sion, with  notes  and  comments.  W.  E.  Grigsby,  Professor  of  Law  in  the  Impe- 
rial College  in  Tokio,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  has 
given  a  scholarly  analysis  of  the  document,  showing  especially  its  similarity  to 
most  ancient  law  codes,  such  as  those  of  Solon  and  Lycurgus,  the  Twelve  Tables, 
the  Mosaic,  and  the  early  Teutonic  codes.  He  terms  it  "  the  most  original  mon- 
ument which  Japan  has  produced  in  the  way  of  legislation,"  with  which  compare 
Dixon,  pp.  269,  270.  Whether  authentic  or  not,  it  embodies  the  policy  of  lye- 
yasu,  is  a  mirror  of  feudalism,  and  is  of  great  historic  value. 

The  work  consists  of  one  hundred  sections,  in  no  logical  sequence,  and  difficult 
to  determine  in  the  original.  Of  these,  sixteen  consist  of  moral  maxims  and  re- 
flections, which  are  quotations,  or  intended  to  be  such,  from  Confucius  and  Men- 
cius ;  fifty-five  are  connected  with  politics  and  administrations ;  twenty-two  re- 
fer to  legal  matters ;  and  in  seven  lyeyasu  relates  episodes  in  his  own  personal 
history.  No  sharp  distinction  is  made  in  it  between  law  and  morality,  between 
the  duties  of  the  citizen  and  the  virtue  of  the  man.  The  man  who  obeys  the  law 
is  virtuous ;  he  who  disobeys  it  is  vicious  and  low.  It  is  the  province  of  the  leg- 
islator to  inculcate  virtue.  All  that  we  understand  by  law — all  that  embraces  the 
main  bulk  of  modem  law,  the  law  of  contracts,  of  personal  property,  of  will,  com- 
mercial and  maritime  law — finds  no  place  in  this  code.  This  arose  from  the  fact 
that  human  life  within  the  daimioate  was  regulated  by  custom,  not  by  agreement; 
and  there  was  hardly  any  intercourse  between  the  various  daimioates,  because  the 
only  property  of  any  importance  was  land,  and  no  will  was  allowed.  On  the  oth- 
er hand,  great  stress  was  laid  on  criminal  law,  the  law  relating  to  landed  proper- 
ty, the  law  relating  to  the  status  of  persons  and  classes,  to  etiquette  and  ceremo- 
nial, to  tables  of  rank  and  precedence,  and  to  political  administration  and  gov- 
ernment. On  these  points,  especially  the  latter,  minute  details  are  entered  into 
with  a  peculiarity  which  is  striking,  when  compared  with  the  poverty  of  the  code 
in  respect  to  those  matters  which  seem  to  us  most  important  in  a  system  of  law. 
Another  of  the  many  points  of  similarity  to  ancient  codes  of  law,  notably  the  Mo- 
saic, is  the  elaborate  provisions  with  respect  to  the  avenging  of  blood  and  person- 
al satisfaction  for  injuries  done.  The  individual  does  not,  as  in  more  advanced 
societies,  give  up  his  right  of  private  vengeance.    Great  stress  is  laid  on  caste  die- 


^48  NOTES  AND  APPENDICES. 

tinctions,  which  are  made  more  sharp  and  distinct  by  reducing  them  to  writing, 
and  thus  perpetuating  the  unequal  stages  into  which  early  society  is  divided. 

Professor  Grigsby  further  remarks  that  there  is  one  great  ditference  between 
this  and  all  other  early  codes,  viz.,  its  secrecy.  It  was  in  express  terms  forbidden 
to  be  promulgated.  The  perusal  of  it  was  only  allowed  to  the  chief  councilors 
of  state  {rojiu).  How  can  people  obey  laws  if  they  do  not  know  their  nature? 
A  parallel  is  found  in  the  history  of  the  Aryan  race.  In  Greece  and  Rome,  at  the 
beginning  of  their  history,  the  knowledge  of  the  laws  and  their  administration 
was  contined  to  the  aristocratic  class,  and  the  first  struggle  of  the  commons  was 
to  force  this  knowledge  from  them — a  struggle  which  ended  in  these  codes  being 
reduced  to  writing  and  promulgated.  The  parallel  is  not  complete  in  respect  to 
writing.  In  the  case  of  Greece  and  Rome,  the  laws  were  unknown  because  not 
written :  in  Japan,  though  written,  they  were  yet  to  be  unknown.  In  early  com- 
munities, custom  has  absolute  sway.  The  magistrates,  as  lyeyasu  says,  are  the 
reflectors  of  the  mode  of  government ;  they  interjiret,  not  make,  the  law.  Any 
additions  to  the  old  customs  were  to  reach  the  multitudes  by  filtering  down 
through  the  magistrates,  who  alone  would  be  conscious  that  they  were  new.  To 
the  multitude  they  would  only  be  slight  modifications  of  the  customs  they  had 
always  observed.  As  a  code  of  laws,  this  was  the  character  of  the  testament  of 
ly^yasu,  who  claims  merely  to  be  a  transmitter,  not  a  framer,  of  the  law.  His 
work  is  a  compilation,  not  a  creation ;  a  selection  from  old,  not  a  series  of  new, 
laws. 

The  "Legacy"  is  invaluable  in  representing  to  us  the  condition  of  society  in 
feudal  Japan.  The  basis  of  Japanese  life,  the  unit  of  civilization,  is  the  fomily, 
which  is  a  corporation,  the  most  characteristic  mark  of  which  was  its  perpetuity. 
The  head  of  the  family  held  a  power  similar,  in  nearly  all  respects,  to  that  of  the 
paterfamilias  at  Rome,  having  complete  power  over  the  persons  and  property  of 
his  children,  and  doing  as  he  pleased  with  both,  fettered  only  by  that  custom 
which  is  the  great  hinderance  to  despotism  in  all  early  communities.  But  his 
liabilities  were  equally  great  with  his  rights.  He  was  responsible  for  all  the  ill- 
doings  of  any  of  his  family.  A  Japanese  family  was  not,  however,  what  we  un- 
derstand by  the  word.  It  was  often  not  natural,  but  artificial.  Persons  whom 
we  should  exclude  from  the  family  were  admitted  into  it,  and  those  who  with  us 
are  constant  members  were  sometimes  excluded  from  it.  Adoption  (yos?d  ni 
nam)  on  the  one  hand,  and  emancipation,  or  the  sending-away  (kando  sum)  of  a 
son  from  the  family,  on  the  other,  were  in  constant  practice.  In  Rome,  adoption 
was  employed  merely  to  enlarge  the  family ;  in  Japan,  solely  to  perpetuate  it. 
The  son  adopted  by  a  man  having  no  male  heir  filled  exactly  the  place  of  a  natu- 
ral child  ;  and,  in  early  times  at  least,  he  must  take  the  name  of  the  adopting  par- 
ent. If  the  adopting  parent  had  a  daughter,  the  adopted  son  married  her,  becom- 
ing heir  himself,  in  which  respect  the  Japanese  custom  differed  from  the  Roman, 
which  held  that  the  natural  tie  of  brother  and  sister  was  formed  by  adoption,  and 
hence  their  marriage  was  illegal.  Only  an  adult  could  adopt;  but  if  the  head  of 
the  family  were  an  infant,  he  could  adopt.  This  practice  was  often  resorted  to  in 
Japan  for  two  reasons — the  religious  and  the  feudal;  to  prevent  the  extinguish- 
ment of  the  ancestral  sacrifices,  with  the  consequent  disgrace  to  the  family;  and 
because  the  land,  being  held  only  on  condition  of  military  service,  if  a  vassal  died 
leaving  no  male  children,  the  lands  escheated  to  the  lord.  The  second  method 
■which  rendered  the  family  artificial  were  the  expulsion  and  disinheritance  of  a 
son  from  the  fomily,  which,  however,  were  only  eflected  when  he  was  of  an  irre- 
deemably bad  character. 

Marriage  in  Japan,  which  was  allowed — rather,  enjoined — in  the  case  of  a  man 


NOTES  AND  APPENDICES. 


649 


at  sixteen,  of  a  woman  at  thirteen,  -was  not  a  contract  between  tlie  parties  or  a  re- 
ligious institution,  but  a  lianding-over  of  tlie  bride  to  tlie  family  of  lier  husband 
by  her  own  family,  she  passing  completely  under  the  control  of  her  husband, 
both  as  to  person  and  property,  subject  to  reference  to  a  council  of  family  rela- 
tions. 

So  far  the  internal  aspect  of  the  family.  Each  femily,  however,  was  connected 
with  other  families,  as  in  early  Greece  and  Rome;  and  thus  about  fifty  great 
clans  were  formed,  of  which  the  four  principal  were  the  Minamoto,  Fujiwara, 
Taira,  and  Sugawara,  all  the  families  of  which  were,  or  claimed  to  be,  descended 
from  a  common  ancestor.  Certain  sacrifices  were  peculiar  to  each,  and  certain 
dignities  confined  to  certain  families.  Thus  the  office  of  kuambaku  was  monopo- 
lized by  the  Fujiwara,  and  the  shogunate  by  the  Minamoto  clans  (the  families  in 
succession  being,  the  line  of  Yoritomo,  the  Ashikaga,  and  the  Tokugawa).  This 
condition  of  society  was  analogous  to  that  in  Italy  and  Greece  from  1000  B.C.  to 
500  A.D.  But  what  is  peculiar  to  Japan  is  that,  with  this  primitive  form  of  so- 
ciety remaining  unchanged,  we  find  a  system  that  did  not  arise  in  Europe  till 
about  the  eleventh  century  a.d.  Thus  the  superstructure  of  feudalism  was  rear- 
ed on  the  basis  of  the  family — an  incongruous  social  edifice,  as  it  seems  to  our 
minds. 

In  Japan,  then,  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  code,  the  mikado  and  the 
imperial  court  were  above,  and  not  included  in,  the  theory  of  feudalism,  at  the 
head  of  which  was  the  shogun,  and  beneath  him  the  daimios,  each  with  a  terri- 
tory of  greater  or  lesser  extent,  which  he  farmed  out  to  the  samurai,  or  vassals,  in 
return  for  military  service.  In  the  greater  daimioates  these  vassals  underlet  their 
lands  on  the  same  conditions ;  in  oiiher  words,  subfeudation  was  common.  A 
vassal  not  able,  by  reason  of  age  or  sickness,  to  perform  this  service  abdicated  in 
favor  of  his  son.  If  a  man  died  without  leaving  any  children,  natural  or  adopted, 
his  property  was  retained  for  him  by  a  legal  fiction,  for  his  death  was  concealed 
till  permission  was  given  by  his  lord  for  him  to  adopt  a  son,  and  only  after  such 
permission  was  given  was  his  death  announced.  The  necessity  of  having  an  heir, 
that  the  vassal's  land  might  not  escheat  to  the  lord,  but  be  kept  in  the  vassal's 
family,  greatly  extended  the  practice  of  adoption.  If  the  vassal  proved  faithless 
to  his  lord,  both  escheat  and  forfeiture  were  incurred. 

The  leading  principles  of  lyeyasu's  policy  are  thus  summarized  :  The  position 
of  the  shogun  to  the  mikado  was  to  be  one  of  reverential  homage.  The  shoguns 
were  in  no  way  to  interfere  with  the  mikado's  theoretical  supremacy,  but  to 
strengthen  it  in  every  way,  and  show  all  respect  to  the  emperor's  relatives,  and 
the  old  court  aristocracy.  Secondly,  toward  their  inferiors  the  shoguns  were  to 
behave  with  courtesy  and  consideration.  All  insult  and  tyranny  were  to  be 
avoided,  and  the  weight  of  power  was  not  to  press  too  harshly.  The  neglect  of 
this  principle,  as  shown  in  insolence  to  inferiors,  was  the  rock  on  which  the  gov- 
ernments in  nearly  all  ancient  communities  struck.  This  caution  proves  the  con- 
summate knowledge  of  human  nature  and  the  profound  mastery  of  state-craft 
possessed  by  lyeyasQ.  Another  recommendation  of  lyeyasu  was,  that  the  govern- 
ment of  the  lesser  daimios  should  be  frequently  changed.  The  motive  alleged 
for  this  was  the  prevention  of  misgovernment ;  but  the  real  reason  was,  that  they 
might  not  acquire  local  influence,  and  so  endanger  the  power  of  the  shoguns. 
This  was  similar  in  its  purpose  to  the  policy  adopted  by  William  the  Conqueror, 
in  portioning  out  the  territories  of  his  barons  among  several  counties.  In  En- 
gland the  plan  was  completely  successful ;  in  Japan  it  failed,  as  we  have  seen, 
because  the  shoguns  never  dared  to  enforce  the  measure  in  the  case  of  the  greater 
daimios,  who  were  the  only  ones  to  be  dreaded. 


650  NOTES  AND   APPENDTCES. 


NOTATION  OF  TIME. 

The  first  systematic  attempt  at  markins:^  and  recording  time  was  in  a.d.  602, 
when  a  Buddhist  missionary  from  Corea,  named  Kuanroku,  brought  to  Japan  a 
Chinese  almanac,  and  taught  its  use.  From  this  time,  the  years,  lunar  months, 
and  days  are  counted,  and  the  years  named  after  the  characters  in  a  cycle  of  sixty 
years,  which  is  made  up  of  one  series  of  ten,  and  another  series  of  twelve,  charac- 
ters. The  cycle  of  ten  series  is  called  from  "the  five  elements,"  Wood,  Fire, 
Earth,  Metal,  and  Water,  each  of  which  is  taken  double,  or  masculine  and  femi- 
nine. 

The  cycle  of  twelve  series  is  formed,  according  to  the  division  of  the  zodiac, 
into  twelve  equal  parts,  to  each  of  which  the  name  of  some  Japanese  animal  is 
assigned.  These  are  the  Rat,  Ox,  Tiger,  Hare,  Dragon,  Serpent,  Horse,  Goat, 
Ape,  Cock,  Dog,  Hog. 

By  making  a  square,  in  which  twelve  lines  are  drawn  horizontally,  and  ten  per- 
pendicularly, we  have  one  hundred  and  twenty  squares,  of  which  sixty  are  used. 
Place  the  ten-series  at  the  top,  and  the  twelve-series  on  the  left  side,  and  the 
numerals  from  1  to  60  in  diagonal  lines  in  the  spaces  from  left  to  right,  and  from 
top  to  bottom.  Thus  the  cyclical  name  of  the  year  1711  (see  page  288)  is 
"  water" -"  dragon,"  or  the  ten-series  name,  "water,"  and  the  twelve  -  series 
name,  "dragon."  The  first  year  of  the  current  cycle  is  1864,  and  the  cyclical 
name  of  1877  is  "  fire"-"  bull,"  the  first  belonging  to  the  ten-series,  and  the  sec- 
ond to  the  twelve-series  cycle.  (See  diagram  in  Hoffman's  "  Grammar,"  page 
156.)  This  method  of  reckoning  time  is  still  in  use  among  the  Chinese,  Coieans, 
and  the  Japanese  Buddhist  world  and  priesthood.  All  Japanese  literature  is  full 
of  it,  and  it  will  be  printed  in  the  native  almanacs  for  some  years  to  come. 

ENUMERATION  OP  THE  YEARS  BY  YEAR-PERIODS. 

From  64r)  a.d.,  under  the  mikado  Kotoku,  the  system  of  reckoning  the  years 
by  chronological  periods  called  nen-go,  or  year-names,  has  been  in  use.  In  his- 
torical works,  and  in  Japanese  literature  generally,  these  year-periods  are  always 
referred  to,  and  formerly  many  natives  committed  the  entire  list  to  memory. 
Others  used  little  reference-tables,  kept  in  their  pocket  books  or  near  at  hand. 
No  special  rule  or  system  was  observed  in  changing  the  names,  though  the  acces- 
sion of  a  new  sovereign,  the  advent  of  war  or  peace,  a  great  national  calamity  or 
blessing,  a  profound  social  change  or  great  national  event,  was  made  the  pretext 
for  adopting  a  new  name.  It  thus  results  that  from  645  to  1868  a.d.  there  have 
been  249  year-names,  including  those  used  by  the  "northern  dynasty  "  during 
the  period  1336-1392,  treated  of  in  Chapter  XIX.  The  year-names  are  appointed 
by  the  mikado,  and  are  chosen  from  sixty-eight  Chinese  words  or  characters  spe- 
cially reserved  for  that  purpose.  They  are  often  very  poetic  and  striking.  (See 
in  Dr.  J.  J.  HofiTman's  "  Grammar,"  page  157.)  In  the  following  list,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  same  syllables  recur  often.  The  dates  can  not  exactly  correspond 
to  our  years,  since  the  Japanese  New-Year's-day  was  often  as  much  as  six  weeks 
later  than  January  1st.  A  few  years  ago— 1872 — the  Government  fixed  upon  the 
year  660  b.c.  as  that  in  which  Jimmu  Tenno  "  ascended  the  throne,"  and  Christ- 
mas, December  25th,  as  the  day.  Hence,  in  the  newspapers,  oflEicial  documents, 
and  books  printed  since  1872,  the  time  is  expressed  in  "years  of  the  Japanese 
empire,"  or  "from  the  foundation  of  the  empire,"  or  "from  the  accession  of 
Jimmu  Tenno."  These  phrases  have  a  value  at  par  with  the  Roman  "  Ab  urbe 
condita,"  the  date  of  Jimmu's  "ascension"  being  purely  arbitrary. 


NOTES  AND  APPENDICES. 


651 


A.D. 

Taikna 045 

Hakuchi C50 

Sujaka C72 

Hakiiho 673 

Shucho CS6 

Taikua 6y5 

Taiclio 697 

Taiho 701 

Keiun 704 

Wado 70S 

Hoki 715 

Yoro 717 

Jiiiki 724 

Tempio 729 

Tempio  Shoho 749 

Tempio  II oji 757 

Tempio  Jingo 765 

Jingo  Keiiiu 767 

Hoki 770 

Teno 781 

Enreki 7S2 

Daido 806 

Koiiin 810 

Tencho 824 

Jowa 834 

Kaeho 848 

Ninjiu 851 

Saiko 854 

Tenan 857 

Jokuan 859 

Genkei 877 

Ninna S85 

Kuampei 8S9 

Shotai 898 

Engl 901 

Encho 923 

Shohei 931 

TeDgio 938 

Tenreki 947 

Teiitokn 957 

Owa 961 

Koho 964 

Aowa 96s 

Tenroka 970 

Tenyen 973 

Jogen 976 

Tengen 978 

Eikuan 983 

Kuanwa 985 

Eiyen 987 

Eiso 989 

8hor6ki 990 

Chotoku 995 

Choho 999 

Kuanko 1004 

Chowa 1012 

Knannin 1017 

Chian 1021 

Maiijiii 1024 

Chogen 1028 

Chorfiki 1037 

Chokiu 1040 

Kuaiitoku 1044 

Ejo 1046 

Tenki 1053 

Kohei 1058 

Chir6ki 1005 

Enkiu 1069 

Joho 1074 

Jordki 1077 

Bibo 1061 


LIST  OF  YEAR-PERIODS. 

A.n. 

Otokn 1084 

Kuanji 1087 

Kaho 1094 

Eicho 1096 

Shotokii 1097 

Kowa 1099 

Choji 1104 

Kajo 1106 

Teiinin 1108 

Tenyei 1110 

Eikiu 1113 

Geuvei 1118 

Hoan 1120 

Teiiji 1124 

Maiji 1120 

Tensho 1131 

Choiiho 1132 

Hoyen 1135 

Kiji 1141 

Koji 1142 

Tenyo 1144 

Kiuan 1145 

Nimpei 1151 

Kiiijiu 1154 

Hogen 1150 

Heiji 1159 

Eireki 1160 

Oyei 1161 

Chokuan 1103 

Eimaii 1165 

Niuan 1166 

Kawo 1169 

Shoaii 1171 

Angen 1175 

Jijo 1177 

Yowa 1181 

Juvei 1182 

Monji 1185 

Kenkiu 1190 

Shoji 1199 

Keunin 1201 

Genkiu 1204 

Kenvei 1206 

Shogen 1207 

Kenreki 1111 

Kempo 1213 

Jokiii 1219 

Jowo    1222 

Genniii 1224 

Karoku 1225 

Aiitei 1227 

Kuanki 1229 

Joyei 1232 

Tembuku 1233 

Bunreki 1234 

Katei 1235 

Rekinin 1238 

Enwo 1239 

Ninji 1240 

Kuangen 1243 

Hoji 1247 

Kencho 1249 

Kogen 1256 

Shoka 1257 

Shogen 1259 

Btmwo 1260 

Kocho 1261 

Bnnvei 1204 

Kenji 1275 

Koftu 1278 

Showo 1288 


Einin  

Shoan 

Ken  gen.. 
Kageu  . . . 
Tokuji. . . 
Enlvei.... 

Ocho 

Showa. . , 
Bumpo... 
Geuwo.. . 
Genko  . . , 
Shochiu. . 
Kan'ki... 
C„nt()ku. 
Gciilco  . . . 
Kemrau. . 


A.D. 

1293 
1299 
1302 
1303 
1306 
1308 
1311 
1312 
1317 
1.S19 
1321 
1324 
1326 
1329 
1331 
1384 


8OUTHEKN   DYNA6TY. 


Engen  . . . 
Kokoku.. 
Shohei . . . 
Kenloku. 
Bunchiu  . 
Teujiu  . .. 

Kowa 

Genchin.. 


1330 
1340 
1346 
1370 
1372 
1375 
1381 
1384 


NOBTUERN   DYNASTY. 


Rekiwo. . 
Koyei.. . . 
Teiwa.... 
Knanwo  . 
Bumva. . . 
Embun. .. 

Owa 

Toji 

Oan 

Eiwa 

Koreki. . . 
Eitoku... 
Shitoku. . 

K;ikei 

Kowo 

Meitokn.. 

Oyen 

Seicho . . . 
Eikio.... 
Kakitsu.. 
Buiian  . . . 
Hotoku.. 
Kiotoku  . 
Kossho  . . . 
Chorokii . 
Kuan.sho. 
Bunsho . . 

Onin 

Bnmmei . 
Chokio. . . 
Entoku  . . 
Meiwo . .. 

Buuki 

Eisei 

Taiyei  . . . 
Kiorokii . 
Tembnn  . 

Koji 

Eiroku. .. 

Genki 

i  Tensho  . . 


1338 
1342 
1345 
1350 
1352 
1356 
1361 
1362 
1368 
1375 
1379 
1381 
1384 
1387 
1389 
1390 
1394 
1428 
1429 
1441 
1444 
1449 
1452 
1455 
1457 
1460 
1466 
1467 
1469 
148T 
1489 
1492 
1501 
1604 
1521 
1528 
1.532 
1555 
1558 
1570 
1673 


652 


NOTES  AND  APPENDICES. 


A.D. 

Banroku 1592 

Keicho 1596 

Genwa 1615 

Kuanyei 1624 

Shoho 1644 

Keian 104S 

Showd 1652 

Meiieki 1655 

Manji 165S 

Kuambun 1661 

Empo 1673 

Teuwa 1681 

Jokio 1684 


A.D. 

Genroku 16SS 

Hoyei 1704 

Shotoku 1711 

Hokio 1716 

Gembun 1736 

Kuanipo 1741 

Enkio 1744 

Knanyeu 174S 

Horeki 1751 

Meiwa 1764 

Anyei 1772 

Temmei 1781 

Kuausei 1789 


A.D. 

Kiowa 1801 

Bunkua 1804 

Buusei 1818 

Tempo 1880 

Kokua 1844 

Kayei 1S48 

Ausei 1854 

Mauyen 1800 

Bniikiu 1S61 

Genji 1S64 

Keivvo 1865 

Meiji 1SG8 

Meiji    (28th  year) l»'jo 


FOREIGN  TRADE  OF  JAPAN. 


Year.      1      Imports. 

Exports. 

Total. 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1874 

1876 

1879 

1881 

1883 

1885 

1887 

1888 

$10,693,072 

20,783,633 

33,741,637 

23,461,814 

23,964,679 

32,835,795 

31,128,125 

28,431.939 

29,327,498 

44,276,327 

yen  65,455,234 

"  81,728,581 

"  89,355,338 

$15,553,473 

12,908,978 

14,543,013 

19,317,306 

27,711,528 

28,17.5,770 

31,058,888 

36,268,020 

37,146,691 

52,407,681 

yen  65,705,510 

"  56,603,506 

"  90,419,909 

$26,266,545 

33,692,611 

48,284,650 

42,779,120 

51,676,206 

61,128,773 

62,250,134 

64,712,861 

66,503,659 

90,711,933 

2/ew  131,100,744 

"  138,332,087 

"  179,775,247 

1890 

1893 

LEGENDARY  ART  AT  THE  CENTENNIAL  EXPOSITION. 

On  the  rotunda  of  Main  Hall,  south  side,  were  painted  representative  Asiatic 
scenes,  objects,  and  persons.  Verging  on  the  centre  of  the  group  was  a  Japanese 
"poem-card,"  inscribed  in  Mragana,  with  the  following  stanza  from  a  very  an- 
cient poet,  by  one  of  the  Japanese  commissioners  : 

"Waga  knni  no  Yamato*  shima  ne  ni  idzurn  hi  wa,  Morokoshit  hito  mo,  awoga  zara- 
meya;" 

or,  in  English, 

"In  the  ancient  Yamato  island,  my  nat/ve  land,  the  sun  rises:  must  not  even  the  West^ 
ern  foreigner  reverence  ?" 

or, 

"  When  the  foreigner  comes  to  my  country,  tfie  olaeu  isle  or  Japan,  must  ^e  not  re- 
spect it?" 

Of  the  two  platforms  in  the  Japanese  section,  one  was  devoted  to  porcelain  of 


*  Yamato  is  the  ancient  name  of  Japan. 

t  Morokoshi  is  an  archaic  geographical  term  applied  to  China,  India,  or  the  Western 
world  generally.  The  penman  evidently  meant,  "Even  when  Christendom's  sight-seers 
at  the  Centennial  Exposition  come  into  the  Japanese  section,  will  they  notr— nay,  must 
they  not— admire  our  art  and  country?" 


NOTES  AND  APPENDICES.  653 

Arita  and  Karatsu,  in  Hizen ;  the  other,  to  the  bronzes  of  Etchiu,  Kaga,  and 
Kioto,  and  the  cloisonnee  enamel  of  Owari.  Between  these  two  platforms,  in 
the  aisle,  were  gold  inlaid  bronzes  in  glass  cases.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  sec- 
tion were :  1.  Tokio  porcelain  and  Satsinna  faience  (white,  cream,  buff,  and  dead 
gold  surfaces);  2.  Kutani  (Kaga)  porcelain  (red  and  bright  gold);  3.  Seto  (Owari) 
porcelain  (blue,  white,  and  liver-colored).  In  the  centre  of  the  section  were  the 
gold  lacquered  work,  Kioto  porcelain  and  faience,  screens,  wood  and  ivor}'  carv- 
ings, weapons,  armor,  and  ancient  copper  bronzes  and  jewels.  It  was  in  these 
articles  chief!}'  that  legendary  art  found  its  best  illustration.  Most  of  the  m}'th- 
ical,  legendary,  poetical,  and  historical  incidents  noted  in  previous  pages  of  this 
work  were  portrayed,  some  of  them  many  times  over.  The  same  ideas  or  sym- 
bols were  repeated,  with  slight  variations,  in  bronze,  porcelain,  lacquer,  ivory, 
wood,  silk,  or  in  plastic  forms.  I  have  space  to  notice  but  a  very  few  of  the 
subjects  most  frequently  treated. 

1.  The  Sea-god  rixing  out  of  the  Deej). — Riu  Jin  (Dragon-god),  or  Kai  Riu  O 
(Dragon-king  of  the  Sea),  page  498,  is  the  personification  of  the  dragon ;  and  the 
monarch  of  the  world  under  the  sea  appears  in  many  fairy  tales  and  very  ancient 
legends,  his  palaces  being  located  under  the  ocean,  the  Inland  Sea,  or  Lake  Biwa. 
He  is  a  reality  still  to  millions  of  Japanese  ijcople.  He  is  represented  in  terrible 
majesty,  and  of  awful  mien,  rising  out  of  the  deep.  His  helmet  and  mail  is  a 
living  dragon — the  symbol  of  irresistible  might,  motion,  and  ubiquity.  His  robes 
are  gold  and  jewels.  Around  him  the  waves  mount,  part,  roll,  and  churn  into 
white  foam-edges,  their  translucent  green  curves  flecked  with  silvery  foam-bells. 
He  holds  in  his  hands  a  casket,  in  which  are  the  jewels  that  control  the  ebb  and 
flow  of  the  tides  (the  powers  of  the  sun  and  moonL?]),  significant  of  victory,  lon- 
gevity, valor,  and  invulnerability  to  Ojin  (page  79),  the  infant  god  of  war,  whom 
he  offers  to  endow  with  them.  "Quick;  take  this  casket:  the  opportunity  is 
brief.  I  deign  not  long  to  remain  in  this  upper  world,"  is  the  expression  on 
his  face.  In  pictures,  Takenouchi  is  holding  the  infant  god  when  the  Dragon- 
king  appears.  In  several  bronzes  and  ivory  carvings  his  queen  (page  498)  is 
represented  in  robes  of  shell  and  coral,  with  diadem  of  rare  shells. 

2.  Endo,  the  Penitent  under  the  Wafer-fall. —  On  three  of  the  largest  and  finest 
bronzes  was  portrayed  this  story  of  mad  love,  murder,  remorse,  and  penance. 
Endo,  one  of  the  captains  of  the  Kioto  garrison  during  the  Taira  rule,  a  brave 
and  gallant  soldier,  contracted  an  unlawful  affection  for  the  young  and  beautiful 
wife  of  a  fellow-ofScer.  The  lady,  made  aware  of  his  passion,  steadily  rejected 
his  advances,  when  the  foiled  lover  threatened  to  kill  her  aged  mother  if  she  did 
not  yield  to  his  wishes  and  consent  to  the  death  of  her  husband,  or  even  if  she 
informed  on  him.  In  the  agony  of  conflict  between  wifely  and  filial  love,  she 
finally  resolved  on  a  plan  whereby  she  should  vindicate  her  own  and  her  hus- 
band's honor,  and  save  her  mother's  life.  This  was  nothing  less  than  to  make 
herself  the  victim.  Pretending  to  yield  to  Endo's  suit,  she  fi.xcd  a  certain  night 
when  she  would  have  him  secretly  admitted  into  her  sleeping-chamber.  On  that 
night  she  persuaded  her  husband  to  be  absent;  and  dressing  her  hair  after  the 
male  fashion,  she  donned  her  husband's  dress,  and  lay  down  in  his  place.  The 
assassin  entered  through  the  door  left  open,  slid  aside  the  partitions,  and  in  the 
dimly  lighted  chamber  saw,  as  he  supposed,  the  unconscious  form  of  his  victim. 
With  one  blow  he  severed  the  head,  but,  on  holding  up  the  bleeding  trophy,  saw 
that  it  was  a  woman's,  and  the  object  of  his  passion.  In  horror  and  remorse,  he 
rushed  to  the  temple,  confessed  his  sin,  shaved  his  hair,  and,  though  in  the  midst 
of  winter,  went  out  and  stood  during  twenty-one  days  under  the  icy  flood.  After 
due  suffering  by  remorse  and  emaciation,  the  messengers  of  the  god  Fudo  appear 

42 


654 


NOTES  AND  APPENDICES. 


in  the  cloud,  or  in  the  foliage  above  the  crags,  and  declare  his  penance  complete, 
and  grant  him  pardon.  He  became  a  learned  and  holy  monk,  and  built  the  great 
temple  of  Todaiji  at  Nara,  in  Yamato,  which  Yoritomo  endowed,  and  visited  in 
1195.  His  priestly  name  is  Mongaku  Shonin  (His  Exalted  Eeverence  Mongaku). 
In  the  bronzes,  the  shorn  monk,  his  body  bound  with  straw  rope,  and  bared  to 
the  waist,  with  rosary  in  hand,  stands  under  the  icy  waters,  while  snow  burdens 
the  dense  foliage,  and  caps  the  gloomy  crags.  Kemorse,  torture,  and  fear  are  de- 
picted in  his  face ;  while  peering  through  the  boughs  is  Fudo's  gentle  messenger 
bearing  the  flowery  wand  of  peace  and  pardon ;  while  below,  with  his  frightful 
scowl  relaxed,  and  his  iron-spiked  club  at  rest,  the  demon  avenger  proclaims  that 
justice  is  satisfied,  and  henceforth  the  sufferer  is  to  be  the  holy  bonze. 

3.  Fish  leaping  the  Water-fall. — Once,  when  Kiyomori  was  on  his  way  to  view 
Kumano  water -fall  (near  Kioto),  in  his  state  barge,  surrounded  by  his  cham- 
berlain, nobles,  and  sword-bearer,  a  white  koi  (carp)  leaped  up  out  of  the  river 
upon  the  deck  of  the  boat.     All  rejoiced  at  this  auspicious  omen. 

The  koi  leaping  the  water-fall  is  a  symbol  of  aspiration  and  ambition,  and  an 
augury  of  renown.  The  origin  of  the  symbol  is  Chinese.  In  an  old  book  it  is 
said  that  "  the  sturgeon  of  the  Yellow  River  make  an  ascent  of  the  stream  in  the 
third  moon  of  each  year,  when  those  which  succeed  in  passing  above  the  rapids 
of  the  Lung  Men  become  transformed  into  [white]  dragons." 

4.  Takamochi  (page  109),  the  founder  of  the  Taira  family,  one  night  accompa- 
nied the  mikado  on  a  visit  to  one  of  his  concubines,  who  lived  at  a  distance  from 
the  palace.  As  the  imperial  night-walker  was  passing  what  is  now  Gihon  Street, 
in  Kioto,  he  met  what  appeared,  in  the  gloomy  darkness  and  drizzling  rain,  to  be 
a  demon  with  horns,  and  rays  of  fire  streaming  from  its  head.  The  emperor  was 
greatly  frightened,  but  Takamochi  boldly  seized  and  threw  down  the  apparition. 
It  proved  to  be  an  old  priest,  going  out  to  light  the  shrine.  He  had  on  a  grass 
rain  coat,  and  a  straw  cone-shaped  hat  over  his  head,  under  which  he  carried  a 
lamp,  holding  his  pitcher  of  oil  in  his  hand.  Both  parties  apologized,  and  a 
famous  subject  for  artists  was  the  result. 

5.  ''The  Water -fall  of  Toro''  is  an  ancient  story.  An  aged  wood -cutter,  no 
longer  able  to  work,  was  supported  by  his  dutiful  son,  who  daily  set  out  with  axe 
and  cord  to  cut  fagots.  These  he  sold  to  buy  rice  and  sak^,  the  latter  being  a 
necessity  to  the  old  man.  Finally,  times  were  so  hard  in  winter,  and  the  snow  so 
deep,  that  the  son  could  not  earn  enough  to  buy  even  a  gourdful.  One  day,  while 
filially  grieving  over  this,  as  he  passed  a  water-fall  near  Takada  in  Mino,  with  his 
empty  gourd  in  hand,  he  looked  up,  when  some  of  the  spray  touched  his  tongue, 
and  he  beheld  the  water-fall  turned  to  sak6.  His  filial  piety  was  rewarded.  Joy- 
fully filling  his  vessel,  he  returned  home,  and  thenceforward  kept  the  old  man's 
veins  warm,  and  supported  him  in  comfort.  Hearing  of  this  wonderful  reward 
of  filial  piety,  the  emperor  and  his  train  went  out  to  see  it ;  and  in  honor  of  the 
event  the  year-name  (page  613)  was  changed  to  Yoro  (nourishing  old  age). 

6.  A^o  is  a  kind  of  pantomimic  opera,  or  "lyrical  drama,"  in  which  the  chief 
actor  performs  a  variety  of  dances,  while  a  band  of  musicians,  usually  behind  a 
looped  curtain,  plays,  and  a  precentor  recites  the  words  and  leads  the  chorus, 
both  of  which  contain  much  ancient  poetry.  The  No  depicts,  by  word  and  dance, 
the  ancient  mythology  and  legendary  and  historic  lore.  The  dancers  wear  mag- 
nificent brocade  dreses  with  long  trails,  suits  of  feathers,  burnished  armor,  huge 
red  wigs,  and  a  variety  of  masks,  which  represent  mirth,  sorrow,  wrath,  serene  old 
age,  wicked  old  age,  blooming  youth,  beauty,  deformity,  benevolence,  malignity, 
and  the  various  passions.  In  February,  1872,  in  Tokio,  I  witnessed  a  No  perform- 
ance by  four  dancers,  twenty  musicians,  and  a  singer.    All  of  these  belonged  to 


NOTES  AND  APPENDICES.  655 

tlie  mikado's  palace  bard,  and  wore  their  ancient  gorgeous  robes  of  crimson  and 
gold  brocade.  The  four  sets  oi  No,  which  were  first  composed  in  the  sixth  cent- 
ury, were:  1.  "Great  Peace,"  intended  to  propitiate  the  gods.  3.  "The  Joy-at- 
tracting Dance,"  representing  the  dance  of  Suzume  and.  the  mirth  of  the  gods 
before  the  cave  in  which  the  sun -goddess  hid  herself.  These  were  by  four 
masked  performers.  3.  "The  Dance  of  the  Dragon-god"  was  by  one  person  in 
dragon  mask  and  helmet,  and  robes  of  resplendent  brocade,  representing  Riu 
Jin.  4.  "The  Mountain -god's  Dance"  was  by  a  very  handsome  Japanese,  in 
silver  baldric  and  flowing  opaline  silk  dress.  In  one  of  the  cases  at  the  Centen- 
nial Exposition,  a  collection  of  the  No  masks  in  miniature  were  shown.  Most  of 
those  in  actual  use  in  Japan  are  many  centuries  old.  The  No  dances  and  the  sub- 
jects illustrated  in  them  are  repeatedly  depicted  on  Japanese  art-products. 

7.  The  Cock  07i  the  Drum  is  often  chosen  by  the  artist  in  cloisonnee,  lacquer, 
porcelain,  and  bronze.  It  refers  to  the  ancient  custom  in  China  of  stationing  a 
drum  on  a  stand  in  front  of  the  magistrate's  office.  Any  one  oppressed  or  mal- 
treated could  come,  and,  by  beating  the  drum,  call  attention  to  his  plaint,  and 
receive  redress.  In  time  of  peace  and  good  government,  the  drum  was  neglected 
and  never  sounded;  hence  the  fowls  would  mount  it  fearlessly,  and  the  rooster 
would  use  it  as  a  favorite  crowing-place.  The  hen  would  lead  her  brood  around 
it.  In  one  of  Hokusai's  sketches,  a  vine  and  leaves  have  entwined  it,  and  doves 
are  cooing  and  making  love  on  it.     Hence,  an  emblem  of  peace. 

8.  On  many  of  the  bronzes  one  or  two  horsemen  are  depicted  riding  through 
the  waves.  In  the  campaign  against  the  Taira,  Yoritomo  gave  to  Takatsuna  his 
fleetest  and  best  charger  from  the  stables  of  Kamakura,  the  same  for  which 
Kagesuye,  his  rival,  had  vainly  asked.  At  the  battle  of  Fujikawa,  the  Taira  be- 
ing on  the  west  and  the  Genji  on  the  east  bank,  Yoshitsune  ordered  the  bridge 
to  be  cleared  of  the  planks,  and  the  soldiers  to  unclasp  their  armor,  and  swim 
over.  Two  horsemen  whipped  up  their  horses,  and  plunged  into  the  stream.  The 
foremost  was  Kagesuye,  the  last  was  Takatsuna.  Takatsuna,  from  behind,  "  lied 
to  Kagesuye,"  and  cried  out,  "Your  horse's  girth  is  loose."  Kagesuy^  stopped 
his  steed,  and  tightened  the  strap;  upon  which  Takatsuna  rode  up,  passed  him, 
landed  first,  and  shouted  out  his  own  name  in  defiance  at  the  enemy  and  for 
cheer  to  his  friends.  In  the  report  of  the  distinguished  sent  to  Kamakura,  Taka- 
tsuna was  mentioned  first,  and  Kagesuye  second.  Both  heroes  rode  through  a 
shower  of  arrows,  and  their  fame  is  as  immortal  as  Japanese  art  can  make  it. 

At  the  battle  of  Ujikawa,  near  Kioto,  Sasaki,  a  noted  Genji  knight,  plunged  into 
the  river,  and  in  the  face  of  a  hail  of  arrows  rode  to  the  opposite  shore.  He  is 
usually  represented  brandishing  his  sword,  the  arrows  being  cut  in  two  by  his 
strokes.  He  may  be  easily  recognized  by  his  crest  of  four  hollow  squares,  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  form  a  lozenge,  with  a  space  between  each  square. 

Another  famous  equestrian  feat  is  that  of  Yoshitsune  whipping  his  horse  into 
a  headlong  gallop  down  the  precipitous  sides  of  the  hills  facing  Ichinotani,  in 
which  the  Taira  were  besieged  (page  14.5,  note).  He  was  told  that  only  deer  and 
the  wild  boar  could  descend  the  path.  Yoshitsune  thereupon  clapped  his  stir- 
rups against  his  horse's  flanks,  gave  loose  rein,  dashed  down,  and  the  cavalry 
after  him,  and  reached  the  lower  ground  in  safety. 

When  Hideyoshi  marched  to  defeat  Akechi  Mitsuhide  (page  238),  the  brother 
of  the  latter,  named  Samanosuke,  could  not  in  honor  fight  against  his  brother, 
nor  could  he  disobey  his  lord,  Hideyoshi.  Coming  to  the  shore  of  Lake  Biwa,  he 
galloped  into  the  water,  rode  across  the  arm  of  the  lake,  slew  his  fiimily,  set  his 
house  on  fire,  and  then  performed  hara-kiri,  to  save  his  name  and  honor,  as  one 
who  could  fight  neither  against  lord  nor  brother,  yet  was  not  afraid  of  death. 


656  NOTES  AND  APPENDICES. 

TEA  CROP. 

The  total  export  of  tea  amounted  to  23,582,152  pounds,  of  which  16,546,289 
pounds  were  shipped  from  Yokohama,  4,292,159  pounds  from  Kobe,  and  643,159 
pounds  from  Nagasaki.  All  Japanese  tea  is  green,  and  the  United  States  is  the 
chief  customer  for  this  tea.  About  400,000  pounds  were  sent  to  England  from 
Nagasaki  in  1875.  Some  consignments  are  also  made  to  China  for  conversion 
into  black  tea.  The  tea  is  picked  in  the  spring  and  fall.  About  nine  per  cent, 
weight  is  lost  by  refiring  or  redrying  for  export.  The  best  tea-producing  prov- 
inces are  Is4,  Suruga,  Inaba,  and  Yamashiro,  Avhich  produce  for  foreign  export 
28,000, 26,000, 23,500^  and  22,000  pounds  respectively.  Kiushiu  sent  22,000 ;  Yama- 
to,  Kawachi,  Iga,  and  Kii  sent  12,000;  Omi,  9000;  Miuo,  9000;  Shimosa  and  Kad- 
zusa,  6000;  Tamba,  5000;  Echizen  and  Echigo,  3500;  and  sundry  small  districts, 
5000  pounds  for  export  in  1875.  The  area  of  plantations  and  crop  of  tea  is  in- 
creasing steadily  every  year.     Value  of  the  export  in  1894,  yen  7  000  000. 


THE  CERAMIC  ART  OF  JAPAN. 

The  first  historic  notice  of  the  ceramic  art  in  Japan  is  that  of  the  terra-cotta 
figures  set  in  the  earth  in  a  circle  round  the  dead,  in  place  of  the  living  victims 
formerly  buried  up  to  their  necks.  After  death  by  starvation,  a  circle  of  skulls 
marked  the  site  of  the  illustrious  dead,  like  the  cairns  of  Britain.  Ancient  graves 
occasionally  opened  in  the  vicinity  of  Nara  and  Kioto  are  found  surrounded  by 
a  circle  of  clay  images.  At  the  death  of  the  wife  of  one  of  the  ancient  mikados, 
who  had  been  grieved  at  hearing  the  groans  of  the  dying  victims  buried  alive  to 
their  necks  with  the  dead  Prince  Yamato  hiko  no  mikoto,  he  permitted  his  ad- 
viser to  bring  a  hundred  workmen  in  clay  from  Idzumo,  who  made  clay  images  of 
men,  horses,  and  other  things,  which  were  buried  in  lieu  of  men  with  the  empress. 
Potters,  brick  and  tile  makers,  came  over  from  Corea  with  other  artificers  (p.  83) 
in  the  seventh  century ;  and  in  a.d.  724  progress  in  the  ceramic  art  began  by  the 
introduction  of  the  potter's  wheel,  and  continued  for  five  centuries  in  the  work- 
ing of  faience  only,  pure  Japanese  porcelain  being  unknown  till  the  time  of 
Hid^yoshi.  In  the  days  of  the  Hojo,  Kato  Shirozaemon  having  visited  China  to 
study  the  art,  came  back  and  erected  his  wheels  and  kilns  in  S^to,  Owari,  making, 
however,  only  pottery  of  an  improved  sort.  "Seto-mono"  (Seto  ware,  or  seto, 
like  our  term  "  china")  is  the  common  name  for  household  crockery  in  Japan. 
The  making  of  real  porcelain  in  Japan  was  begun  by  the  Corean  potters  brought 
into  Japan  by  the  Japanese  who  invaded  Corea  (1592-1597).  These  captives  were 
settled  in  Buzen,  Higo,  Hizen,  Ozumi,  and  Satsuma,  in  Kiushiu,  where  are  still 
the  oldest  seats  of  the  ceramic  industries,  and  at  Yamaguehi,  in  Nagato,  and  near 
Kioto.  About  the  same  time  a  Japanese  from  Ise,  who  had  studied  the  clays, 
pigments,  and  methods  of  the  Chinese,  settled  in  Hizen,  where  he  found  beds  of 
clay  with  the  varied  qualities  necessary  to  produce  the  fomous  Hizen  wares.  It 
is  only  in  very  recent  times  that  the  potteries  of  Owari,  Mino,  and  Kaga  have 
become  celebrated;  and  those  near  Tokio  and  Yokohama  only  within  the  last 
decade.  At  present  it  is  notorious  that  the  "old"  Satsuma,  Hizen,  and  Kioto 
wares  are  imitated  in  scores  of  kilns  all  over  the  country.  Very  few  pieces  of  the 
highest  artistic  merit  have  been  produced  since  the  Restoration,  as  the  making 
of  porcelain  and  faience  in  Japan  has  since  1868  degenerated  from  an  art  to  a 
trade.  In  the  days  of  feudalism,  masterpieces  of  the  ceramic  art  were  made  for 
princes  and  lords,  for  presentation  to  fellow-daimios,  the  shogun  and  court  no- 
bles. Such  things  were  not  bought  and  sold.  There  were,  properly  speaking, 
no  shops  for  their  sale.     Only  household  crockery  was  seen  in  the  shoos.     Fine 


NOTES  AND  APPENDICES.  657 

pieces  were  not  in  the  trade  :  a  fact  which  explains  what  foreigners  have  so  often 
wondered  at;  namely,  that  until  eight  or  ten  years  ago  the  rarest  porcelain  was 
made  in  Japan,  and  occasionally  found  its  way  to  Europe,  yet  the  keenest-eyed 
visitor  in  Japan  never  saw  it  on  sale.  Formerly  the  artisan  was  an  artist,  and 
worked  for  low  wages  and  honor.  He  lived  on  a  few  bronze  cash  per  day,  yet 
enjoyed  the  presence  and  friendship  of  his  lord.  The  daimio  visited  the  potter 
at  his  wheel,  and  the  potter  sat  in  honor  before  his  master  on  the  mats  of  his 
palace — a  place  in  which  the  richest  trader  in  the  province  could  not  so  much  as 
eater.  To  imprint  his  stamp,  or  to  scratch  with  his  little  finger-nail  his  name  or 
mark  on  the  bottom  of  a  tea-bowl,  or  "  clove-boiler,"  or  vase,  over  which  he  had 
spent  a  year  or  three  years,  and  which  should  adorn  for  generations  the  tokonoma, 
or  nooks  of  a  daimio's  chamber,  was  sufficient  reward  to  the  workman  already 
proudly  happy  in  his  own  work.  Of  this  contented  happiness  in  work  which 
found  its  reward  in  honor,  not  gain,  I  was  more  than  once  a  witness.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  efforts  of  the  government  and  native  art -lovers,  and  the 
proper  foreign  influence,  will  be  able  to  arrest  the  downward  tendency  of  Jap- 
anese art  in  ceramics,  and  restore  it  to  its  form.er  glory,  even  though  the  social 
atmosphere  and  environment  are  now  so  wholly  changed. 

The  villages  in  which  faience  and  porcelain  are  made,  whose  names  are  house- 
hold words  in  America  and  Europe,  look  like  any  other  Japanese  villages.  In 
the  dingy,  weather-beaten  cottages,  made  of  wood,  mud,  reed,  and  thatch,  the  pot- 
ters work  before  their  paper  windows,  the  force  in  each  "establishment"  usually 
consisting  of  father  and  son,  rarely  of  more  than  three  or  four  men.  The  kiln  or 
kilns  are  the  common  property  of  a  village,  built  up  the  sides  of  a  hill,  and  fired 
with  pine  wood,  the  workmen  taking  turns  in  noting  the  temperature  and  watch- 
ing the  melting  of  sample  enamels  on  bits  of  clay  set  near  the  plug-hole. 

Often  the  biscuit  is  made  in  one  place,  and  the  glazing  done  at  another.  Many 
potters  now  sell  their  baked  wares  to  artists  in  Tokio  and  the  large  cities,  who  lay 
on  the  colors,  decorate,  and  tire  in  their  own  furnaces — a  process  I  have  often 
watched  in  Tokio.  New  designs  are  wrought  by  the  artist  from  a  drawing,  but 
stock  subjects  (p.  581)  are  laid  on  from  memory,  and  for  the  cheaper  wares 
dabbed  on.  In  the  potteries  the  principle  of  division  of  labor  is  well  understood, 
one  man  making  bodies,  another  spouts,  another  handles  or  ears,  his  specialty. 
Of  late  years  companies  employing  capital  have  centralized  labor,  and  collected 
workmen  in  large  establishments,  improving  their  fortunes,  and,  in  rare  cases, 
the  art. 

Japanese  porcelain  or  faience  takes  its  name  from  the  name  of  the  trading 
town,  the  place  of  manufacture,  the  port  whence  it  is  shipped,  the  name  of  the 
province,  or  the  place  where  it  is  decorated.  The  following  wares  are  the  most 
celebrated : 

Satscma. — The  oldest  specimens  have  no  colored  decoration,  and  date  from 
about  16iM,  those  of  the  latter  part  of  the  centurj'  being  but  slightly  adorned  in 
colors.  From  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  ccnturj',  appear  figures,  landscapes, 
and  the  general  style  of  decoration  in  gold  and  bright  tints  called  nishiki  (flow- 
ered silk,  or  brocade).  The  rich  gilding,  the  harmony  of  colors,  and  the  delicacy 
of  drawing,  have  united  to  give  "old  Satsuma"  ware,  which  is  mostly  in  small 
pieces,  its  renown.  Most  of  it  is  crackle,  called  hibiki  (snake  porcelain),  the 
cracks  imitating  a  serpent's  skin.  The  body  of  nearly  all  fine  Satsuma  ware  is 
white,  or  cream,  or  buff  color,  though  red,  green,  chocolate,  purple,  blue,  white, 
and  black  glazes,  made  of  native  minerals  and  metallic  oxides,  are  used.  All 
sorts,  qualities,  and  colors  are  now  made  and  exported  from  Satsuma.  Nearly 
all  Satsuma  ware  is  faience,  semi-porcelain,  or  stone-ware — not  true  porcelain. 


658  NOTES  AND  ArPENDICES. 

HiZEN. — Arita  and  Karatsu  are  the  chief  places  of  manufacture  in  this  province, 
Arita  alone  having  over  two  hundred  ivilns.  The  wares  made  for  home  use  are 
called  Sometsuki  (dyed  in  patterns,  or  figured),  which  has  blue  paintings  under 
the  glaze.  The  whole  design  is  traced  by  the  artist  in  black  lines,  the  shades.be- 
ing  indicated  merely  by  a  stroke.  The  colored  enamels  are  then  laid  on ;  thin 
when  opaque,  thick  when  to  be  transparent  after  fusion.  Usually  the  entire  dec- 
oration is  fused  at  one  firing.  Hizen  porcelain  and  faience  have  usually  lively 
tints  in  the  style  called  saishiki  (many-tinted).     Imari  is  the  sea-port. 

OwARi  and  Mino. — Most  of  the  work  of  these  two  provinces  is  Som^tsfiki  por- 
celain or  blue  ware.  The  finest  deep  cobalt  glazes  are  from  Owari.  Vases,  flower- 
holders,  tables,  wall-pieces,  screens,  fan  and  poem-plaques,  and  large  pictures  are 
wrought  in  faience,  coated  with  a  film  of  finest  kaolin,  on  which  artistic  symbols 
and  figures  are  wrought.  Seto  is  the  chief  place  of  manufacture,  and  Nagoj'a  of 
sale.  Owari  also  is  famous  for  its  cloisonne  work,  both  on  copper  and  porce- 
lain. The  application  of  this  delicate  art  of  applying  enamel  in  cells  or  between 
threads  of  metal,  producing  the  eflfect  of  shining  silver  or  gold  among  dead  tints 
of  minerals,  or  of  metallic  outlines  with  opaque  shadings  in  color,  to  porcelain, 
is,  in  its  development,  at  least,  a  recent  Japanese  art. 

Kaga. — The  characteristic  color  of  Kaga  ware  is  red,  produced  by  rouge  or 
oxide  of  iron,  with  bands  and  lines  of  gold,  and  much  figure  decoration.  Five 
miles  from  the  town  of  Terai  are  the  clay  beds  of  Kutani  (nine  valleys),  whence 
the  ware  is  marked  and  named.  The  colors  and  paintings  are  not  done  by  one 
firing  as  in  Hizen,  but  the  clay  form,  the  black  tracing  of  the  design,  the  red 
glaze,  and  the  gold  lines  receive  each  a  baking. 

Kioto. — At  Awata,  a  village  in  the  suburbs  of  Kioto,  faience  having  a  yellower 
tint  than  the  buff  wares  of  Satsuma,  but  crackled,  is  made,  called  tamago  yaki 
(egg-pottery),  the  decoration  being  usually  a  few  sprays  of  grasses  or  fiowers, 
with  birds  and  insects.  Eraku  ware  has  gold  figures  of  poets,  warriors,  Chinese 
sages,  or  mythical  heroes  and  creatures,  upon  a  red  glaze  or  dead  surface.  All 
kinds  of  faience  and  true  porcelain  are  made  in  Kioto,  the  "pierced,"  the  "net- 
ted," "sieve,"  "rice-grain,"  "egg-shell,"  " mokti-me,''^  "watered,"  "wood-grain- 
ed," "marbled,"  "wicker-work,"  "woven,"  "veined,"  "shell-pink,"  cloisonne, 
celadon,  lacquered,  figured  in  high  relief,  and  in  imitation  of  inlaid  gold  and  bronze 
work,  called  zogan,  etc.,  etc.  "  Yaki  "  is  the  general  native  term  for  baked  clay. 
On  Awaji  island  are  made  delicate  bufiF  crackle  and  celadon  faience.  Banko- 
yaki  is  made  of  a  tough  brown  clay  in  Ise,  taking  its  name  after  the  inventor. 
The  ware  (usually  teapots  and  small  utensils)  is  very  light  and  thin,  having 
sprays  and  splashes,  and  perfect  designs  in  opaque  colored  enamels  slightly 
raised  from  the  surface. 

ToKio  and  Yokohama. — Very  little  work  is  produced  in  the  neighborhood  of 
these  places,  except  imitations,  though  some  are  very  fine,  and  will  puzzle  any 
one,  except  a  real  expert,  to  tell  them  from  "old  Satsuma"  or  "old  Hizen" 
wares.  Scores,  if  not  hundreds,  of  artists  and  decorators  live  in  these  cities  who 
buy  baked  ware  from  Owari,  Mino,  Hizen,  Kaga,  and  local  potteries,  and  decorate 
and  sell  it  to  foreign  customers.  Most  Japanese  pottery  and  porcelain  is  stamp- 
ed, scratched,  or  marked  in  color  with  the  name  of  the  place  where  made,  the 
name  of  the  decorator,  or  the  company  which  sells  it.  There  is  an  excellent  na- 
tive work  of  Japanese  faience,  in  five  volumes,  by  the  learned  antiquary  Ninagawa 
Noritane.  For  some  good  notes,  see  OflScial  Catalogue  of  the  Japanese  Section, 
International  Exhibition,  Philadelphia,  1876.  A  work  on  the  History,  Ideals, 
Symbolism,  and  Technique  of  Japanese  Art  is  in  preparation  by  the  autlior. 


NOTES  AND  APPENDICES. 


659 


CLIMATE  AND  METEOROLOGY. 

MONTHLT  AND  YEARLY  AVERAGE   (1863-1869)  OF  THE  THERMOMETER  (FAHR.). 


Yearly  Averape. 


1S63 

59° 

1S64 

58°.02 

1S65 

59°. 13 

1S66 

57°. 01 

tS67 

59°  26 

1S68 

58°. 46 

1869 

5S°.08 

Monthly  Average. 


January 40°. 28 

February 41°. 22 

March 4T°.03 

April 56°. 15 

May 64°.07 

June 69°.44 


July 75°.31 

August 7S°.49 

September...  70°. 48 

October Gl°.58 

November. . .  ,52° 

December 43°. 45 


Average  of  1S63-1S69 5S°.22 

Highest  monthly  maximum  (August,  1865) 91° 

Lowest  monthly  minimum  (January,  1864) 20* 

"  Yokohama  is  situated  in  lat.  35°  26'  N.,  and  long.  139°  39'  E.  from  Greenw^eh. 
It  is  about  thirty-seven  miles  from  Cape  King,  the  nearest  point  on  the  Pacific. 
The  Bay  of  Yedo  at  Yokohama  is  about  twelve  miles  wide.  The  city  is,  for  the 
most  part,  built  on  a  plain,  about  from  two  to  ten  feet  above  high-water  mark,  at 
the  mouth  of  a  valley  opening  on  the  bay.  The  valley  is  about  a  mile  wide,  and 
extends  back  in  a  westerly  direction  some  three  miles,  gradually  narrowing  to  a 
quarter  of  a  mile.  It  is  bounded  on  each  side  by  a  row  of  hills,  about  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  feet  wide.  It  is  cultivated  in  paddy  fields,  is  consequently  wet 
and  marshy,  and  is  exposed  to  the  sweep  of  north-east  and  easterly  winds  from 
across  the  bay,  and  to  south-west  and  westerly  winds  through  the  valley. 

"The  winds  of  Japan  are  at  all  seasons  exceedingly  irregular,  frequently  vio- 
lent, and  subject  to  sudden  changes.  The  north-east  and  easterly  winds  are  gen- 
erally accompanied  by  rain,  with  a  high  and  falling  barometer,  and  are  usually 
not  violent.  The  south-west  and  westerly  winds  are  generally  high,  often  vio- 
lent, and  accompanied  with  a  low  barometer.  It  is  from  the  south-west  thai,  uhe 
cyclones  or  typhoons  almost  invariably  come.  On  clear  and  pleasant  days,  which 
are  in  excess  of  all  others,  there  is  a  regular  land  and  sea  breeze  at  all  seasons. 

"  The  rain-fall  is  above  the  average  of  most  countries,  varying  greatly,  howev- 
er, in  different  years.  About  two-thirds  of  the  rain  falls  during  the  six  months 
from  April  to  October. 

"The  steady  hot  weather,  when  it  is  considered  safe  to  change  to  light  sum- 
mer clothing,  does  not  generally  set  in  till  the  latter  decade  of  June  or  1st  of 
July,  and  ends,  often  very  abruptly,  about  the  middle  of  September. 

"  The  snow-fall  is  for  the  most  part  light,  not  often  exceeding  two  or  three 
inches.  In  1861,  on  one  occasion,  it  fell  to  the  depth  of  twenty  inches.  The  ice 
seldom  exceeds  one  inch  or  one  and  a  half  inches  in  thickness.  Fogs  are  rarely 
noticed,  so  also  is  hail.  Thunder-storms  are  neither  frequent  nor  severe.  Earth- 
quake shocks  are  frequent,  averaging  more  than  one  a  month;  but  hitherto, 
since  the  residence  of  foreigners  in  Yokohama,  no  very  severe  or  dangerous 

Since  1888  one  of  tiic  best  meteorological  systems  in  the  world  has  been  estab- 
lished in  Tokio  by  the  Imperial  government,  which  issues  three  daily  forecasts 
of  the  weather,  and  publishes  frequent  bulletins  and  annual  reports. 


INDEX. 


A  in  Japanese,  pronouucod  as  a  in  arm.  See 
also  under  Ha. 

Abacus.    See  lUiistration,  2S1. 

Abbe  Sidotti,  262,  263. 

Abbot,  394. 

Abdication,  114,  122. 

Ablutions,  92,  97,  9S,  506. 

Aborigines  of  America,  29,  31,  299,  579-581. 

Aborigines  of  Japan,  26-35,  55,  65,  68-70,  86, 
87, 105,  206. 

Absent-minded  man,  496. 

Abusive  names,  512  (note). 

Actors,  87,  455,  515. 

Acupuncture,  206,  207. 

Adams,  Mr.  F.  O.,  author  of  "  History  of  Ja- 
pan," 573,  586,  593,  595,  607. 

Adams,  Will,  261,  262. 

Adoption,  277, 584. 

Adznma,  72,  264,  265,  362. 

Agate,  003. 

Age  of  persons,  58,  60,  93,  449,  600. 

Agricultural  class,  106,  107,  280,  600. 

Agriculture,  49, 106, 107,  .523,  578,  605-607. 

Aidzu,  Prince  of,  309,  310,  313,  411,  412. 

Aino,  26-35,  5.5,  206,  565. 

Akadzuki,  309. 

Akamagaseki.    See  Shimonoseki, 

Akamatsu,  564. 

Akechi,  231,238,618. 

Alaska,  15,  579. 

Albino  ponies,  382. 

Alcock,  Sir  Rutherford,  305,  349,  369,  594, 595. 

Aleutian  Islands,  117,  579,  580. 

Alkali,  356. 

Almshouses,  550. 

Alphabets,  91,  92, 162. 

Alum,  603. 

Ama.    See  Xun,  and  139  (note). 

Amakusa,  2.53. 

.\tnatera8u,  45,  47,  48,  50,  553. 

Amber,  603. 

America,  relations  with  Japan,  29,  31,  299, 
324,  579-531,  591.  See,  under  Perry,  United 
States. 


America,  P.  M.  S.  S.,  550. 
American  geographical  names,  329. 
Americans  in  Japan, 327-352, 533, 545-548, 550, 

561,  577,  578,  005,  607. 
Amethyst,  603. 
Amida,  252. 
Amulets,  228,  440. 
Amusements.     See  Games,  Sports,  Theatre, 

Cards. 
Ando,  155, 156. 
Angels,  384,  489. 

Animals,  domestic,  23-25,  111  (note). 
Animals,  wild,  24,  420,  542. 
Anjiro,  249. 
Antimony,  22,  602,  603. 
Autisell,  Thomas,  Dr.,  19  (note),  26  (note) 

605. 
Antoku,  134, 136, 139  (note),  188. 
Aqueducts,  286,  394. 
Arabic  numerals,  591. 
Arata,  83. 
Arbitration,  567. 
Archers,  121, 136, 137,  388. 
Archery,  226,  227,  388. 
Architecture,  89,  90,  392-398,  532,  533,  563. 
Area  of  Japan,  17,  605. 
Armor,  219,  220. 
Armorer,  132. 

Armorial  bearings.    See  Crests. 
Arms.    See  Military;  weapons. 
Army,  104, 105,  595-597. 
Arrows,  33,  121,  136,  137,  189,  190,  227,  3S8, 

422,  575  ;  poison,  .35. 
Arsenic,  550,  602,  603. 
Art,  92,  94,  123,  334,  388,  389,  390,  398,  581, 

582. 
Artisans,  46,  53,  280,  281 ;   guilds,  227,  512, 

600. 
Artists,  92, 123,  379,  388,  522. 
Asakura,  419  (note). 
Asakusa,  435-488. 
Asaraa  yama,  21. 
Asano  family,  275. 
Ashikaga,  154, 188,  189, 192,  249,  309. 


662 


INDEX. 


Ashikaga  Takaxiji,  156, 182, 183, 184, 185, 189, 

190. 
Ashikaga  Yoshiaki,  230. 
Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  351. 
Aspects  of  natiiie,  25,  55,  83,  132,  154,  473, 

477. 
Assassinations,  121, 148,  222,  231,  309,  346,  349, 

362,  374,  377,  574. 
Association  of  ideas,  449,  581,  582. 
Asters,  436. 

Aston,  Mr.  W.  G.,  quoted,  213. 
Atago  yama,  239,  374, 435. 
Atsumori,  145. 
Augury,  46,  449,  581,  582. 
Augustiuiau  friars,  250. 
Austin,  Don.     See  Konishi. 
Avalanches,  540,  542. 
Awa,  131,  329,  573. 
Awabi,  521. 
Awaji,44. 
Awodo,  149. 
Awomori,  608. 
Ayuthaya,  246. 
Azai,  241,  242. 
Azaleas,  436,  565. 
Aztec,  2i)9,  580. 
Azuchi  yama,  231,  233. 

B,  from  the  Japanese  h  or/,  by  nigori,  or  in 

combination. 
Baboon,  582. 

Baby,  32,  354-356,  444,  472,  570. 
Bacchus,  488. 
Backgammon,  458. 
Badgers,  521. 
Bakin,  478. 

Bakufu,  141,  296,  349,  444. 
Ball,  game  of,  209,  455,  456,  529,  530. 
Bamboo,  23,  132,  359,  365,  417,  418,  432,  441, 

514,  519, 531,  537,  582. 
Banishment,  115, 116, 121, 127, 148, 151. 
Bank-notes,  pictures  from,  121,  136,  153, 155, 

ISO. 
Banks,  591. 
Banner  of  Taira,  136 ;  of  Minamoto,  136 ;  of 

Nitta,  154  ;  of  Hideyoshi,  238  ;  of  lyeyasii, 

220,  228,  267,  315. 
Barbers,  334. 
Bark,  33,  46,  89,  90. 
Barley-sugar,  380. 
Barriers,  68  (note),  206.    See  Gates. 
Barrows,  28,  245,  269,  545. 
Bates,  Mr.,  549. 
Baths,  64,  77,  94,  446,  549,  550. 
Battledore  and  shuttlecock,  455. 
Bay  of  Yedo,  70,  329,  330. 
Beans,  49,  420,  427,  454, 469. 
Beards,  31,  32,  93,  217,  523 ;  cuts,  37,  62,  564. 
Beds,  423. 


I  Beef,  472,  607. 
'  Beggars,  358,  518. 

Beggary,  abolition  of,  552 

Bellows,  365. 

Bells,  88,  200,  201,  206,  290,  381,  433,  479. 

Beukei,  206,  458. 

Beri-beri.    See  Kakki. 

Bette,  373,  374,  546. 

Betto,  236,  353,  359,  427,  512,  574. 

Bin:}uru,  385. 

Birds,  24, 177. 

Bishamon,  190. 

Biwa,  Lake,  177,  414,  415,  419. 

Black-eyed  Susan,  359. 

Blakiston,  Captain,  26  (note). 

Blacksmith,  46,  365. 

Blind  men,  495,  509,  511,  600. 

Boats,  31,  63,  331,  332,  360,  408,  409,  427, 521. 

Bozii,  41. 

Bombardments,  309,  311,  350,  592,  594. 

Bombay,  P.  and  O.  S.  S.,  329. 

Bonzes,  162, 175, 198,  204,  207,  231-235, 250,  253, 
379,  426,  470,  510,  513,  525,  538. 

Botany,  22. 

Bows,  226. 

Bread,  260,  448. 

Breakfast,  424,  355,  409,  410,  544. 

Breath-sucking,  211  (note),  222. 

Breech-loaders,  246,  411,  524,  573, 596. 

Bridgeford,  Captain,  26  (note). 

Bridges,  44,  354,  563. 

Brinckley,  Lieutenant,  533  (note). 

Brocade,  315,  562. 

Bronzes,  199,  203,  423. 

Brooks,  Hon.  Charles  Wolcott,  579,  580. 

Brown,  Rev.  S.  R.,  160,  263. 

Bruntou,  Mr.  R.  H.,  608. 

Bryan,  Mr.  S.  W.,  591. 

Buddhism,  80,  84,  114,  158,  175,  198,  228,  251, 
297,  554,  555. 

Bugs,  157. 

Bund,  330,  353. 

Bungalows,  330, 370. 

Bungo,  248,  249,  250,  253. 

Bunio,  586. 

Burial,  92,  437,  438,  439,  468. 

Burmah,  246. 

Butchers,  332,  357,  472,  607. 

C.    See  under  K  or  S. 

Cactus,  386. 

Calendar,  113, 122. 

California,  299,  579-581. 

Camellia,  265,  290,  333,  428,  436,  510,  514,  565. 

Camphor-trees,  190,  455,  576. 

Canals,  419. 
I  Candles,  446,  447. 
j  Cannon,  243,  257,  408,  411. 
I  Cape,  King,  328. 


INDEX. 


663 


Capital,  57, 110,  111. 

Caproii,  General  Horace,  19  (note),  550,  C05, 

OUT,  619  (note). 
Cards,  4-28,  430 ;  games,  456,  457. 
Cars,  197  (note),  212.    See  Raihcay. 
Carp,  463,  439,  017. 
Carpenters,  46,  227,  357,  365,  443. 
Carts,  332,  333. 

Carving,  33,  94, 157, 203,  2SS-290,  523. 
Cash,  243,  332,  355,  360,  496,  5S7,  611. 
Ca.stira.    See  Sponge-cake. 
Castles,  217,  2S3,  392,  393,  545,  547,  550. 
Catapults,  177. 

Cats,  128,  449,  451,  4S7,  495,  502,  505,  509. 
Cemeteries,  287,  290,  340,  513,  514. 
Censer,  3S2. 
Censors,  295,  299,  587. 
Census,  174,  000,  601. 
Centennial  Exposition  of  the  United  States, 

576,  592,  598. 
Centipedes,  550. 
Cereals,  48,  60S. 
Chamberlain,  116, 527. 
Character  of  the  Japanese,  65,  106, 107,  251, 

257,  312,  343,  539,  542,  550,  569,  570. 
Charcoal,  22,  33,  356,  519,  549. 
Charity,  369. 

Charlevoix  quoted,  247,  263. 
Checkers,  458,  503. 
Cheese,  505.    See  Beans. 
Cherry  blossoms,  384,  582. 
Chess,  458. 

Children,  354,  421,  429,  437, 452-465. 
Children's  books,  491,  492. 
Children's  games  and  sports,  452^65. 
Chin  (lap-dog),  209,  210. 
China,  176, 186,  242,  418,  552.  572,  575,  576. 
Chinese,  54,  58,  242,  452,  453,  473,  512,  572,  576, 

600.    See  Preface. 
Chinese  in  Japan,  331,  33S,  351,  352, 566,  567. 
Chishi,  600. 

Chishima  (Knriles),  601.    See  Map. 
Chiuzenji,  284,  2S5. 
Chopsticks,  221,  470,  514. 
Choshiu  clan,  267,  269,  277,  301,  309,  310,  311, 

312,  313,  321,  593-595. 
Choteki,  1S3, 184,  310,  313,  315. 
Christianity,  247-263,  57S. 
Christians,  native,  243,  247,  203,  266,  531,  552, 

573, 578. 
Christmas-day,  537,  538. 
Chronology,  59, 122, 123,  599. 
Chrysanthemum,  67,  384,  582,  608. 
Cipango.    See  Jiparvfi't. 
Cities  of  Japan,  392. 
Civil  officials,  103,  110,  116,  141,  196  (note), 

214-216,  526. 
Civil  wars,  119, 122, 130-139, 151, 154-157, 182- 

190,  230-235,  238-240,  260-269,  316-319,  575. 


Civilization,  59,  75,  80-84,  292,  318-324,  352, 

572,  579,  590. 
Clans,  210,  217.    See  under  names  of  military 

families. 
Clark,  Mr.  E.  W.,  527,  546,  547,  548. 
Classes  of  society,  280,  540,  552. 
Cleanliness,  97,  356. 
Climate,  25,  588,  590. 
Clocks,  546. 

Clogs,  118,  370,  372,  468,  482. 
Cloistered  emperor,  120, 134. 
Clothing,  90,  106,  107,  208,  331,  361,  360,  370, 
.  383,  384,  427,  520,  524,  534,  540,  550,  562-565, 

572,  596. 
Cloud-cluster,  49,  58,  69. 
Coal,  510,  602-605. 
Coasts  of  Japan,  IS,  25,  56,  405,  608. 
Cobalt,  603. 
Cocks,  46,  618. 
Cocks,  Mr.  Richard,  261. 
Codes  of  law,  361,  362,  508,  509,  583. 
Coinage,  40,  2S0,  547,  097,  OOS,  010. 
College.    See  Imperial  Colleije. 
College  of  Engineering,  307,  602 
Columbus,  247. 
Commandments,  90, 194, 195. 
Commerce,  63,  246,  597. 
Compradores,  338. 
Conchs,  220,  269. 
Concubines,  lOS,  556,  557. 
Confucianism,  SO,  S3, 160,  297,  557,  559. 
Conquerors,  28,  55,  6S-T0,  75,  91. 
Conquest  of  ancient  Japan,  2S. 
Consul,  United  States,  349,  402,  568. 
Consulate,  United  States,  331,  333,  349. 
Consuls,  349,  350,  376,  567. 
Contracts,  402,  577. 
Convents,  199. 
Coolie  traffic,  560-567. 
Coolies,  331,  355,  360,  361. 
Coopers,  357,  365. 

Copper,  22,  HI  (note),  109,  201,  002-605. 
Copperas,  603. 
Corea,  63,  79,  83,  241-240,  280,  324,  364,  571, 

576. 
Cormorants,  209. 
Cornes,  Rev.  Mr.,  3S3. 
Corpse,  468. 
Cosmogony,  43-45. 
Cotton,  91,  2.30,  361. 
Councils,  103,  140, 149,  286. 
Court  noble,  93, 101-114,  216,  217,  321. 
Courtesans,  139,  555,  550. 
Cranes,  381. 
I  Creation,  43,  44. 
Cremation,  175  (note),  198,  437,  513,  .514. 
Crests,  imperial,  66,  67,  271,  274,  275,  410. 
Crime,  568. 
Criminals,  568,  569,  600. 


664 


INDEX. 


Crocodiles,  511. 

Cross  of  Satsuma,  274. 

Cross-trampling,  257. 

Crow,  5S,  44S,  44!t,  505. 

Crnciflxiou,  255,  554. 

Crystal,  3S1,  479,  003. 

Cuckoo,  581. 

Cucumbers,  481. 

Curios,  351. 

Currents,  27,  579-581. 

Curtains,  102, 114,  141,  211,  212,  358, 398,  410. 

Custom-houses,  332,  349,  364  ;  receipts,  598. 

Cutlery,  224,  225,  357,  422. 

Cuttle-fish,  415,  521. 

Cyclopedias,  41,  78  (uote),  247  (note). 

D,  from  t,  by  nigori,  or  in  combination. 

Dai  Butsu,  199,  200. 

Dai  Jo  Dai  Jiu,  103, 119,  309,  598. 

Dai  Jo  Kuau,  103,577. 

Dai  Koku,  49,  425. 

Dai-lvon.    See  Radishes. 

Daimio,  217,  321,  322,  402,  403. 

"Dai  Nihou  Shi,"  40, 122  (note),  298. 

Dai  Nippon,  17,  85. 

Dairi,  197. 

Daizaifu,  177. 

Dancing,  47,  4S,  53,  378,  456,  528, 529, 573,  018. 

Dannoura,  135. 

Daruma,  458-460. 

Darwinian  theory,   9,  542. 

Datte  family,  274,  586. 

Dazaifu.    See  Daizaifu. 

Deaf  men,  406. 

Debt,  national,  598. 

Decima.    See  Deshima. 

Deformed  persons,  472,  570. 

De  Long,  Hon.  Charles  E.,  340,  573. 

Dentist,  409. 

Departments   of  government,  103,  104,  577, 

598. 
Deshima,  240,  257,  258,  200,  560,  002. 
Dewa,  74, 142. 
Dezima.    See  Deshima. 
Dice,  450. 

Dickens,  Charles,  533. 
Diet,  90. 

Dikes,  531,  .571,  605,  007. 
Dinner,  340,  341,  423,  424,  542,  543,  548,  550. 
Diplomacy,  foreign,  347,  348, 349, 350,  377, 592, 

595. 
Dirk,  221,  222,  515,  534. 
Diseases,  258,  259,  410,  570,  571. 
Disinheritance,  584. 
Divination,  46, 148. 
Divinity  of  the  mikado,  36,  59,  88,  94,  95,  562, 

566. 
Divorce,  557. 
Dixon,  Dr.  Walter,  quoted,  253,  583. 


Do,  or  circuits,  65,  84.    See  Map. 

Doctors,  207,  571.    See  Physicians 

Dogs,  33,  209,  358,  390,  451,  468,  471. 

Dominicans,  250. 

Dosha,  207. 

Dosia.    See  Dosha. 

Dr  in  Japanese  words.    See  under  Ri. 

Dragon,  49,  381,  425,  478^80,  582,  616. 

Dreams,  472. 

Dress.     See  Clothing. 

Dual  system  of  government.    See  Duarchy. 

Duarchy,  140, 140, 182, 185, 186. 

Ducks,  wild,  420,  422,  "=17,  537. 

Dumb  persons,  600. 

Dungeons,  16.5, 184. 

Dutch,  254,  257,  258,  311,  319,  431,  571  (note), 

577,  593,  596,  602. 
Dwarfed  trees,  384,  386. 
Dyers,  365,  509. 
Dynasties,  185, 187. 

E,  pronounced  as  e  in  prey;  before  a  final 

liquid,  or  double  consonant,  as  e  in  men. 
Ear-monument,  245. 
Earthquake-fish,  486. 
Earthquakes,  21,  477,  486,  547,  589. 
Eastern  Japan,  68-70,  391,  392. 
Ebisu,  28,  29,  52. 

Echizen,  Prince  of,  305.  307,  308,  313. 
Echizeu,  170,  271,  272,  276,  300,  307,  310,  313, 

586,  587. 
Eclipses,  52,  471,  472. 
Edicts,  309. 

Edinburgh  and  Yedo,  279. 
Education,  150, 199,  200,  202,  205,  294,  297,  371, 

373,  55S-5C1,  563  (note),  573,  578. 
Eels,  496. 

Eggs,  494,  517,  527,  528. 
Elephant,  479. 
Elephantiasis,  570. 
Elves,  494,  495. 

Ema,  Lord  of  Hell,  387,  389,  507. 
Embassies,  63,  S3,  84,  176,  195,  242,  250,  323, 

324,  572,  576. 
Embassy  of  1872,  25,  323,  324,  540, 550,  572-574. 
Eniori,  Mr.,  403,  530,  531. 
Emperors,  list  of,  123. 
Empresses,  list  of,  123. 
Enamel-ware,  203,  546. 
English,  254,  261,  262,  341,  342,  343,  577. 
Enomoto,  319,  564. 
Enoshima,  154,  404. 
Entails,  277. 
Eructation,    11  (uote). 
Escheat,  585. 

Espionage,  295,  349,  369.    See  Sjnes. 
Eta,  279,  324,  540,  567. 
Etiqnette,  210,  211,  218,  222-225,  518.    See 

Manners. 


INDEX. 


665 


Eta  Shinipei,  563,  5T4,  575. 

Eurasian  children,  351,  352. 

Evenings,  460. 

Evergreens,  22,  23,  359. 

Execution  ground,  3G1. 

Executions.    See  Laws. 

Exile,  115,  127,  14S,  256,  805.    See  Banish- 

vient. 
Extra-territoriality,  310,  572. 
Eyes,  29,  30,  208  (note),  442,  444,  455. 

F,  for  words  in  Dutch  books,  or  in  writings 
copied  therefrom,  see  under  H,  or  A.  In 
foreign  books, /or  jf  is  often  inserted,  or 
made  terminal  in  a  Japanese  word  which 
ends  in  an  open  vowel.  Thus  Shikokii 
and  Hokusai,  appear  as  Shikokf,  Hokffsai, 
etc. 

Faces,  AinO  and  Yamato,  29,  30,  401. 

Falconry,  209,  280. 

Families,  noble,  101-114. 

Family,  584,  585. 

Family  names,  109. 

Famine,  195, 513. 

Fans,  87,  518-520,  527,  529,  54S. 

Farmers,  106, 107,  513,  600. 

Fauna,  24,  581. 

Faxiba.    See  UMhjosM. 

Feast  of  Dolls,  460. 

Feast  of  Flags,  463. 

Female  characters  — Tatara,  5S :  Yamato 
hime,  61 ;  Jingu  kogo,  chap.  viii. :  Haruko, 
81 ;  Tokiwa,  123 ;  Tadamori's  wife,  125, 
126 :  Masago,  126 ;  Tomoye,  135  (note) ; 
Taigo,  137  ;  Tokiko,  137 ;  Tamayori,  170  ; 
Kadoko,  1S3  ;  I^^e  no  Taiyu,  210  ;  Murasaki 
Shikibu,  212  ;  Shibata  Katsuiye's  wife,  238, 
240:  Adzuma  girl,  265. 

Female  divinity,  45. 

Fencin<r.  432,  433. 

Feng  Shuey,  473. 

Festivals,  92,  97,  520,  525,  526,  538. 

Feudalism,  57,  58,  94,  95, 104,  214-228,  270-290, 
583-585. 

Feuds,216,  217,  222,  223. 

Filial  piety,  123, 124,  147,  555. 

Fillmore,  President,  329,  347. 

Finances,  573,  574,  598. 

Finger-nails,  467,  469. 

Firando.    See  Birado. 

Fires,  .37.5,  .398,471,563. 

Fire-clay,  603. 

Fire-lookouts,  286. 

Fire-omens,  471. 

Fire-proofs,  310,  356,  370,  368,  394. 

Fire-works,  .521. 

Fish,  24,  25. 

Fishermen,  328,  329,  521,  522,  546. 

Fishing,  70,  209,  470,  521. 


Fish-ponds,  397,  436. 

Flag  of  Japan,  national,  362,  .536,  564. 

Fleas,  544,  55IJ. 

Flies,  505,  ,528. 

Flint  and  steel,  3.56,  357,  364,  440,  003. 

Flirting,  211  (note). 

Flowers,  23,  384,  386,  387,  397,  514,  581. 

Fogs,  589,  505. 

Folk-lore,  491-503. 

Food,  23,  24, 49,  90.    See  Diet. 

Foot-ball,  148. 

Foreigner-haters.    See  Jo-i. 

Foreigners,  327-352,  493,  513, 549, 578, 600, 616 

Forests,  22,  418,  543,  548. 

Forfeiture,  585. 

Formosa,  218,  257,  258,  571,  572,  575, 576. 

Fortifications,  179, 302,  407. 

Fortune-tellers,  505. 

Forty-seven  rOuius,  302, 400. 

Fox  myths,  495,  580,  582. 

Foxes,  420,  495,  503.  ' 

Franciscans,  249,  2.54,  255,  256,  409. 

Francis  Xavier,  249,  250,  251,  412. 

Freeman,  Captain,  J.  H.,  328. 

French,  259,  261, 331, 346,  350,  351,  383,  399, 57T. 

French  relations  with  Japan,  331,  593-596. 

Frogs,  508. 

Fuchiu,  422,  547. 

Fudai,  275,  394,  403,  5S5,  586. 

Fuji  san,  or  Fuji  yama  (mountain),  18, 142, 

330,  374,  404, 415,  472, 530,  546,  582. 
Fuji  River,  132. 

Fujiwara,  109, 115, 116,  150,  237,  270. 
Fukni,  170,  189, 190,  238,  423,  536. 
Fukui  Han,  418,  526,  587. 
Fukuwara,  120, 135,  406. 
Fukuzawa  Yukichi,  192  (note),  320,  400,  548. 
Funerals,  438, 439,  513. 
Fusan,  243,  580. 

Fushimi,  240,  266,  313, 408, 411-413. 
Fushimi  no  Miya,  563. 
Fusi  yama.    See  Fuji  san. 
Futen,  484. 

G,  pronounced  hard.  From  k  by  nigort, 
or  in  combination.  Few  pure  Japaueso 
words  begin  with  ij. 

Gambling,  344,    .50,  369. 

Games,  209,  210,  4.52-465,  529, 530. 

Gardeners,  384-386. 

Garlic,  73. 

Gas,  illuminating,  21,  333,  384. 

Gates,  206,  219,  394,  411,  421, 427. 

Gate-keepers,  436,  441. 

Gazetteers,  41 ;  of  Echizen,  176,  419,  422. 

Geese,  425,  447, 449,  537, 582. 

Geiho,  4.50. 

Geisha,  209,  408,  418,  526,  573. 

Gen.    See  Minamoto. 


666 


INDEX. 


Genghis  Khan,  145. 

Geiiji.    See  Minamoto, 

Genji  and  Heike,  45S,  464,  492, 529. 

Genji  Monogatari,  212. 

Geography  of  Japan,  17-25,  56,  68-74,  S4,  S5, 
329,  360, 391,  392, 419  (note),  596, 601, 007,  60S. 
See  Map, 

Geology  of  Japan,  IS,  19,  602-605. 

Germans,  247  (note),  331,  332,  399, 571  (note). 

Ghosts,  138,  460-478. 

Ghouls,  492,  493. 

Gifn,  267. 

Girdles,  354,  359,  379,  408, 416,  470. 

Glass,  448. 

Glass-sponges,  521. 

Globe-trotters,  339. 

Go,  honorary  prefix.  See  under  letters  fol- 
lowing qo. 

Goa,  249. 

Goat,  582. 

Goddesses,  44-53,  553. 

God-letters,  92. 

Go-Daigo,  152, 182, 183, 1S4, 189. 

Gohei,  46,  285,  410. 

Go-Kameyama,  192. 

Gokenin,  277. 

Go-Komatsu,  192, 

Gold,  602-605,  608. 

Golden  fish,  546. 

Golden  gutter,  410,  411,  546. 

Goldsborough  Inlet,  262. 

Gompachi  and  Komurasaki,  400. 

Gongen,  198,  284. 

Goroza,  230. 

Gosanke.    See  Sanke. 

Go-Shirakawa,  119, 134. 

Goto  Shojiro,  312,  317,  322,  574. 

Gotoba,  134, 151. 

Gourds,  288. 

Government,  58,  94, 103, 104, 577,  578,  598. 

Gray,  Dr.  Asa,  24. 

Griffin,  340. 

Grigsby,  Prof.  W.  E.,  583. 

Guard-houses,  363,  376, 410,  550.    See  Gates. 

Guards,  105, 133.    See  Bette. 

Gun-ken  system,  103, 104,  577,  600. 

Gunpowder,  248,  258,  362, 518. 

Guns,  248,  258. 

H.  In  Dutch  and  Portuguese  books  /  oft- 
en takes  the  place  of  h.  See  under  F.  In 
combination,  or  by  nigori,  becomes  b,  f, 
or  p. 

Hachiman.    See  Ojin  Tenno. 

Hnchiman,  temple  of,  181, 410, 411. 

Hachiman  Taro,  117. 

Hachijo,  121. 

Hair,  31,  217,  329,  354,  431, 432  (note),  471,  508, 
620,  523. 


Hakama  (kilt  or  loose  trowsers),  366,  370,  413, 

534. 
Hakodate,  590. 
Hakkenden,  478. 

Hakone,  Lake,  64 ;  Pass,  206, 548. 
Hakuzan,  IS,  21, 514,  530,  532. 
Hamamatsii,  392, 546. 
Han,  clan,  or  local  feudal  government,  418, 

425,  522,  5S5  (note),  586,  587,  600. 
Eanoura,  4  4-416. 
Hand  or  head  kerchief,  107  (note),  201,  211 

(note),  355. 
Haori  (dress-coat  embroidered  with  crests), 

504,  534. 
Hara-kiri.    See  Scjypriku. 
Harbors,  25,  329-331,  348,  352,  363,  405,  406, 

419,  608. 
Hare,  582. 
Harima,  250. 

Harris,  Townsend,  Hon.,  283, 348, 401, 577, 595; 
Haruko,  36  (note),  80, 81. 
Hashiba.    See  Hideyoshi. 
Hashimoto  Sanai,  306  (note). 
Hashimoto,  Dr.,  306, 514, 585. 
Hashimoto  village,  409. 
Hatakeyama  Yoshinari,  399. 
Hatamoto,  270,  403,  586,  587. 
Hats,  355,  356,  357,  372,  426,  511, 546. 550, 
Hatoba,  331, 349. 
Hawaii,  567,  579-581. 
Hawking,  209. 
Hawks,  409. 

Hayashi,  Dai  Gakn  no  Kami,  303, 304 
Headache,  389. 
Head-dress,  397.    See  Hair. 
Headless  horsemen,  537. 
Heating  apparatus,  356, 414. 
Hei.    See  Taira. 
Heike  Monogatari,  122. 
Heishi.    See  Taira. 
Heir,  choice  of,  64,  557,  584. 
Heko,  Mr.,  548  (note),  580,  581, 
Helmets,  219,  366,  428. 
Hemi  village,  262. 
Hemp,  46,  422,  449,  531. 
Hepburn,  Dr.  J.  C,  160, 577,  588-590. 
Hero-worship,  87,  88, 160. 
Heron,  24, 177, 511. 
Hibachi.    See  Heating  apparatus. 
Hidenobn,  266. 

Hidetada,  256,  2S4,  285,  289,  290. 
Hideyasu,  272,  419  (note),  436. 
Hideyori,  245,  25.5,  256,  266,  284. 
Hideyoshi,  230,  236-246,  254,  255,  270,  410,436. 
Higashi  Kuze,  317. 
Higo,  42  (note),  274,  277,  523. 
Hikone,  231,  267,  310. 
Hildreth,  247  (note),  256,  271. 
Hime,  61  (note). 


INDEX. 


QQ\ 


Ilimeshima,  593. 

Hinin,  280,  540. 

Hiojjo,  120,  133, 190,  312,  393, 405, 406. 

Hirado, '254,  256,  2C1. 

Hiragana,  162, 174,  492. 

Hirata,  300. 

Hiroshima,  392,  394. 

Hirozawa,  312. 

History,  materials  of,  36^2,  29S,  299. 

nitots^iibashi,  503  (note).    See  Keiki. 

nin£:a,  5Si. 

Hiyeizan,  134,  232,  233. 

Hizen  clan,  321,  5T1,  575,  586. 

Hoffman,  Dr.  J.  J.,  quoted,  59. 

Hoffman,  J.  J.,  59  (note). 

Hogs,  3S2,  420,  543,  580. 

Hojo  family,  127, 128,  146-157,  165-181,  404. 

Hojo  of  Odawara,  217,  265. 

Hojo  Tokimasa.    See  Tokimasa. 

Hokliaido,  601,  605,  607. 

Hokke,  classic,  285. 

Holidays,  463.    See  Festivals. 

Hollanders,  258-260, 512  (note).    See  Lkitch. 

Hokusai,  30,  91, 107,  223,  236,  333,  357,  360,  365, 

379,  416,  426,  441,  442,  447,  487,  524,  528. 
Homio,  114,  2SS,  514. 
Homura,  350. 
Hondo,  17,  IS,  19,  27,  28,  29,  69,  84,  85,  IOC,  602- 

605. 
Honen,  145, 170. 
Honey,  510. 
Hongs,  337,  338. 
Honnoji,  231. 

Honor,  code  of,  156, 157, 191, 192,  221-225,  569. 
Horseback  game.    See  Polo. 
Horses,  340,  365,  366,  382,  427,  471,  512,  516, 

522,  619. 
Hosokawa  family,  274. 
Hosokawa  Yoriyuki,  193. 
Hospitals,  346,  400,  571. 
Hotels,  2S3,  414, 544,  550. 
Hot  springs,  21. 
Household  customs. 
Houses,  ancient,  90,  420,  435 ;  nnmber  of,  600. 

See  Vanhiki. 
Hubner,  Baron,  349. 
Hunting,  .'537. 

Hymn,  national,  387,  524,  565. 
Hymns,  Christian,  351,  577. 

I,  pronounced  as  i  in  machvie;  before  a  fln.il 
liquid,  as  i  in  tin.  For  names  in  Dutch 
books,  see  under  F  or  E. 

I  (rank),  139  (note). 

Ibuki  yama,  73,207,  231, 

Ice,  5S9. 

Idols,  387,  389,  510,  .'526.  541. 

Idzu,  121,  129,164,405. 

li,  Kamou  no  Kami,  305,  307,  401,  5.50. 


Ike  Island,  243. 

Ikeda,  230. 

Ikegami,  165. 

Ikk".    See  Shin  sect. 

Immortality  of  the  soul,  97, 161,  .555. 

Imperial  College  of  TokiO,  117  (note),  370-375, 

562,  563. 
Inaka,  488, 578. 
loamura  Saki,  154. 
Incense.    See  Censer. 
Indemnities,  311,  350,  377,  401,  575,  592-595. 
India,  34  (note).  111  (note),  159, 164, 174,  175. 
Indians  of  North  America,  29,  31,  299 ;  origin 

of,  579-581. 
Indigo,  531. 

Informers,  369.    See  Spies. 
Ink-stone,  390,  512. 
Inns.    See  Hotels. 
Inland  Sea,  55,  56,  57, 118, 119, 120. 
Inquisition,  252,  259,  263. 
Insects,  157,  550. 
lusurrections,  58,  05,  76, 105,  215,  216, 473,  575, 

606. 
Intemperance,  526. 
Interpreters,  213,  401,  548. 
Iris,  359. 

Iron,  22, 125,  602-605. 
Iron  Duke,  ship,  567. 
Irrigation,  63,  64,  90,  417,  418. 
Irving,  Washington,  524  (note),  537.   See  /up 

Van  Winkle  myths. 
Ise,  Mr.,523. 

Ise  (shrines),  61,  T3,  99, 179,  181. 
Ishida,  255. 
Ivory,  364,  502. 
Ivy,  439. 

Iwabuchi,  401,  402,  412,  422, 428,  440,  516,  5?8 
Iwakura  Tomomi,  312,  313,  321,  322,  399,  400, 

527,  573,  574. 
lyemitsu,  256,  285,  286,  287. 
lyemochi.  Prince  of  Kii,  289,  305,  312. 
lyesada,  273,  305. 
lyeyasu,  230,244, 255-257,  264-269, 270-272, 275, 

276,  280-286,  287,  323,  547,  583-585. 
lyeyoshi,  273. 
Izanagi,  44. 
Izanami,  45. 

J,  derived  from  chi  or  shi  by  nigori,  or  in  com- 
bination.   See,  also,  under  Y,  E,  or  Z. 
Jamcstmcn,  United  States  corvette,  593. 
Japonica.    See  Camellia. 
Jealousy,  451, 475, 557. 
Jean  Baptiste,  202,  263. 
Jenghiz  Khan.    See  Oenrihis  Khan. 
Jesuits,  197,  247-263,  293,  409,  57;. 
Jewels,  46,  50. 
Jews,  35,  337,  346. 
Ji.    See  Shi. 


668 


INDEX. 


Jimmn,  40,  51, 55,  56, 5S,  59. 

Jill  Gi  Kuan,  103. 

Jingn,  75^4,  406. 

Jiuko  tree,  400. 

Jiu-riki-sha,  334, 335, 54S,  5T0. 

Jito,  141. 

Jipangu,  247. 

JodO  sect,  162,  233,  290. 

Jo-i,  316,  3T3,  440. 

Joss-sticks,  3S0,  3S7, 498. 

Journe)',  439,  407,  471. 

Judges.    See  Laws,  Oka. 

Jugglers,  519,  525. 

Junks,  136,  419,  579-581. 

Jun-shi,  92,  272,  273. 

JurisprudeDce.    See  Laws. 

Justice,  department  of,  103.    See  Luics. 

K  becomes  g  by  nigori,  or  in  combination. 

Ka.    See,  also,  Kua. 

Kadoko,  183. 

Kadzusa,  131,  329,  573. 

Kaempfer,  50  (note),  293, 414. 

Kaga,  241,  530,  586.    See  Ma^da. 

Kago,  204,  366,  544. 

Kagoshima.  249, 802,  309,  377,  592,  593. 

Kai  Takii  Shi,  26  (note),  31,  605,  007. 

Kakke,  548  (note),  570. 

Kama-itachi,  482,  483. 

Kamakura,  131, 140, 143, 155, 156, 165,  176,  1S4, 

241,  261,  404. 
Kame  Ido,  400. 
Kami,  43,  72.    See  Shinto. 
Kami-shimo,  525,  534. 
Kano,  pictures  of,  479,  522. 
Kamo  River,  240. 
Kampira,  469, 474. 
Kanagawa,  346,  348,  349. 
Kan  da  MiO  Jin,  188,  454,  493. 
Kanda,  188. 
Kanda,  Mr.,  400. 
Kanazawa,  in  Sagami,  150,  404. 
Kaolin,  603. 
Kappa,  481,482,  525. 
Karafto.    See  Saghalin, 
KarOs,  310,  399,  403. 
Kashiwabara,  57. 
Kasiitera.    See  Sponge-cake. 
Katagana,  16,  162,  608. 
Kato  Hiroyuki,  320. 
Kato  Kiyomasa,  163,  220,  228,  243,  274,  311, 

315,  322. 
Katsii  Awa,  302,  303,  548,  564,  574. 
Katsuki  Keguro,  575. 
Katsuiye.    See  Shibata. 
Katsuyama,  536,  586. 
Kawasaki,  359,  360. 

Keiki,  274,  305,  310,  312, 313,  314,  315,  370. 
■^emperraan,  Mr.  P.,  96  (note). 


Ken,  or  prefectures,  526,  57T,  578,  600.     See 

Chiji. 
Kencho,  538,  598. 
Kerai,  217. 

Kerosene,  420.    See  Petroleum. 
Kido,  312,  319,  324,  574. 
Kii  family,  273,  586. 
Kii  promontory,  56, 57,  405,  608. 
Kinamera  Shirato,  523. 
Kinder,  Major  T.  W.,  607. 
Kin-giyo,  451. 
Kings,  195, 196  (note). 
Kioto,  110,  111,  134,  139,  156, 174, 185,  192,  194, 

249,  294, 307,  310,  317,  318, 573,  600,  608. 
Kiri  Take,  285. 
Kirin,  479,  480. 
Kirishima,  50,  55. 
Kirishitaii,  zaka,  dane,  gui,  262. 
Kishiu.    See  Kii. 
KisokaidO.    See  NakaseMo. 
Kisses,  208,  210. 

Kita  Maudocoro,  -241.    See  Azai. 
Kitchen,  445,  446. 
Kites,  221,  458. 

Kiushiu,  19, 42, 255,  277,  601,  604,  005. 
Kiyomidzii,  242. 
Kiyomori,  118, 119, 120, 133, 157. 
Kobau,  425,  ,506. 
Kobe,  405,  406. 
KobO  Daishi,  162, 175,  284. 
Kodzuke,  72  (note). 
Kogen,  188, 189. 
Kojiki,  39, 42, 51,  54. 
Kojima  Takanori,  152, 153. 
Koku,  273-275, 586,  005,  606. 
Kokura  clan,  277,  309. 
Kokushiu  daimios,  141,  274,  275,  288,  394  397 

407. 
Komatsu,  312. 
Komei  TennO,  36,  30.%  312. 
Kominato,  163. 
Konishi,  243,  244,  2.55,  267,  269. 
Kosatsu,  259,  362,  368,  369,  418, 573. 
KOshi  no  kuni,  42  (note). 
Kotatsii,  414,  416,  542. 
Kuambakn,  109, 196  (note),  237. 
Kuammu,  232. 
Kuan-gun,  184,  283. 
Kuan  on,  378. 
Kuaurei,  194. 

KuantO,  68, 117, 129, 141, 142,  392. 
Kublai  Khan,  176, 177. 
Kubo  sama,  193,  196  (note). 
Kudan  zaka,  374. 
Kuge.    See  Court  noble. 
KugiO,  148. 

Kumagaye.    See  Naozaite. 
Kumamoto,  523. 
Knno  Zau,  284,  285,  296. 


INDEX. 


669 


Kiiriles,  17,  32,  246,  5T9,  580. 

Kuro  Shiwo,  25,  27,  299,  579-581. 

Kuroda  family,  274. 

Kuroda  Kiyotaka,  576. 

Kasakabe  TarO,  430,  431. 

Kusauojiro,  177. 

Kusunoki  Masashige,  152, 182, 190, 191,  406. 

Kusunoki  Masatsura,  191,  219. 

Kawana,  313,  411. 

L.  There  is  no  letter  I  iu  Japanese.  The 
name  Liu  Kiu  is  Chinese  ;  Japanese,  Kiu 
Kill.  The  Kurile,  or  Kuril,  Islauds  derive 
their  name  from  the  Russian  Kuril,  to 
smoke,  from  the  active  volcanoes  ou  them. 
Saghalin  is  Russian.  See  under  M. 
L:iborers,  132,  2S0,  355,  361,  393,  426,  529.    See 

Coolies. 
Lacquer,  99, 15T,  204, 219, 220,  366,  398, 527,  549. 
Lake  Biwa.    See  Biica. 
Lamps,  446,  447,  460,  525. 
Land,  107, 194,  216,  272,  277,  5S3-5S6,  605-607. 
Landscape.    See  Scenery. 
Language,  211,  212,  213,  260,  338,  580. 
Language,  AinO,  29,  .33. 
Lanterns,  stone,  or  bronze,  273,  287-290,  381, 

507. 
Lanterns,  paper,  375,  439,  495,  507,  528,  541. 
Lavatory,  288,  380. 
Laws,  149,  369,  568,  569,  583-585. 
Lawyers,  569. 
Lead,  602-605. 
Lecky,  Mr.,  197,  259. 
Legacy  of  lyeyasii,  583-5S5. 
Legation,  340,  400,  401,  567,  593. 
Legends,  491-503.    See  M>/thology. 
Leprosy,  570. 

Letters,  SO,  83,  91,  92, 162,  212, 213. 
Libraries,  111,  150,  431, 432. 
Lies,  295,  304,  469. 
Liggins,  Rev.  J.,  512. 
Light-houses,  405,  60S. 
Lilies,  132,  412. 

Lions,  510,  5S2. 

Lips,  painted,  455. 

Lists  of  shOguns,  156, 197,  273. 

Literature,  92,  213,  320. 

Lin  Kin,  122,  248,  276,  505,  571. 

Locks,  366. 

Longevity,  58,  60,  93, 102, 4S7. 

'•  Lost  Tribes  of  Israel, "3.5,  56  (note). 

Lotus,  163.  384,  .394,  437,  439. 

Love,  208,211,474. 

Lowder,  Mr.  J.  F.,  5'*3. 

Lucky  days  and  sisns,  466-473L 

Lucy,  Mr.  Alfred,  533. 

Lu-wen,  503. 

Luzon,  246. 

Lyman,  Prof.  B.  S.,  19  (note),  26  (note),  605. 


Mabuchi,  300. 

Macao,  560,  567. 

Macaroni,  422. 

Maeda,  241. 

Mai-da  family,  274. 

McDougall,  Captain,  593. 

Magataraa,  jewels,  46,  53,  93. 

Magistrates,  584.    See  Laws. 

Magnet,  509. 

Mails,  .590,  591.    See  Postman. 

Maimed  persons,  472,  570,  COO. 

Main  island.     See  Hondo. 

Malays,  26  (note),  27,  S7,  246. 

Males  and  females,  600,  601. 

Mandokoro,  140. 

Manganese,  603. 

Manners,  211,  223,  224,  361,  413,  423,  428,  430, 

517,  524,  528,  570. 
Manufactures,  202-204,  224,  225,  698,  606,  60T, 

608. 
Manure,  25,  546,  606. 
Maple-tree,  211  (note),  582. 
Maps,  17,  27,  55  (note),  66,  84  (note),  243,  2S6, 

363,  391,  392,  519,  547,  580,  588,  601,  605,  009. 
Marble,  603. 

Marco  Polo,  176, 177,  247,  249,  512. 
Maria  Luz,  ship,  567. 
Marine.    See  Naval, 
Marriage,  32,  44,  58,  93,  94,  108,  110,  115, 117, 

277,  352,  43S,  467,  552, 560,  585. 
Martyrs,  256-259,  263,  305,  306,  554. 
Maruoka,  531,  532,  586. 
Masago,  127, 147, 148, 150. 
Masakado,  187, 188. 
Masses,  Buddhist,  252,  285, 509. 
Matches,  357,  446. 
Matsudaira,  271. 
Matsudaira,  Echizen  no  kami,  305,  308,  313, 

397, 403. 
Matsudaira,  Mochiaki,  428,  429,  525,  527,  528, 

533-535. 
Matsumae,  299. 
Matsumoto,  Dr.,  400. 
Matsuri,  513,  525. 
Matsuyama,  547. 
Maxims.    See  Proverbs. 
Mayeda.    See  Maeda. 
Mayeshima,  H.,  591. 
Meals.    See  Diet. 
Mechanical  arts,  202,  203,  225,  227,  355-358, 

304-306,  40S,  513, 516-523,  607,  608. 
Medicine,  80, 206,  207,  467,  571. 
Medusa,  Dutch  man-of-war,  593. 
Melons,  510. 
Memorial  tablets,  439. 
Mendez  Pinto.    See  Pinto. 
'  Merchants,  125, 132,  278,  337,  338,  426, 565, 566, 
I      000. 
I  Mermaid,  390, 488,  521. 

43 


670 


INDEX. 


Merman,  488. 

Metals,  22, 125, 199-204,  408,  602-605. 

Metempsychosis,  161, 169,  251,  390. 

Meteorology,  tables,  etc.,  5SS-590. 

Mexican  dollars,  332,  353,  357,  40T. 

Mexico,  299  ;  Appendix  I. 

Miako.    See  Kioto. 

Mica,  207  (note),  603, 

Mice,  521. 

Michiari,  179. 

Michizaue,  115, 116. 

Miidera,  134,  200. 

Mikado,  39, 101, 102, 113, 123, 185, 186, 187, 480. 

See  Mutsuhito. 
Mikuni,  176,  521,  522. 
Military  arts,  65. 
Military  classes,  104,  595-597. 
Military  establishment,  595-597. 
Military  families.    See  Claiis,  Taira,  and  Mi- 

narrwto. 
Military  government,  141.    See  Bakrtfn,  Mi- 

namoto. 
Military  system,  65, 104, 141,  218,  595-597. 
Military  tactics,  218,  595-597. 
Military  weapons,  59, 214,  228,  366, 595-597. 
Millet,  355. 

Mills,  410, 513, 592, 608. 
Mimidzuka,  245. 
Minamoto  family,  109,  124,  146,  147,  148,  ISS, 

214,  215,  216,  270,  271,  5S5. 
Minatogawa,  190. 
Mineral  wealth,  22,  602-605. 
Mines,  283,  602-605. 
Mining  laws,  602. 
Mino,  230,  392,  544, 545. 
Minobu  mountain,  165. 
Mint,  286,  607,  60S. 
Miracle-figures,  388-390. 
Mirror,  46,  364. 
Mishima,  548. 
Missionaries,  Buddhist,  83,  159,  160, 162,  174, 

175. 
Missionaries,  Christian,  247-263,  344,  345, 577, 

578. 
Mississippi  Bay,  330,  340. 
Mitford,  Mr.  A.  B.,  quoted,  287. 
Mito  family,  273,  274,  298,  305,  394. 
Mito,  Prince  of,  298,  301,  394. 
Mito,  city.    See  on  map,  Ibaraki. 
Mitsukuri,  320. 

Mitsuoka,  526, 536,  538,  563,  574. 
Miya,  61,  99. 

Moats,  240,  280,  370,  394,  396. 
Mochi,  455,  472, 497. 
Mom-ban,  436. 

Monasteries,  140, 199,  232,  233,  234. 
Money,  104. 2S(i,  425, 495. 496,  547, 607, 608,  610. 
Money-order  system,  591. 
Mongols,  176-181,  422. 


Monkey  and  crab,  493,  494. 

Monkeys,  24,  237,  382,  420,  495,  511,  542. 

Monks,  140, 199, 525. 

Mouogatari,  40,  122,  213. 

Monto.    See  Shin  sect. 

Monuments,  41, 157,  200, 203,  514.    See  Tombs, 

Memorial  Stones. 
Monzeki  temple,  362,  563. 
Moon-goddess,  49,  582. 
Morality,  80,  94,  209,  515,'.569,  570,  573. 
Morality  in  Yokohama,  209,  344. 
MOri  Arinori,  100  (note),  390,  400,  576. 
Mori  family,  238, 241,  275,  309,  310,  311,  313. 
I  Moriyoshi,  152, 183, 184,188. 
Mosquito-nets,  528. 
Mother's  memorial,  168, 169, 170. 
Mothers,  examples  of,  163,  164,  181,  190,  444, 

445,  502,  559. 
Mountains,  18,  477. 
Mourning  dress,  438. 
Motoiiri,  100,  300. 
Mosa,  207, 468. 
MukOjima,  400. 
Mulberry,  46,  544,  582. 
Muuemori,  139. 
Mnngero  Nakahama,  580. 
Munroe,  Prof.  Henry  S.,  19,  26  (note),  605. 
Murray,  Dr.  David,  563  (note). 
Music,  47, 523,  525. 
Muskets,  248. 

Mustaches,  31, 217,  425,  478. 
Mutsu,  126. 

Mutsuhito,  36,  38,  313, 317,  318, 400, 562-566. 
Mythical  creatures,  477^188,  525,  549. 
Mythology,  43-53,  54-58,  72,  78,  526. 

Nagare  KanjO,  168,  169, 170. 

Nagasaki,  240,  255,  256,  299,  391,  570. 

Nagato.    See  Choshiu. 

Nabeshlma,  586. 

Nagoya,  546. 

Nai  Dai  Jin,  103,  230. 

Naiguai,  66,  67. 

Nakamura  (soldier),  403, 404,  410-412,  423,  427. 

Nakamura  (village),  236. 

Nakamura  Masanawo,  320,  548. 

NakasendO,  266. 

Nakatomi,  51, 103. 

Names  of  Japan,  17,  44,  59  ;  of  mikados,  113, 
123  ;  of  provinces,  42,  74,  601 ;  of  the  peer- 
age, 109;  of  families,  117,  236;  of  feudal 
families,  216,  217,  271-276  ;  of  shOguns,  156, 
197,  273  ;  of  Government  departments,  598; 
of  horses,  512  ;  of  Hidiiyoshi,  236,  237 ;  of 
ships,  597 ;  titles  of  mikado,  39 ;  of  sbOgun, 
197,  286,  295 ;  of  daimiOs,  276. 

Naniwa,  56,  407. 

Nantaizan,  18,  284. 

Nanushi,  418, 428. 


INDEX. 


671 


Naozane,  144, 145. 

Nara,  110,  111,  199,  213. 

Nature,  473,  47T. 

Naval  architecture,  136, 177,  246,  256, 419,  579, 
597. 

Naval  battles,  136, 137, 13S,  139, 177. 

Naval  enterprise,  240,  597. 

Navy,  343,  362,  397,  504,  597. 

Needles,  207,  210,  505. 

Nepotism,  110, 119, 120, 147,  577. 

Neutrality,  331. 

Newspapers,  319,  337,  342,  352, 568, 590, 591. 

New-year's-day,  340,  352,  562. 

Ng  ;  for  this  combiuatiou,  see  under  G. 

Nichireu,  103, 104, 165,  100. 

Nichiren  sect,  233,  404. 

NichizO,  165. 

Night  scenes,  447,  456,  460,  52S,  529. 

Nigori,  the  impure  or  soft  sound  of  a  conso- 
nant, expressed  in  Japanese  by  two  dots 
or  a  circle.  Chi  or  shi  by  nigori  become 
ji;  ho,  bo,  po ;  tew,  dzu;  su,  zu;  ku,  gu; 
fo,  bo;  etc.,  etc. 

Nigrito,  S6,  87. 

Nihon  Bashi,  309,  378. 

Xi?ion  Giiai  Shi,  298,  299,  545. 

Nihongi,  39,  42,  51. 

Niigata,  573. 

NikkO,  2S4,  2S5,  287,  480. 

.\i7,M.M.  S.  S.,405. 

Ningpo,  195. 

Ninigi,  50,  51. 

Ni-0,  380. 

Niphon.    See  Hondo. 

Nippon,  17. 

Nirvana,  158, 100, 101,  340,  387,  437. 

Nitsuki,  364,  365. 

Nitta  Yoshisada,  154,  155,  182,  184,  189,  190, 
404,  419  (note),  422. 

No,  Japanese  particle  o/,  sometimes  omitted, 
sometimes  expressed.  E.  g.,  Fuji  yama  or 
Fuji  no  yama. 

Nobles,  93;  orders  of,  103;  families,  108; 
number,  OOO. 

Nobori,  439, 403. 

Nobunaga,  236,  238,  250,  270,  275,  276. 

Norimono,  417. 

North-east,  472. 

Northern  dynasty,  189, 192. 

Numadzu,  548. 

Numagawa,  Mr.,  523. 

Nunneries.    See  Convents. 

Nuns,  139  (note),  175  (note),  199,  600. 

Nursery  rhymes,  405. 

0,  pronounced  as  o  in  6on«.  O  denotes  pro- 
longed 0. 

0,  prefix,  meaning  great,  large,  imperial.  39 
(note). 


O  (king),  39  (note),  196,  295, 380. 

O,  honorary  prefix,  to  be  neglected  in  ana^ 
lyzing  a  word. 

O  Island,  405.    See  Oshiriia. 

O  Kura  ShO,  103, 104. 

Oak,  78. 

Oath,  226,  256,  280, 310. 

Obedience,  390,  465,  559,  570. 

Obiko,  65. 

Occupations,  32,  33,  63, 194, 193-208,  279-281, 
600. 

Ocean,  18,  24,  508. 

Ochre,  003. 

Odaui,  544. 

Odawara,  205,  392,  549. 

Odes. 

OdOri.    See  Tori. 

Officials,  103, 104, 140, 141,  190  (note),  295,  322, 
349,  520,  530. 

Ogaki,  207,  268,  394,  545. 

Ogasawara  Morinori,  428,  536. 

Oho.     See  O. 

Oils,  22,  446,  513. 

Oji,  374, 400,  548  (note). 

Ojin,  TennO,  79, 117, 410,  411,  419  (note),  610. 

Oka,  the  judge,  500-502. 

Okasaki,  265. 

Oki  Island,  151. 

Old,  minister  of  education,  1872, 1873  ;  coun- 
selor of  state,  322,  580. 

Okubo,  Governor  of  Sado,  250. 

Okubo  IchiO,  315,  548. 

Okubo  Toshimiti,  302,  303,  312,  317,  318,  319, 
321,  322,  399,  574^76. 

Omens,  46,  56,  57,  64,  77,  242,  243.  207,  449, 406- 
473. 

Ometsuke.    See  Spies. 

Omi,  418,  544,  545. 

Omura,  250,  253. 

Omida,  U.  S.  S.,  329,  592. 

Onna  Dai  Gaku.    See  '^  Woman'' s  Great  Stu- 

_  dy." 

Ono,  531. 

Oo,  sound  of  00  in  boot.    See  under  IT. 

Open  ports,  306,  312, 317, 348,  349,  352, 598, 590, 
004. 

Opium,  570. 

Opium  War,  418. 

Oranges,  331,  42S,  430,  431,  517,  546. 

Ordeal,  92. 

Oregonian,  P.  M.  S.  S.,  404,  405. 

Origin  of  AiuO,  28 ;  of  North  American  In- 
dians, 479. 

Osei  era,  103, 104,  300,  578. 

Oshima,  121, 122, 154. 

Ota,  229.    See  Nobunaga. 

Ola  Dokuan,  264,  205. 

Otaui,  255. 

Otoko  yama,  410. 


672 


INDEX. 


Otokodate,  279. 
Otsu.    See  Shiga. 
Owari  family,  273,  545,  546. 
Owo.    See  O. 

Ox,  24,  382, 497,  498,  509,  580,  607. 
Oyama,  154. 

Oye  no  Hiromoto,  141, 143. 
Oye  Taku,  338. 

Ozaka,  56,  232,  233,  234,  240,  256,  266,  269,  277, 
313,  314, 407, 408. 

P  is  the  second  modification  of  h  ov  /,  and 
the  first  of  b.  Probably  no  pure  Japanese 
word  begins  with  p  except  onomatopes, 
or  children's  words.  Double  p  (pp)  in  a 
compound  word  is  the  strengthening  of  a 
vowel  and  an  aspirate  iuto  two  explosives, 
a  sign  of  careless  speaking,  and  lack  of 
cultivation.  The  repetition  of  the  vowel 
and  aspirate  is  the  mark  of  good  lingual 
breeding.  Nihon  and  Yohodo  of  the  Japa- 
nese gentleman  are  far  more  elegant  than 
Nippon  and  Yoppodo  of  the  common  peo- 
ple. One  can  tell  a  person  of  cultivation 
by  this  one  sound. 

Pacific  Mail  S.  S.  Company,  327,  328,  350,  384. 

Pacific  Ocean,  327,  328,  546. 

Paddy-field.    See  Agriculture. 

Page,  428. 

Page,  Leon,  247  (note). 

Pagodas,  88, 114, 1G5, 175,  204,  381,  392,  480. 

Paintings,  879,  383. 

Palace,  61,  62. 

Palm-trees,  88. 

Paper,  221,  375,  582. 

Paper  money,  425,  598. 

Pappenberg  (island),  240,258. 

Parental  authority,  123,  124, 147. 

Pariahs.    See  Eta.  ' 

Parkes,  Sir  Harry,  quoted,  100,  317,  577. 

Pauloumia  imperialis,  67, 581,  608. 

Peach,  521,  582. 

Peachling,  521. 

Pears,  510,  517,607. 

Pear-splitter,  220, 433. 

Pearson,  Lieutenant,  U.  S.  N.,  593. 

Peasantry,  106, 107,  255,  257,  606. 

Pease,  381,  454. 

Pembroke,  steamer,  593-595. 

Penal  settlements,  600. 

Peony,  582. 

Perfumes,  210,  520,  527. 

Perry,  Commodore,  181, 303,  304,  329,  347,  348, 
577. 

Perry  island,  329. 

Persecution  of  the  Christians,  257,  531. 

Persimmons,  331,  494,  517,  543. 

Peru,  299,  566,  567. 

Pet  animals,  210,  449. 


Petitions,  110,  574. 

Petroleum,  21,  525,  546, 60i, 

Phallic  symbols,  33. 

Pheasants,  582. 

Phenix,  480,  481,  581. 

Philip  IL  of  Spain,  250. 

Philippine  Islands,  246,  257. 

Physicians,  207,  571,  505. 

Physique,  329-332,  570,  571. 

Pickapack  riding,  354,  548. 

Picnics,  205,  4S7,  521,  523. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  Hon.,  401. 

Pigeon,  127,  128  (note),  381,  50S. 

Pilgrims,  200,  205,  252,  387,  358,  3SS,  406,  40T. 

Pillory,  190,  309,  361,  581. 

Pillows,  423,  497. 

Pine-trees,  358,  581. 

Pinto,  247,  248,  249. 

Pipes,  30,  33, 347, 421,  423,  500,  501,  515,528. 

Pirates,  119,  246. 

Pith  flowers,  380. 

Plows,  607. 

Plum-tree  blossoms,  384,  428,  431,  582. 

Plumbago,  C02. 

Poetry,  145,  210,  265,  457,  511,  519,  581. 

Police,  350,  550,  508. 

Polo,  529,  530. 

Polygamy,  32, 108,  209,  211,  241,  556,  557. 

Pope,  250. 

Population,  600,  601,  605. 

Porcelain,  423,  517,  530,  546,  616. 

Portman,  Mr.,  340. 

Portuguese,  243,  247-263, 545,  577, 602. 

Postal  cards,  591. 

Postal  statistics,  590,  591. 

Posthumous  names  and  titles,  285,  288. 

Postman,  542,  546,  590,  591. 

Post-offices,  590,  591. 

Post-relays,  264. 

Potatoes,  355. 

Prayers,  34,  89,  92, 98, 99, 153, 156, 164, 169, 178, 

179, 181,  228,  347,  382,  410,  419,  524,  549. 
Praying  machines,  382,  389. 
Preaching,  510,  511,  523. 
Presents,  422,  430,  517,  520,  539. 
Press,  the.    See  Neivspapers. 
Priests.    See  Donzes,  Shinto. 
Princes  of  the  blood,  109,  IIG,  5C3  (note),  505, 

590,  591,  60S,  196  (note). 
Printing,  351,  492,  .520,  548. 
Prisons,  165, 184,  568,  569,  572,  588. 
Processions,  139,  294,  348,  353,  464,  525,  545, 

565,  592. 
Prostitutes,  139, 195,  405,  556,  572. 
Protestant  Christians,  578. 
Proverbs,  146,  376,  437,  457,  498,  504-511,  553. 
Provinces,  names  of,  74,  601. 
Pruyn,  Hon.  Robert  H.,  401,  594,  595. 
Pseudo-mikado,  188. 


INDEX. 


673 


Pullman  cars,  ^34. 
Punch,  The  Japan,  352. 
Puus,  304,  37'.»,  465,  469,  471. 
Purgatory,  169,  ITO,  228. 
Purple,  46T,  499. 

Q.    See  Kill,  Kua,  or  Ka. 
Quanon.    See  Kuanon. 
Qnarter-staflf,  219. 
Quartz,  603.    See  Crystal, 
Quicksilver,  602-605. 
Quivers,  227. 

R  in  ri  sounds  lilje  dr. 

Babbit  or  hare,  420,  495,  582. 

Races  in  Japan,  27,  S6. 

Radishes,  355,  409,  410,  501. 

Rai  Sanyo,  155,  298. 

RaibiO,  570. 

Raiden,  484-486. 

RaikO,  491, 492. 

Railways,  343,  351,  361,  473,  514,  550,  56.5. 

Rain,  479,  5S9. 

Rain-coat,  90,  265. 

Ranks,  103,  237,  276,  321,  323,  324. 

Ranters,  163. 

Ratification  of  the  treaties,  306,  312,  317. 

Rationalists,  52,  53,  58. 

Rats,  409,  449,  450. 

Rebellion.    See  Insurrections. 

Reception  of  Perry,  303,  304,  329,  347,  348. 

Reception  at  Washington,  324. 

Red  tape,  349. 

Refreshments,  428,  431.    See  Diet,  Dinner. 

Regalia  of  the  Japanese  sovereigns,  50,  58, 

61,  122,  136,  139, 1S4. 
Regents,  79,  109, 110,  244,  206,  305. 
Relay  towns,  264,  422. 
Relics,  40,  111  (note). 
Religion,  33,  34,  52,  61,  SO,  83, 8S,  89,  92,  95,  90- 

100, 15S-175,  300,  301,  323,  555,  561,  578. 
Remington  rifles,  411. 
RenuiO,  173. 
Rents  of  land,  58.5,  606. 
Representative  government,  566,  574. 
Resemblances  between  Buddhism  and  Ro- 
man Christianity,  252. 
Revenge,  135-139,  222,  474. 
Revenue,  109, 140,  273,  274,  27.5,  278,  !59S.     See 

Taxes. 
Revivals   of  pure   Shinto,  300 ;    of  ancient 

learning,  298;  of  Buddhism,  16.3. 
Rice,  30,  48,  49,  53,  104,  107,  143,  273,  278,  355, 

372,  381,  409,  415,  418,  423,  470,  496,  509,  515, 

523,  .586,  60.5-607. 
Richardson,  Mr.,  .3!59,  592. 
Ridrtles,  40.5. 
RidiniT,  .366..52S,  529. 
aifles,  311,  350,  513,  596. 


Rinnoji  no  miya,  2S5. 

Rio,  104,  425,  610. 

Rip  Van  Winkle  myths,  498,  502,  503. 

Riu  Kiu.    See  Liu  Kiu. 

Rivers  of  Japan,  20. 

Roads,  267,  283,  340, 353-362,  411,  412,  41T,  41S, 
541-550,  608.    See  Railways. 

Robbers,  120, 140, 195,  389,  390,  546. 

RokugO  River,  360. 

Roman  Catholicism  and  Buddhism,  resem- 
blances, 252. 

Roman  letters,  591. 

ROnin,  223,  27S,  307,  309,  315,  310,  373,  574. 

Roofs,  90,  286,  290,  382.    See  Thatch. 

Rooms,  205,  435. 

Roses,  505. 

Rosaries,  beads,  165,  169,  252,  379,  383,  400, 
420. 

Russians,  299,  331,  337,  348,  350,  485, 577. 

Rutgers  College,  431,  533  (note),  503  (note). 

S,  always  sibilant,  as  s  iu  sip.    In  combina- 
tion, z.    See  under  J  and  Z. 
Sabae,  474,  531,  586. 
Sabbath,  420,  439. 
Sacrifices,  human,  92 ;  animals,  98. 
Sadamori,  18S  (note). 
Sado,  22, 157,  283,  604. 
Sadowara,  on  map.    See  Miyazaki. 
Saddles,  427. 
Saga,  S75. 

Sagami,  04,  70, 131, 132,  262,  573. 
Sagfcalin,  17,  299,  505,  600. 
SaigO  Kichinosiike,  302,  312,  315. 
SaigO  Yorimichi,  21S,  563,  516,  577. 
Saikei,  or  SaikiO. '  See  Kioto. 
Sailors,  native,  246,  3S3,  493. 
Sailors,  foreign,  347,  350,  49.1,  542. 
Sajima,  188  (note). 
Sakadori,  537. 

Sake,  31,  207,  208,  331,357,  4S8.    • 
Saknrada  Avenue,  307,  394. 
Salt,  97,  387,  442,  467, 470, 511 ,  603. 
Salt-making,  .546. 
Sama,  title,  39  (note),  237. 
Sameshima,  400. 
Samisen,  364,  408. 
Sam  Patch,  548,  580. 
Samurai,  S3, 106, 108,  278,  426,  574,  600, 
Sandals,  .356,  380. 
Sandwich  Islands,  579-581. 
Sanetomo,  148. 

SanjO  Saneyoshi,  309,  313,  563. 
Sanke,  273,  397. 
Sanskrit,  162, 169,  245,  387,  4-10. 
Sapporo,  60S. 
Saratoga,  Cape,  329. 
Saris,  261. 
Sasaki  Gonroku,  424,  513,  510,  537. 


674 


INDEX. 


Satow,  Mr.  Ernest,  26,  39,  96,  100,  298,  305 

(note). 
Satsuma,  Prince  of,  302, 592,  593. 
Satsuma,  clan,  26T,  269,  274,  276,  277,  300,  301, 

302,  312,  313,  321,  571,  592,  593. 
Savatier's,  Eniimeratio,  23,  24. 
Sawa  Nobuyoshi,  309. 
Sawing,  365. 

Sayouara,  359,  413,  418,  541. 
Scenery,  57,  82,  S3,  91,  112,  118,  128, 154,  205, 

418-425,  436,  437,  473,  474,  477,  478,  503,  514, 

523,  537,  541-550. 
Schools,  370-374,  431-434,  523,  538,  561,  563 

(note),  573. 
Science,  477,  478,  488. 
Scissors,  357. 
Scolding,  444,  497. 
Screens,  317,  364,  422,  523, 581, 582. 
Sculling,  33,  331,  332,  406. 
Sculpture.    See  Carving. 
Sea-god,  498. 
Seal  of  blood,  256,  285. 
Seasons,  25,  588,  590. 
Sea-weed,  25,  90,  494. 
Sects  of  Buddhism,  162, 163, 164, 175. 
Secular  emperor,  140, 185. 
Sei-i  Tai  ShOgun,  142,  274,  312,  313. 
Seki.    See  Gates. 
Sekigahara,  222,  255,  266,  267,  268,  269,  278, 

545. 
Semman.    See  Sanetomo. 
Heiniramis,  French  man-of-war,  593. 
Sendai,  586. 

Seppuku,  156, 190,  221,  240,  272,  814,  511. 
Serpents.    See  Snakes. 
Servants,  342,  443-445. 
Servility,  255,  430. 
Sesamum  Orientals,  380. 
S6to  uchi.    See  Inland  Sea. 
Settsu,  62,  409. 
Shaka.    See  Buddha. 
Sheep,  606. 

Shells,  210,  406,  407,  459,  499. 
Shem  Mon  Gakko,  538.    Incorporated  with 

the  Imperial  College,  which  see. 
Shepherd,  Colonel  Charles  O.,401,  568. 
Shi.    See  under  Ji. 
Shiba,  287, 288,  289,  290. 
Shibata  Katsuiye,  230,  238,  239,  240,  241,  435, 

.'J37. 
Shidziiiika,  261,  284,  304,  547,  548. 
Shiga,  413,  414. 
Shigemori,  419. 
Shikken,  150. 
Shikokii,  113,  277,  586. 
Shimabara,  257. 

Shimadzu  family.    See  Satsuma  Clan, 
Shimadzu  Saburo,  312,  592. 
Shimoda,  348. 


Shimojo,  Mr.,  547. 

Shimonoseki,  135,  139,  311,  377,  392,  575,  593- 

595. 
Shinagawa,  362. 
Shinano,  72,  267  (note),  573,  OOS. 
ShinnO,  187. 
Shinran,  170,  400,  538. 
Shin  sect,  170, 173, 174,  233,  234. 
Shinto,  88 ;  model  of  temple,  90 ;  festivals,  92, 

160,  251,  300,  301,  410,  411,  419  ;  shrines,  600. 
Ships.    See  Naval. 
Shiro  yama.    See  Uakuzan. 
ShOdO,  284. 
Shoes,  357. 

ShOgun,  65, 142, 156, 197,  273,  313. 
ShOgunate.    See  Bakufu. 
Shops,  356,  364,  365,  370,  378,  379,  546, 550. 
ShOyen,  141. 

Shrines,  71,  89,  436,  600.    See  Temples. 
Shu-ten  dOji,  492,  493. 
Shutoku,  ISS. 
Si.    See  under  Shi. 
Siam,  111,  246. 
Siberia,  26,  27,  364. 
Sidotte,  Abbe,  262,  263. 
Silk,  S3  (note),  607. 
Silver,  602-605,  608. 
Singing-girls.    See  Geisha. 
Single  combats,  1S9,  218. 
Sitting  posture,  31,  356,  365,  413,  421,  445. 
Six  guards,  275. 
Slavery,  570. 

Slave-trade,  244,  24S,  254,  566,  567. 
Sleep,  421,423,468,  472. 
Small-i)OX,  468,  470,  549. 
Smoking,  25S,  347,  372,  421,  500,  501,  528,  532, 

570. 
Snakes,  58,  389, 510,  525. 
Snow,  25,  83  (note),  124,  404,  413,  420,  459,  540 

-545,  589. 
Snow-shoes,  421,  542. 
SO  family,  242. 
Soap,  356,  546. 
Social  customs,  32-34,  53,  93,  94, 105-107, 169, 

170,  208-213,  222-224,  228,  435-440,  452-475, 

556-561. 
Soil,  19,  20,  91,  296, 605-607. 
Soldiers,  366. 

Solomon,  the  Japanese,  500-502. 
Songs,  34,  47,  332, 401,  402,  432  (note),  454,  495, 

541. 
Sosanoo,  45, 48,  49. 
Sovereigns,  list  of,  123. 
Soul,  460,  472. 

Southern  dynasty,  18S,  1S9, 192. 
Soy  (shOyu),  208,  357,  455,  496. 
Spaniards,  250,  25.5,  258,  577. 
Sparrows,  223,  505,  527. 
Spear  exercise,  433. 


INDEX. 


675 


Spears,  13S,  219,  311, 420,  5T4. 

Spiders,  58,  493. 

Spies,  68,  69, 144,  296,  3G9. 

Spire,  381. 

Spiritual  emperor,  140,  ISS. 

Sponge-cake,  258,  260,  428,  51T. 

Sports,  209,  350,  452-465. 

Sportsmen,  394,  397,  549. 

Springs,  21, 128. 

Stature,  4T0,  596. 

Steamboat,  414,  415,  507. 

Steamships,  328,  339, 347, 575,  597. 

Steatite,  603. 

Stirrups,  366,  457,  530. 

Stockings,  373,  434, 537. 

Stone  Age,  29. 

Stonewall,  iron-clad  ram,  72,  362,  597. 

Stories,  35, 490-503. 

Storks,  24,  409,  420. 

Storms,  25,1 78, 188,  479,  525,  589. 

Story-telle-      '^3, 491. 

Stowaways,  bj.> 

Straw,  90,  .358,  360,  426. 

Street-cries,  333,  427. 

Street-tumblers,  332. 

Students  in  America,  57, 329, 358, 522, 523,  563. 

Succession  to  the  throne,  64, 110. 

Sucking  breath,  211  (note),  222, 524, 

Sugaru,  486. 

Sngawara,  109, 115, 116,  400. 

Suicide,  144,  156,  190,  221,  240,  315,  473,  556 

(note). 
Suido,  188  (note). 
Sujin,  60-«7. 
Sulphur,  21,  602-605. 
Sumida  River,  131,  378, 482. 
Sumpn,  547  (note).    See  ShidzHoka. 
Sunday,  260,  402,  426. 
Sunday-schools,  351,  426. 
Suu-goddess,  48. 
Sun-worship,  56,  97,  580. 
Superstition,  25,  466-468,  570. 
Surface  of  the  country,  17-25,  63,  64,  21S,  220, 

411,  412,  596. 
Surgeons,  221,  306  (note),  375, 571  (note). 
Snrnga,  64,  69, 131,  132,  230,  265,  284,  370, 374, 

415,  547,  548,  573. 
Snrnga  dai,  374,  599. 
Sutras,  203. 
Suwo,  250. 

Suzume,  47,  48,  53,  491. 
Swans,  397. 

Sweetmeats,  359,  422,  517,  548. 
Sweet-potatoes.  355,  517,  646. 
Sword-racks,  372,  415,  434,  550. 
Swords,  49,  69,  154,  155,  221-225,  366,  370,  374- 

376,  ."509,  525. 
Symbolism,  50,  53, 160,  227,  425,  437,  474,  488, 

4S7,  488,  581,  532,  607, 608. 


T  in  combination,  d. 

Tables.  260, 423,  424,  533,  541. 

Tablets,  289,  381,  383,  440. 

Tachibana  hime,  70. 

Tachibana,  70. 

Tadamori,  118. 

TaikO,  237.    See  Hideyoshi. 

Taikun,  273  (note),  286,  287,  295,  304-367. 

Taira  family,  109,  115-139,  188,  214,  215,  216, 

229,  230,  406,  419,  617. 
Taka  Island,  ISl. 
Takanawa,  362,  400. 
Takashimaya,  Mr.,  334. 
Takeda,  217. 

Takefu,  170.  419,  422, 423,  541. 
Takenouchi,  79, 419  (note). 
Takiang,  steamer,  593. 
Tales.    See  Folk-lore. 
Tamagushi,  46. 
Tametomo,  121, 122. 
Tamura,  28. 

Tancrede,  French  man-of-war,  593. 
Tauegashima,  248. 
Tanners.    See  Eta. 
Tartars,  35. 
Tartary,  176-181. 
Tatsu  no  kuchi,  177. 
Tattooing,  32,  512. 
Taxes,  63,  104,  106, 107, 140, 141, 151,  205,  217, 

598,  006. 
Tayasu  Kamenosuke,  564. 
Tea,  112,  337,  357,  360,  387,  388,  409,  410,  415, 

471,  472,  542,  599. 
Tea-crop,  599. 

Tea-houses,  35S,  359,  388,  523,  542. 
Teachers,  83, 109, 150,  204,  371,  527,  563,  577. 
Teeth,  32,  80,  210,  211  (note),  359,  382,  469,  507, 

544. 
Telegraphs,  343,  350,  473,  545,  575,  608. 
Temples,  61,  70,  79,  88,  90-97,  99, 131, 157, 173, 

199,  204,  206,  228,  229,  232,  242,  245,  252,  284, 

285,  287-290,  378-390,  406,  410,  411, 419,  438. 
Temujin,  144  (note). 
Ten  ShO  Dai  Jin.    See  AmaterasH. 
Tengn,  469,  487. 
Tenjin,  116, 144  (note). 
TennO,  36,  39. 
Terashima  Munenori,  399. 
Terraces,  64,  90,  91,  417,  418. 
Thatched  roofs,  SO,  90,  212,  328,  420. 
Theatres,  94,  407,  515. 
Thieves,  140, 195. 
Three  jewels.    See  Regalia. 
Thunder,  484,  486,  589. 
Tidal  wave,  25,  848,  477,  486. 
Tiffin,  370. 
Tiger,  .506,  509,  582. 
Tiger  skins,  220. 
Tiles,  382,  394,  397,  43C. 


670 


INDEX. 


Timber,  22, 418,  533. 

Time,  63,  113,  421. 

Tin,  603,  605. 

Titles,  103, 19T,  '276,  321. 

Tit.singh,  207  (note). 

Tobii,  123,  411,  412. 

Tobacco,  25S,  500,  501, 570.    See  Smoking. 

Toge  (mountain  passes),  71,  72,  267  (note). 

TOjin,  420,  512,  516,  547. 

TOkaidC),  346,  34S,  353-302,  404,  545-549,  GDI. 

TOkei ;    another   prouuuciatiou    of  TOkiO, 

which  see. 
Tokimasa,  129, 141, 147, 148. 
Tokimune,  157, 165, 176. 
TDkiO,  363-103,  550,  563. 
Tokiwa,  124,  545. 
Tokiyori,  149, 165. 
Tokouoma,  31,  219. 
Tokugawa,  67,  157,  270-274,  287-290,  294-296, 

.S12,  313,  39S,  547,  54S,  564,  586. 
Toll.  300. 

Tombs  of  emperors,  G2, 157. 
Tombs  of  shOgnns,  2S4-290. 
Tombstones,  514. 
"  Tommy,''  401. 
Tomoye,  135  (note),  458. 
Tonegawa,  394. 
Tongue,  44, 511. 
Tops,  469. 
TOri,  366,  550,  503. 
Torii,  98,  252. 

Toronosqui.    See  Kato  Kviomasa. 
Tortoise,  390,  430,  481,  487,  498,  505,  525. 
Torture,  569. 
Tosa,  312,  313,  5S6. 
TOtOmi,  &46. 
Tow-path,  426, 427. 
Toyotomi,  237.    See  Hid^yoshi. 
Toys,  366,  379,  452-465. 
Tozama,  275. 
Trade-dollars,  407. 

Trades,  203-205,  279,  280,  355,  366,  600. 
Travels,  149,  175,  212,  405-424,  471,  509,  541- 

550,  573. 
Treasury  department,  103, 104, 598,  608. 
Treasure-ship,  425, 472. 
Treaties,  304,  306,  312, 317, 348. 
Trees,  sacred,  473, 474. 
Tsi.    See  under  Clii. 
Tsugarfi,  28,  COS. 
Tsukiji,  362,  363,  550,  563. 
Tsiikuba  Kan,  trainiug-ship,  564,  597. 
Tsunetoki,  149. 
Tsuruga.  76,  79,  416-419,  608. 
Tsnrugaoka,  131, 148,  242,  404. 
Tsu^^hima,  lis,  176,  242. 
Tsutsumi,  Mr.,  627,  636. 
Turenne,  Count,  573. 
Turnips,  227,  543. 


Twins,  468. 

Two-sworded  men.    See  Samurai,  Swords. 

Tycoon.    See  Shointn,  Tai-k~i(n. 

Types  of  faces,  29,  30,  86,  87. 

Typhoon,  176,  178,  181,  477,  525,  579,  580. 

U,  pronounced  as  w  in  rule,  or  oo  in  boot. 

Uchida,  320. 

Uguisu.    See  Cuckoo. 

Uji,  61. 

Ukemochi,  49,  419  (note). 

Umbrellas,  356,  4,")5. 

United  States,  relations  with  Japan,  299, 303, 

347,  400,  401,  577,  591,  .'593-595. 
University.    See  Imperial  College. 
Unkei,  157. 
Uraga,  261,  329. 
Urashinia,  boy  of,  498-500. 
Uriu,  Mr.,320. 
Ushi  toki  niairi,  474,  475. 
Usurpation,  140, 148.    SeeBakti/ti. 
Uwajima,  317,  399,  518. 
Uyeno,  287,  300,  315. 
Uyesugi,  217. 
Uzume,  47,  43. 

V.    There  is  no  v  in  Japanese.    See  under  ir. 

Van  Reed,  E.,  592,  593. 

Van  Valkenbergh,  General,  401. 

Vasco  da  Gania,  247. 

Vegetables,  23,  49.  203,  357,  415,  470,  607. 

Vendetta.    See  Revenge. 

Venice  of  Japan,  240.    See  Ozaka. 

Venison,  390. 

Vermicelli,  422. 

Vices,  ancient,  94. 

Vienna  Exposition,  405  (note),  564,  565. 

Villages,  27,  28,  .340,  351,  000,  600. 

Virtue,  94,  209,  371.  481.  ."ioS,  5f>6,  583. 

Visitors,  430,  407,  468,  471. 

Volcanoes,  20,  21. 

Von  Brandt,  Mini?ter,  100  (note),  247  (note). 

Votive  tablets,  383. 

Vows,  199,  228. 

Wages,  355. 

Wakaniatsu,  315,  366. 

Wakizashi.    See  Dirk. 

Walters,  Mr.,  262. 

Wani,  S3. 

War,  19T. 

Wash,  494. 

Washington,  524,  540. 

Watches,  334. 

Water,  stealing,  63,  64. 

Water-courses,  03,  64,  91,  523. 

Watson,  Mr.  R.  G.,  567,  568. 

Wax,  388,  446. 

Wax-figures,  388. 


INDEX. 


677 


Wayside  shriues,  8S,  89, 193,  252,  641. 

Weasel,  471,  482. 

Weather  probabilities,  447,  469. 

Weaving,  31,  33,  46,  49,  53,  546. 

Webster  Isle,  329. 

Weddings,  43S,  471,  472,  515. 

Whalebone,  458. 

Whales,  299. 

Wheat,  340,  607. 

Wheaton's  "International  Law," 399. 

Wheeled  vehicles,  114,  212,  332,  333,  334. 

Wild  fowl,  24,  132,  394,  420,  537. 

William  the  Conqueror,  585. 

Wind,  4S4,  589. 

Wind-imp,  483. 

Windows,  394,  448,471. 

Winter,  25,  72  (note),  124,  404,  540,  545,  5S8, 

590. 
Wirgman,  Mr.  A.    See  Punch. 
Wistaria,  274. 
Wo.    See  under  0  or  O. 
Woo.    See  under  U. 
Wood-cutter,  390,  495,  503. 
Wolves,  24,  3S9,  540. 
Woman,  44,  75,  117  (note),  208,  210,  212,  213, 

551,  501.    See  Female  characters. 
"  Woman's  Great  Study,"  211, 212,  553. 
Wooing,  385,  523,  524. 
Wool,  606. 

Wrestling",  348,  433,  441,  442,  519. 
Writing,  91,  92, 113, 114, 153,  162,  194,  206,  212, 

402. 
Wijoming,  U.  S.  S.,  593. 

X.  For  words  beginning  with  x  in  Portu- 
guese books,  or  those  copied  therefrom, 
see  under  Shi. 

Xa\ier,  249,  250,  252,  412. 

Y.    See  also  under  F!. 


Yagura  (castle-towers),  414. 

Yakunin  (business  man,  official),  421,  526. 

Yama-bushi,  206. 

Yainanouchi,  586. 

Yainaoka  Jiro,  523. 

Yamashiro,  62. 

Yaniato,  30,  57,  58,  65,  309,  523. 

Yaniato-Dake  no  mikoto,  69, 72, 73, 419  (note). 

Yaniato  damashi,  31S,  435,  571,  597. 

Yaniazaki,  409. 

Yashiki,  393,  394,  397,  398,  407,  427,  530,  563. 

Yasuke,  236. 

Yasutoki,  149. 

Yatabori,  Mr.,548. 

Yawata,  410,  411. 

Year,  divisions,  63. 

Years,  critical  in  life,  472.  , 

Yedo,  264,  265,  3(i7,  318.     See  Tokio. 

Yezo,  19,  20-35,  005,  607. 

Yodo,  river,  112,  408^10. 

Yodo,  town,  411. 

Yokohama,  327-352,  399,  589. 

Yokosuka,  262,  562. 

Yoriiye,  147, 148. 

Yorimasa,  581. 

Yorilomo,  125-144,  228,  241,  293,  3::!,  404,  45S. 

Yoshida  Kiyouari,  Mr.,  503  (note). 

Yoshida  Shoin,  305,  306. 

Yoshiuaka,  134. 

Yoshitomo,  117, 121,  123. 

Yoshitsune,  34, 124,  143, 144,  206,  404,  458,  512. 

Yoshiye,  117. 

Yoshiwara,  362,  364,  555,  556. 

Yuri.    See  Mitswika. 

Z.    See  under  Jot  S. 
Zempukuji,  400,  401. 
Zen  sect,  162, 163. 
Zodiac  signs,  382,  580,  on. 
ZOzOji,  287,  288,  289,  290,  394. 


TUE  ENL\ 


SL'BJSCT  CATiO-CSUED. 


^  vWJ^'SSi^5JJMT\M; 


